MEANING IN PSYCHOLOGISTS’ PERSONAL

AND PROFESSIONAL LIVES

JERRY L. KERNES is an associate professor in the

Psychology Department at the University of La Verne.
He also serves as codirector of clinical training for the
doctoral program and oversees the practicum place-
ments. His areas of interest include values, meaning in
life, moral development and decision making, and posi-
tive psychology. He is a licensed psychologist.

RICHARD T. KINNIER is a professor of counseling psychology in the

Department of Psychology in Education at Arizona State University. His
research interests include topics related to values and meaning in life.
He is a licensed psychologist.

Summary

In this study, the authors examine psychologists’ beliefs about mean-

ing in their own lives. Psychologists completed the Personal
Meaning Profile and Meaning in Life Questionnaire to assess their
beliefs about the cosmic and terrestrial meaning of life. Psycho-
logists also completed an existential career exercise to assess those
aspects of their professional lives they found most meaningful.
Overall, psychologists rejected the notion that there is no cosmic
meaning to life and instead generally supported the belief that the
meaning of life is to love, help, or show compassion for others.
Psychologists also rejected statements indicating that nothing was
personally meaningful to them and generally reported that intimate
relationships, family, and friendships brought the most personal
meaning to their lives. Finally, as a group, psychologists indicated
that helping others live more satisfying lives was the most impor-
tant aspect of their professional work.

Keywords: psychologists; values; meaning; professional development

Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 48 No. 2, April 2008 196-220

DOI: 10.1177/0022167807300204
© 2008 Sage Publications

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 Jerry L. Kernes, Richard T. Kinnier 197

Albert Camus (1955) opened his famous essay, “The Myth of

Sisyphus,” with the powerful statement, “There is but one truly
serious philosophical problem, and that is suicide. Judging
whether or not life is worth living amounts to answering the fun-
damental question of philosophy” (p. 3). Certainly, Camus is not
the first person to struggle with questions about life’s value, and
philosophers are not alone in their questioning of life’s meaning.
It is likely that anyone who is capable of thinking about the ques-
tion has at some point in their lives asked, “What is the point of
it all?” (Kinnier, 2001, p. 7).
Answers to the question of life’s meaning have come in various
forms. Some accept the existence of a divine order to things,
whereas others see life as inherently meaningless. Still others
entirely dismiss the issue by reducing the question to an exercise
in linguistic analysis or a byproduct of neurological processes.
Although the question of life’s meaning may be impenetrable, the
attempt to answer unquestionably influences our views of how
we will live our lives. Even to conclude that the question is mean-
ingless is to have given it pause for thought.
There are different situations that prompt the questioning of
life’s meaning. One can entertain various perspectives on life’s
meaning as a philosophical puzzle, as a religious quest, or as an
attempt to define the parameters of how one should live. One
might also question life’s meaning through a desperate need to
find explanation in the face of some horrible tragedy or to cope
with adversities and suffering in life. Such psychological trauma
can lead “into the realm of the unthinkable and fundamental
questions of belief” (Herman, 1992, p. 7).
There are different types of human relationships that seem
particularly related to examining life’s meaning. For example,
members of the clergy are often faced with questions of “why.”
Another such relationship is that between client and psycholo-
gist. It is common for clients to enter therapy with complaints of
a lack of meaning or purpose to their lives. Assisting clients with
creating a sense of purpose or meaning to their lives and outlin-
ing models of psychological health are goals for many psycholo-
gists. Yet psychologists’ own conceptions of meaning are often
overlooked.

AUTHORS’ NOTE: Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed

to Jerry L. Kernes, Psychology Department, University of La Verne, La Verne, CA
91750; phone: 909-593-3511, ext 4414; e-mail: jkernes@ulv.edu.

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198 Psychologists’ Meaning

Life Meaning and Purpose

During the past few decades, the concept of meaning has

emerged as a serious area of scientific research. Edwards (1981)
and Yalom (1980) distinguished between the “cosmic” meaning
of life and “terrestrial” meaning in life. Cosmic meaning is con-
cerned with the presence of some grand design or all encom-
passing plan to life and has traditionally been explored by
philosophers, theologians, and the popular press. According to
Yalom, cosmic meaning invariably refers to some spiritual order-
ing of the universe. Empirical research cannot yet be directly con-
ducted on the cosmic meaning of life. To paraphrase Stephen
Hawking (1992, p. 175), answering the grand question of “why”
would be to know the mind of God. Research can uncover
individuals’ beliefs about cosmic meaning. Durant (1932), for
example, asked 25 eminent people of the early 20th century,
including Mohandas Gandhi, H. L. Mencken, and Sinclair Lewis,
to write about their beliefs on the meaning of life. Similarly, Life
Magazine (Friend & Editors of Life, 1991) solicited responses on
the meaning of life from more than 650 well-known people. Some
social scientists have also taken the question of cosmic meaning
seriously and have attempted to identify themes in individ-
uals’ conceptions of cosmic meaning. Ebersole and DeVogler-
Ebersole (1985) analyzed the meaning themes expressed by
Durant’s (1932) sample and found that the majority of individu-
als endorsed life work as the most important theme in their
lives. In a similar study, Kinnier, Kernes, Tribbensee, and Van
Puymbroeck (2003) content analyzed quotations from several
hundred eminent people regarding the meaning of life. Among
the themes they found included “life is a mystery,” “life is mean-
ingless,” and “life should be enjoyed.”
In comparison, terrestrial meaning is related to the ways in
which individuals create or discover meaning in their lives.
Terrestrial meaning is an area more open to empirical investiga-
tion than cosmic meaning and has, therefore, generated more
research. Terrestrial meaning research can be roughly divided
into the effects of meaninglessness and meaningfulness on well-
being. That is, studies have explored consequences of a lack of
meaning in life and the benefits to possessing a sense of purpose.
Several prominent clinicians have attested to the frequency of
meaninglessness as a clinical complaint (Yalom, 1980). Frankl
(1978) viewed meaninglessness as the “primary neurosis of our

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 Jerry L. Kernes, Richard T. Kinnier 199

time” (p. 2). Jung (1966, p. 83) wrote that about one third of his
cases were not suffering from any definable neurosis but from the
“senselessness and aimlessness” of their lives. Elsewhere, he
claimed that all of his clients older than 35 had problems related
to the question of meaning (Jung, 1933). Both Maddi (1967) and
Wolman (1975) wrote of an “existential neurosis” they observed
among patients. Hobbs (1962) described a “contemporary neurosis”
characterized not by lack of insight but by lack of sense of purpose
or meaning. In addition, Yalom (1980) stated that “virtually every
patient I have worked with has either gratuitously expressed con-
cern about the lack of meaning in his or her life or has readily
responded to inquiries I have made about the issue” (p. 449).

Meaning in Psychologists’ Personal and

Professional Lives

Freud, when asked what he believed a person should do to be

healthy and normal, once replied “lieben und arbeiten,” “to love and
to work” (Erikson, 1963, p. 264). Work is an important context in
which one can express purposeful living (Ryff & Singer, 1998). There
is evidence in the career psychology literature that personality
meaningfully relates to the kinds of careers people choose and how
they perform in those careers (Tokar, Fisher, & Subich, 1998).
According to Raines and Day-Lower (1986), “Work is the direct
expression of a unique human excellence, a direct expression of the
way we humans establish ourselves in this world, develop our-
selves, and in a sense, perfect ourselves” (p. 15). Erikson (1959) con-
tended that people have an inherent drive to find meaning in their
lives, possibly through the work in which they engage.
Research has indicated that various groups of professionals
prefer significant meaningful work to other rewards such as
advancement or income (Matthews & Weaver, 1989; Trankina,
1991). One’s vocation can be both personally meaningful and con-
nected with issues of meaning in the lives of others. Ministers,
politicians, educators, and psychologists are a few examples of
professionals who confront issues of meaning by nature of their
occupations. Surprisingly, little research has explored this con-
nection. Smith, Staudinger, and Baltes (1994) examined the related
construct of “wisdom” among clinical psychologists. The psycholo-
gists in the study were taken as “an example of professional spe-
cialization for which both training and practice consist of
intensified contact and engagement with questions of life planning,
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200 Psychologists’ Meaning

life management, and life review” (Baltes & Staudinger, 2000,

pp. 128-129). The psychologists demonstrated higher levels of
wisdom related performance than did participants in control
groups. Later studies showed that their profession as psycholo-
gists was the largest predictor of wisdom-related performance.
Similarly, Good, Thoreson, and Shaughnessy (1995) explored the
overall psychological functioning (life satisfaction, work stress,
and psychological stress) of counseling psychologists. Results
indicated that, in general, counseling psychologists were satisfied
with their personal and professional lives, experienced minimal
amounts of psychological distress, and reported low to moderate
levels of work strain. Still, virtually nothing is known about what
psychologists find meaningful in their work.
Limited research has explored mental health professionals’
personal and professional values. Charles (1989) examined obitu-
aries and memorials of 16 eminent psychologists born in the 19th
and early 20th century. Included in his sample were such promi-
nent figures as James McKeen Cattell, John Dewey, G. Stanley
Hall, and Lewis Terman. He found that for many, work seemed to
be the purpose of their lives. In a similar study, Kinnier, Metha,
Buki, and Rawa (1994) content analyzed obituaries published in
the American Psychologist from 1979 to 1990. They derived 10
“value themes” that they contended reflected the personal char-
acteristics and professional values of these psychologists. In gen-
eral, value themes were balanced between work and love spheres.
The authors stated that

a message that we discerned from many obituaries was that the

model life was one in which a person who is highly successful in his
or her career still takes a significant amount of time to help indi-
viduals on a one-to-one basis. (p. 92)

Although these studies provide some general information

about what psychologists find important in their personal and
professional lives and suggest that psychologists have an intensi-
fied connection with questions of meaning, the specific content of
these beliefs remains largely unexplored. Research has shown
that burnout among mental health professionals is related to
both a lowered sense of purpose in their lives and a lowered
desire to seek purpose (Yiu-kee & Tang, 1995). Doherty (1995)
argued that therapists have enormous influence through the way
they frame questions and make observations with clients. Yalom

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 Jerry L. Kernes, Richard T. Kinnier 201

(1980) cautioned that a psychotherapist who accepts a patient’s

formulation of meaninglessness is likely to share that patient’s
sense of entrapment. It would, therefore, seem desirable for psy-
chologists to become more aware of their own belief systems to
better understand the ways in which they communicate these
beliefs to others. In this study, we examine psychologists’ beliefs
about meaning in their own lives.

METHOD

Participants

Participants were drawn from a larger study on psychologists’

values. The sample for this study consisted of 175 psychologists
(97 female, 78 male) working in three different settings: clinical
and counseling academic departments (66), university counseling
centers (69), and community mental health (40). Participants
held the following degrees: counseling psychology PhD (85), clin-
ical psychology PhD (55), clinical psychology PsyD (21), and other
doctorate (14). The following primary theoretical orientations
were represented: cognitive behavioral (57), psychodynamic (41),
eclectic or integrative (39), humanistic or existential (21), other
(11), systems theory (3), and feminist (3).
Participants ranged in age from 26 to 64 years, with a mean
age of 42.50 years and a standard deviation of 8.88 years.
The ethnic representation of the participants was European
American or White (141), African American (14), Chicano,
Latino, or Hispanic (9), Asian American (4), Native American
(3), Multiethnic (2), and Other (2). Religious preferences identi-
fied were Agnostic/Atheist (61), Protestant (50), Catholic (23),
Jewish (14), Unitarian (8), Buddhist (6), Other (5), Latter-day
Saint (4), Spiritual (3), Muslim (1).

Instruments

Personal Meaning Profile (PMP). The PMP (Wong, 1998) is a

57-item Likert-type scale designed to assess the sources of an indi-
vidual’s personal meaning. The PMP consists of 7 subscales:
Achievement (16 items), Relationship (9 items), Religion (9 items),
Self-Transcendence (8 items), Self-Acceptance (6 items), Intimacy
(5 items), and Fair Treatment (4 items).

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202 Psychologists’ Meaning

Presently, few studies of the PMP’s reliability and validity are

available. Wong (1998) reported that the PMP has been shown to
have good 3-week test–retest reliability (r = .85). Lang (1994)
reported that Total PMP was positively correlated with Ellison’s
(1981) Spiritual Well-Being (r = .64) and with Reker and Wong’s
(1984) Perceived Well Being scale (r = .29). Lang also reported an
overall Cronbach’s alpha of .93. Alpha values for the PMP’s sub-
scales were .91 (Achievement), .81 (Relationship), .89 (Religion),
.84 (Self-Transcendence), .54 (Self-Acceptance), .78 (Intimacy),
and .54 (Fair Treatment).

Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MILQ). Participants were asked to

respond to an exploratory questionnaire concerning their beliefs
about the cosmic and terrestrial meaning of life. Participants were
asked to rate their level of agreement with several categories of
meaning using a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree)
to 7 (strongly agree). Cosmic meaning categories were based on the
categorization system used by Kinnier et al. (2003). Terrestrial
meaning categories were based on the categorization systems
used by Battista and Almond (1973), Debats (1999), DeVogler and
Ebersole (1980, 1983), Ebersole (1998), and O’Connor and
Chamberlain (1996). Two-week test–retest reliability was estab-
lished through a pilot sample of 52 graduate students at a large
southwestern university. Reliability coefficients for the 12 items of
the Cosmic Meaning subscale ranged from .61 to .89, with an aver-
age correlation of .76. Reliability coefficients for the 16 items of
the Terrestrial Meaning subscale ranged from .48 to .87, with an
average correlation of .68.

Existential career question. Participants were also asked to

respond to an exploratory “existential career question” derived
from Kinnier’s (2000) “existentially speaking” values clarification
exercise. Participants were asked to write in a few sentences
their response to the following question: What matters to you
most in your work as a psychologist?

Procedure

A packet consisting of a cover letter and two surveys was

mailed to the training directors of APA-accredited counseling
psychology and clinical psychology programs and to the training

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 Jerry L. Kernes, Richard T. Kinnier 203

directors of university counseling centers and community mental

health agencies with APA-accredited internships. Programs were
randomly selected for inclusion. Surveys were counterbalanced to
prevent any possible order effects. Surveys were anonymous and
identified only by a code number on the outside of the return
envelope. Code numbers were used only to track the institutions
that had responded. In the initial mailing, 480 surveys were
mailed. Data collection occurred during a 4-month period, with a
new packet sent approximately every 4 weeks to each institution
that had not yet responded to the previous mailing. The data col-
lection procedure resulted in the return of 175 complete surveys,
for a 36.46% return rate.

RESULTS

Summary of Analyses

Four demographic variables (age, gender, work setting, and reli-

gious preference) were carefully selected for analyses because of
their conceptual relationship to the study’s focus. For purposes of
analyses, age was divided into four age groups (late 20s to mid-30s,
n = 42; late 30s to mid-40s, n = 58; late 40s to mid-50s, n = 57; and
late 50s to mid-60s, n = 18). In addition, because very few respon-
dents identified themselves as being Latter-day Saints, Spiritual,
Muslim, or Other, these data were removed from analyses.
Separate multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) were
performed between the four demographic variables and psychol-
ogists’ ratings on the PMP and MILQ. Follow-up one-way analy-
ses of variance (ANOVAs) were performed on the significant
results of the multivariate analyses. These univariate tests were
subjected to Bonferroni post hoc comparisons where necessary to
test for differences among groups and to adjust for alpha inflation
caused from multiple comparisons.

PMP

Descriptive statistics were computed on the eight scales of the

PMP. To facilitate comparison among scales, raw scores for each
scale were divided by the number of items for the scale. Results for
the total index were M = 5.55, SD = 0.86. The means and standard
deviations of the remaining seven scales in order of magnitude were

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204 Psychologists’ Meaning

M = 6.00, SD = 0.70 (Relationship), M = 5.98, SD = 0.73 (Achieve-

ment), M = 5.83, SD = 1.27 (Intimacy), M = 5.71, SD = 0.74 (Self-
Transcendence), M = 5.36, SD = 0.85 (Self-Acceptance), M = 5.16,
SD = 0.87 (Fair Treatment), and M = 4.38, SD = 1.54 (Religion).
Separate MANOVAs were performed between the four selected
demographic variables and the PMP’s eight scales to determine if
the demographic variables influenced psychologists’ PMP scores.
No significant results were observed for the influence of age or
work setting.
There was a significant main effect for gender (Λ = .877, F =
2.915, p = .005, η = .123). A follow-up one-way ANOVA indicated
significant differences between men and women sampled with
regard to ratings on the achievement scale, F(1, 173) = 4.414, p =
.037. In general, female psychologists appeared to derive more
meaning through achievement striving (M = 97.28, SD = 10.25)
than did male psychologists (M = 93.28, SD = 13.06).
There was a significant main effect for religion (Λ = .464, F =
2.798, p = .001, η = .120). Follow-up one-way ANOVAs indicated
significant differences among religious groups with regard to the
total index and two subscales (Religion and Self-Transcendence).
The values for the total PMP index were F(6, 168) = 5.401, p =
.001. Post hoc comparison indicated a significant difference
between Protestants and Agnostics/Atheists (p = .001) and
between Catholics and Agnostics/Atheists (p = .004). In general,
both Protestants (M = 327.64, SD = 28.72) and Catholics
(M = 329.13, SD = 32.15) in this sample reported greater overall
personal meaning in their lives than did Agnostics/Atheists
(M = 301.52, SD = 30.92). The values for the Religion scale were
F(6, 168) = 17.973, p = .001. Post hoc comparison indicated a sig-
nificant difference between Catholics and Agnostics/Atheists (p =
.001) and between Catholics and Unitarians (p = .042). In gen-
eral, Catholics in this sample reported more meaning through
religion (M = 45.70, SD = 13.01) than did either Unitarians (M =
31.50, SD = 7.31) or Agnostics/Atheists (M = 29.23, SD = 11.55).
Post hoc comparison also indicated a significant difference
between Protestants and Jews (p = .016), between Protestants
and Unitarians (p = .001), and between Protestants and
Agnostics/Atheists (p = .001). In general, Protestants in this
sample reported more meaning from religion (M = 49.80,
SD = 10.388) than did Jews (M = 37.64, SD = 11.08), Unitarians
(M = 31.50, SD = 7.31), or Agnostics/Atheists (M = 29.23, SD =
11.55). Finally, the values for the Self-Transcendence scale were
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 Jerry L. Kernes, Richard T. Kinnier 205

F(6, 168) = 3.149, p = .006. Post hoc comparison indicated a sig-

nificant difference between Protestants and Agnostics/Atheists
(p = .011). In general, Protestants in this sample reported more
meaning from values transcending self-interests (M = 47.34,
SD = 5.065) than did Agnostics/Atheists (M = 43.49, SD = 6.33).

MILQ

Descriptive statistics were computed on the Cosmic Meaning

subscale of the MILQ. Means and standard deviations for the cos-
mic meaning subscale are presented in Table 1. Separate
MANOVAs were performed between the selected demographic
variables and psychologists’ ratings on the 12 items of the
MILQ’s cosmic meaning subscale. Significant main effects were
observed only for religious preference (Λ = .450, F = 1.887, p =
.001, η = .125). Follow-up one-way ANOVAs indicated significant
differences among religious groups with regard to agreement
with the statements “There is no grand purpose, design, or mean-
ing of life,” F(6, 168) = 7.420, p = .001, and “The meaning of life is
to serve God or some higher power,” F(6, 168) = 14.633, p = .001.
For agreement with the statement “There is no grand purpose,
design, or meaning of life,” post hoc comparison indicated a sig-
nificant difference between Agnostics/Atheists and Protestants
(p = .001) and between Protestants and Buddhists (p = .035).
Agnostics/Atheists in this sample appeared more likely to agree
with this statement (M = 4.20, SD = 1.87) than did Protestants
(M = 2.20, SD = 1.68). Similarly, Buddhists in this sample
appeared more likely to agree that life has no grand meaning or
purpose (M = 4.67, SD = 1.50) than did Protestants.
For agreement with the statement “The meaning of life is to
serve God or some higher power,” post hoc comparison indicated a
significant difference between Agnostics/Atheists and Catholics (p =
.001) and between Agnostics/Atheists and Protestants (p = .001).
Agnostics/Atheists in this sample appeared less likely to agree with
this statement (M = 2.36, SD = 1.51) than did Catholics (M = 4.74,
SD = 1.32) or Protestants (M = 5.04, SD = 1.87).
Descriptive statistics were computed on the Terrestrial
Meaning subscale of the MILQ. Means and standard deviations
for the terrestrial meaning subscale are presented in Table 2.
Separate MANOVAs were performed between the selected demo-
graphic variables and psychologists’ ratings on the 16 items of

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206 Psychologists’ Meaning

TABLE 1: Psychologists’ Ratings on the Cosmic Meaning of Life

M SD

The Meaning of Life is to love, help, 5.94 0.993

or show compassion for others.
The Meaning of Life is to grow/learn/ 5.70 1.19
develop as an individual or species.
The Meaning of Life is to make a 5.59 1.21
difference or contribute something lasting.
The Meaning of Life is to create 5.39 1.43
your own meaning.
The Meaning of Life is to experience 5.31 1.13
and enjoy life.
The Meaning of Life is a mystery. 4.37 1.93
The Meaning of Life is to simply go 4.00 1.57
about the business of living.
The Meaning of Life is to serve God 3.79 1.99
or some Higher power.
The Meaning of Life is to work. 3.66 1.57
The Meaning of Life is to struggle 3.55 1.58
and/or be tested.
There is no grand purpose, design, 3.21 1.97
or Meaning of Life.
Life is absurd or some sort of joke. 2.04 1.41

the MILQ’s Terrestrial Meaning subscale. No significant results

were observed for the influence of age.
There was a significant main effect for gender (Λ = .740, F = 3.477,
p = .001, η = .260). Follow-up one-way ANOVAs indicated significant
differences between men and women with regard to agreement on
several statements on terrestrial meaning. There was a significant
difference for agreement with the statement “Striving for self
improvement brings meaning to my life,” F(1, 173) = 7.96, p = .005.
Women in this sample reported greater agreement with this state-
ment (M = 6.03, SD = 0.809) than did men (M = 5.64, SD = 1.01). There
was a significant difference for agreement with the statement “My
friendships bring meaning to my life,” F(1, 173) = 32.145, p = .001.
Women in this sample reported greater agreement with this state-
ment (M = 6.47, SD = 0.614) than did men (M = 5.78, SD = 0.989).
Finally, there was a significant difference for agreement with the
statement “Helping others brings meaning to my life,” F(1, 173) =
9.662, p = .002. Women in this sample reported greater agreement
with this statement (M = 6.31, SD = 0.712) than did men (M =
5.96, SD = 0.764).
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 Jerry L. Kernes, Richard T. Kinnier 207

TABLE 2: Psychologists’ Ratings on Terrestrial Meaning in Life

M SD

My intimate relationships bring meaning to my life. 6.37 0.840

My family brings meaning to my life. 6.28 1.02
My friendships bring meaning to my life. 6.17 0.872
Helping others brings meaning to my life. 6.15 0.754
My work brings meaning to my life. 6.14 0.738
My education and learning bring meaning to my life. 5.97 0.940
Striving for self-improvement brings meaning to my life. 5.86 0.927
Being happy brings meaning to my life. 5.71 1.01
Being healthy brings meaning to my life. 5.69 1.11
Nature and the environment bring meaning to my life. 5.59 1.12
Pleasure brings meaning to my life. 5.37 1.18
My spiritual beliefs bring meaning to my life. 5.03 1.85
Money and financial success bring meaning to my life. 4.30 1.41
Having nice things brings meaning to my life. 4.21 1.39
My political beliefs bring meaning to my life. 4.01 1.69
Nothing is particularly meaningful to me in life. 1.28 0.691

There was a significant main effect for religious preference

(Λ = .327, F = 1.987, p = .001, η = .170). Follow-up one-way ANOVA
indicated a significant difference among religious groups with
regard to agreement with the statement “My spiritual beliefs bring
meaning to my life,” F(6, 168) = 17.631, p = .001. Post hoc compari-
son indicated a significant difference between Agnostics/Atheists
and Catholics (p = .001), Agnostics/Atheists and Protestants (p =
.001), Agnostics/Atheists and Buddhists (p = .007), and Agnostics/
Atheists and Unitarians (p = .001). Generally speaking, Agnostics/
Atheists in this sample reported less agreement with this state-
ment (M = 3.52, SD = 1.94) than did Catholics (M = 5.82, SD =
0.834), Protestants (M = 5.98, SD = 0.979) Buddhists (M = 5.83,
SD = 0.408), and Unitarians (M = 6.00, SD = 1.20).
There was a significant main effect for work setting (Λ = .700,
F = 1.913, p = .003, η = .163). Follow-up ANOVAs indicated signifi-
cant difference among groups with regard to several statements
about terrestrial meaning in life. There was a significant difference
for agreement with the statement “My intimate relationships bring
meaning to my life,” F(2, 172) = 4.208, p = .016. Post hoc analysis
indicated a significant difference between counseling center psy-
chologists and psychologists working in community mental health
(p = .019). Although both groups demonstrated strong agreement

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208 Psychologists’ Meaning

with the statement, counseling center psychologists in this sam-

ple reported slightly more agreement (M = 6.58, SD = 0.526) than
did psychologists working in community mental health (M = 6.13,
SD = 0.939). There was a significant difference for agreement
with the statement “My friendships with others bring meaning to
my life,” F(2, 172) = 7.594, p = .001. Post hoc comparison indicated
a significant difference between counseling center psychologists
and academicians (p = .032) and between counseling center psy-
chologists and psychologists working in community mental
health (p = .001). In general, counseling center psychologists in this
sample reported greater agreement with the statement (M = 6.45,
SD = 0.654) than did either academicians (M = 6.08, SD = 0.950) or
psychologists working in community mental health (M = 5.83, SD =
0.931). There was a significant difference for agreement with the
statement “Helping others brings meaning to my life,” F(2, 172) =
6.113, p = .003. Post hoc comparison indicated a significant difference
between counseling center psychologists and psychologists working
in community mental health (p = .002). Although both groups in this
sample generally agreed with the statement, counseling center psy-
chologists reported slightly more agreement (M = 6.33, SD = 0.586)
than did psychologists working in community mental health (M =
5.83, SD = 0.844). Finally, there was a significant difference for
agreement with the statement “Pleasure brings meaning to my life,”
F(2, 172) = 3.486, p = .033. Post hoc comparison indicated a signifi-
cant difference between academicians and psychologists working in
community mental health (p = .027). Generally speaking, psycholo-
gists in this sample working in community health settings reported
greater agreement with the statement (M = 5.75, SD = 0.776) than
did academicians (M = 5.14, SD = 1.36).

Existential Career Question

Both qualitative and quantitative analyses were used to analyze

psychologists’ responses to the question “What matters most to you
in your work as a psychologist?” Following suggestions of qualita-
tive researchers such as Colaizzi (1978), Glaser (1978), LeCompte
and Goetz (1982), Miles and Huberman (1984), and Strauss and
Corbin (1990), the following procedures were implemented:

1. To increase reliability, three readers (the primary author and two

graduate students) independently read psychologists’ responses
to the existential career questions and identified tentative cate-
gories for the responses.
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 Jerry L. Kernes, Richard T. Kinnier 209

2. After making their initial categorization of psychologists’

responses, all three readers met and shared their observations.
The readers’ lists were compared and combined to form a final
list of categories. All three readers had to agree for a response
to be included in the final categorization. Eleven categories
emerged from this procedure.

A total of 256 classifiable responses were obtained from 154 psy-

chologists (89.71% of the total sample). A total of 154 psychologists
supplied one response to the question, whereas 77 psychologists sup-
plied two responses, and 25 psychologists supplied three responses.
No one supplied more than three responses to the question. Taking
these data together, the majority of psychologists (n = 75, 29.30%)
identified “helping others to live more satisfying lives” as the most
important aspect of their work. The remaining 10 categorizations
were as follows: “mentoring others” (n = 36, 14.10%), “being an agent
of social change” (n = 34, 13.28%), “connecting to another person”
(n = 27, 10.55%), “contributing something lasting to psychology” (n =
18, 7.31%), “self-growth and development” (n = 16, 6.25%), “conduct-
ing research” (n = 15, 5.86%), “having a good work atmosphere” (n =
13, 5.08%), “being competent” (n = 9, 3.52%), “recognition and praise”
(n = 7, 2.73%), and “finding balance between professional and per-
sonal life” (n = 6, 1.95%).
Separate cross-tabulations were conducted between the selected
demographic variables and each of the 11 meaning-of-work themes
that emerged. Cross-tabulations were subjected to chi-square
analysis to determine if the demographic variables were indepen-
dent from the work meaning categories.
Significant results were observed for work setting with regard to
five of the meaning-of-work categories: “helping others live more
satisfying lives,” χ2 (2, 154) = 6.270, p = .044; “mentoring others,”
χ2 (2, 154) = 32.507, p = .001; “conducting research,” χ2 (2, 154) =
29.914, p = .001; “contributing something lasting to psychology,”
χ2 (2, 154) = 8.836, p = .012; and “connecting to another person,”
χ2 (2, 154) = 8.533, p = .014. Results are presented in Table 3. As can
be seen in Table 3, in this sample both counseling center psycholo-
gists and psychologists working in community mental health
reported the greatest meaning in their work through helping oth-
ers live more satisfying lives. Academicians sampled reported the
greatest meaning in their work came from mentoring others. In
addition, although almost one third of academicians reported
meaning in their work from conducting research, none of the coun-
seling center psychologists or psychologists working in community
mental health reported this category.
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210 Psychologists’ Meaning

TABLE 3: Meaning-of-Work Categories by Work Setting

Community
Counseling Mental
Academic Center Health

n % n % n %

Helping others live more 20 36.36 38 58.38 17 48.57

satisfying lives
Mentoring others 27 50.00 6 9.38 3 8.57
Conducting research 15 27.27 0 0
Contributing something lasting 12 21.81 3 4.69 3 8.57
to psychology
Connecting to another person 3 5.45 16 24.61 8 22.86

Significant results were observed for gender with regard to two

meaning-of-work categories: “conducting research,” χ2 (1, 155) =
4.482, p = .034, and “being an agent of social change,” χ2 (1, 155) =
7.437. Eleven males (15.07%) and four females sampled (4.94%)
reported that conducting research was the most meaningful
aspect of their work. Nine males (12.34%) and 25 females (30.49%)
reported that acting as an agent of social change was the most
meaningful aspect of their work.
The following quotes were selected by all three readers as
particularly rich examples of psychologists’ responses to the
existential career question. The following response comes from
a 46-year-old female psychologist working in a university coun-
seling center:

As a therapist, what matters to me is to be truly present with my

clients and connect with them; to be accepting of them; to help
them live more satisfying lives, to be available to them to help cor-
rect old experiences, to help them discover and accept what is
there, to help discover the beauty of life, to guide another towards
deep happiness.

This next response comes from a 39-year-old male psychologist

working in an academic setting:

I went into psychology because I found it valuable to me and very

meaningful to help others. I had a natural curiosity about behav-
ior and thought I might be able to satisfy that curiosity through
research, while at the same time helping others. . . . I need to do
work that interests me and contributes something be it mentoring,
or giving something lasting to the field.
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 Jerry L. Kernes, Richard T. Kinnier 211

The next response is from a 41-year-old female academician:

Relationships with clients, colleagues, trainees, and others in my

field is the most important aspect of my work. I seek to connect
with my clients. I seek to enhance my relationships with students
through becoming a mentor. I also tremendously value the auton-
omy and good working conditions the academic life provides.

Finally, this response comes from a 36-year-old male psychologist

working in community mental health:

The most important meaning I derive from my work relates to the

opportunity to experience intimacy with others and be involved in
the process of relieving suffering. As a psychologist, I also have a
level of influence and credibility which can be used to further my
agenda of social change, human rights advocacy, and political justice.

DISCUSSION

Psychologists’ Search for the Meaning of Life

Psychologists in this sample may not possess any grand insight

into the meaning of life, but their responses indicated that they did
indeed believe in some sort of cosmic purpose. Psychologists
rejected notions that there is no cosmic meaning, or that life is
some sort of cruel joke and the search for meaning an absurd
byproduct of human self-consciousness. In general, psychologists
sampled viewed the meaning of life as having something to do with
loving, helping, or showing compassion toward others; growing,
learning, or developing as an individual or species; making a dif-
ference; experiencing and enjoying life; or simply creating one’s
own meaning. These themes are generally consistent with those
Kinnier et al. (2003) identified in their study of eminent people.
These findings differ, however, with regard to the frequencies iden-
tified for each theme in the Kinnier et al. study. Because these
studies employed different methodology, caution must be exercised
in the comparison of their respective results.
There was some variation in psychologists’ responses along reli-
gious preference. Those with traditional Western religious views (i.e.,
Protestants) were generally more likely to believe in a cosmic pur-
pose to life than were Agnostics/Atheists. Protestants were also more
likely than Buddhists to believe in a cosmic plan. According to

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212 Psychologists’ Meaning

Yalom (1980), “The Eastern world never assumes that there is a

‘point’ to life, or that it is a problem to be solved” (p. 470). This is
in contrast to the Western world’s assumptions about meaning.
Those with traditional Western religious views (i.e., Protestants
and Catholics) were also more likely than those without a reli-
gious preference to believe that this cosmic purpose involved
serving God or some higher power. These findings are not sur-
prising given that “the Judeo-Christian religious tradition has
offered a comprehensive meaning-schema based upon the princi-
ple that the world and human life are part of a divinely ordained
plan” (Yalom, 1980, p. 424). Belief in a supreme being is a power-
ful antidote to ambiguity over questions of life’s meaning.
No single answer can be given as to what psychologists in this
study believed about the meaning of life. As some have sug-
gested, individuals tend to revisit the question of meaning at
various milestones and crises in their lives and can provide
different answers at each point along the way (Baird, 1985;
Kinnier, 2001; O’Connor & Chamberlain, 1996). Beliefs about
cosmic meaning often represent a “snapshot” in time that can be
influenced by various factors. The snapshot taken in this study
indicated that although psychologists in this sample may not
have a definitive answer as to the “point of it all,” and although
their answers may vary from one person to the next, as a group
they did indeed believe that life is purposeful. In that sense,
then, perhaps the most representative “answer” that can be
given as to what psychologists in this study believed about the
ultimate meaning of life is the following response written in the
margins of one survey:

I do not know what the meaning of life is, only that there is a
meaning that I can find, little by little, and work toward under-
standing more each day. I am here for some reason; at least I
believe that I am. Yet, it is more than “believing.” I know that there
is a meaning and purpose to life, but I just do not know how to
define it.

Psychologists’ Personal Meaning in Life

Psychologists in this sample seemed to have an easier time

defining those things that brought personal meaning to their lives.
Almost everyone disagreed with the statement indicating that

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 Jerry L. Kernes, Richard T. Kinnier 213

nothing was personally meaningful. Psychologists’ scores on the

PMP and MILQ indicated that they appeared to find their lives
meaningful. Scores on the PMP indicated that, as a group, psy-
chologists sampled derived their greatest sense of meaning from
achievement, relationships, and intimacy and their least amount of
meaning from religious sources. Psychologists’ responses on the
MILQ indicated that intimate relationships, family, and friend-
ships brought the greatest meaning to their lives. These results are
consistent with other studies that have consistently identified rela-
tionships with people as the most frequent source of meaning
across the lifespan (Baum & Stewart, 1990; Debats, 1999; DeVogler
& Ebersole, 1981; O’Connor & Chamberlain, 1996; Taylor &
Ebersole, 1993; Yalom, 1980). These results are also consistent with
Kaufman’s (1986) assertion that most people express four to six
main themes in their life stories.
The particular nature of individual meaning varied along sev-
eral demographic variables. This finding is consistent with stud-
ies that have indicated personal meaning varies according to
sociodemographic background, developmental stage, culture, and
ethnic background (Ebersole & De Paola, 1987; O’Connor &
Chamberlain, 1996; Yalom, 1980). The variables of gender, reli-
gious preference, and work setting all appeared to influence psy-
chologists’ personal meaning in life.
Generally speaking, women in this sample reported greater
meaning in their lives from achievement striving, striving for
self-improvement, friendships, and helping others than did men.
Although these findings are consistent with research that has
indicated women tend to prioritize affiliative needs (Gilligan,
1982), they are also consistent with studies that have shown that
women are highly achievement oriented (Baruch, Barnett, &
Rivers, 1983). Taken together, these findings seem to suggest that
female psychologists derived personal meaning from both self-
improvement and care taking roles. Female psychologists may
derive personal meaning in their lives by adhering to traditional
feminine values such as friendships and social altruism while
also seeking meaning through more traditionally male values of
competition and achievement striving. Future research could
explore the relative values of these meaning sources.
Religious preference appeared to influence personal meaning
in several ways. Both Protestants and Catholics in this sample
reported greater overall personal meaning in their lives than did
Agnostics/Atheists. Protestants also reported greater personal
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214 Psychologists’ Meaning

meaning in life through values transcending self interest (i.e., striv-

ing to make the world a better place) than did Agnostics/Atheists.
This may reflect a desire to “do God’s will” while here on earth.
Generally speaking, Agnostics/Atheists reported less meaning in
their lives from spiritual beliefs than did Catholics, Protestants,
Buddhists, and Unitarians. This finding is not at all surprising given
that one group believes in a spiritual dimension to life, whereas the
other does not. No differences were observed for the importance of
spiritual beliefs in the lives of those expressing a religious prefer-
ence. Differences were observed for the importance of religion.
Catholics and Protestants derived more personal meaning from reli-
gion than did Agnostics/Atheists and Unitarians. Protestants also
reported more meaning in life from religion than did Jews. Again,
there is an obvious division between “believers” and “nonbelievers”
with regard to the religious dimension. These results are also con-
sistent with research outlining the differences between religion and
spirituality. Religion denotes an adherence to or allegiance with the
beliefs and practices of institutional, organized religion, whereas
spirituality indicates beliefs and practices involving an individual’s
relationship with a higher being or the universe (Grimm, 1994).
Catholicism and Protestant Christianity represent strongly orga-
nized religious traditions, whereas Unitarianism reflects a more
“spiritual” belief system. It is not surprising that those from an orga-
nized religious tradition derive more meaning in their lives from reli-
gion than do those from a spiritual approach to worship. It is unclear
why Protestants and Jews would differ on religion, however.
Psychologists in this sample working in counseling centers
reported more personal meaning in life from intimate relation-
ships and helping others than did psychologists working in com-
munity mental health settings. Counseling center psychologists
also reported greater personal meaning in life from friendships
with others than did academicians. Similarly, psychologists work-
ing in community mental health settings reported more personal
meaning in life from pleasure than did academicians. These find-
ings are not easily explainable. It is possible that psychologists
with different values seek out different work environments. It is
also possible that one’s work environment influences beliefs
about what is meaningful in life. Furthermore, it is possible that
other variables, such as gender, influence the beliefs of psycholo-
gists working in various settings. Further research should more
thoroughly explore these relationships.

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 Jerry L. Kernes, Richard T. Kinnier 215

Purposeful Living Through Work

Research has indicated that people often choose careers for

specific reasons (Raines & Day-Lower, 1986; Tokar et al., 1998).
One’s occupation can serve as a vehicle to express purposeful liv-
ing (Erikson, 1959; Ryff & Singer, 1998). The question remains,
why do psychologists do what they do? That is, what is meaning-
ful to psychologists in the work that they do?
Nearly 90% of psychologists responded to the existential
career question asking them “What matters to you most in your
work as a psychologist?” Only one person indicated that he
believed his job was meaningless. The majority of respondents
indicated that “helping others live more satisfying lives” was the
most important aspect of their work. This is consistent with the
commonsense notion that people enter psychology and other
helping professions to relieve suffering or otherwise help people
in need. In terms of career theory, people seek out environments
that allow them to exercise their skills and abilities and express
their attitudes and values (Holland, 1992).
Psychologists working in counseling centers and community
mental health settings reported the most meaning in their work
through helping others live more satisfying lives. Academicians
reported the greatest meaning in their work from mentoring oth-
ers. As might be expected, academicians reported a significant
amount of meaning from conducting research. None of the psy-
chologists working in counseling centers or community mental
health reported research as an important part of their careers.

Limitations of the Study

Several issues common to survey research limit this study. This

study is simply a snapshot in time. As such, it is impossible to
untangle developmental and generational characteristics. Both
sample size and return rate of questionnaires were less than
desired. There was very little variability with regard to some impor-
tant demographic characteristics such as racial/ethnic background.
Although modest reliability and validity data exist for the PMP, the
psychometric properties of the MILQ require further investigation.
Initial attempts at establishing satisfactory reliability and validity
were promising, but clearly more research needs to be conducted
and the measure refined. Generally speaking, some of the questions
posed by this study and the resulting data are very broad. Specific

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216 Psychologists’ Meaning

hypotheses can be drawn from the present findings and used in

future research.
One additional and unforeseen issue that warrants attention
concerns participants’ religious preferences. Participants self-
identified their religious preference by writing it in. The vast
majority of participants (n = 61) wrote in Agnostic/Atheist or
Atheist/Agnostic. One could argue that there are important dis-
tinctions between Atheists and Agnostics. Many Agnostics remain
serious and committed spiritual seekers who simply do not adhere
to a specific religious denomination. Many Atheists, on the other
hand, have suspended their spiritual search. Although this is a
valid argument, an argument could be made that participants in
this study did not adhere to such a distinction. Only two partici-
pants identified themselves strictly as “Atheists” and only 3 par-
ticipants identified themselves strictly as “Agnostic.” These data
were not included in the analyses.

Conclusions and Implications

The psychologists who participated in this study did not pro-

vide a definitive answer to the question “What is the meaning of
life?” They did supply answers as to what they believe it to be.
They also supplied answers as to what is personally meaningful
to them. These beliefs are important in that they can affect oth-
ers through teaching, mentoring, therapy, or public policy.
One important, and unintended, finding was that many psy-
chologists appeared to be “antireligious.” Approximately 20% of
participants gave unsolicited comments on their questionnaires
expressing a genuine disdain for questions about religious values
or morality. Research has shown that religion and spirituality
are important to most Americans and that more than 90% of
Americans report some religious preference (Princeton Religious
Research Center, 1997). Yet psychologists generally have little for-
mal training in dealing with religious and spiritual issues (Kelly,
1995; Shafranske & Maloney, 1990). Studies have indicated that
clients desire to discuss religious and spiritual issues but may feel
it inappropriate to do so with their counselor, psychologist, or ther-
apist (Richards & Bergin, 1997; Rose, Westefeld, & Ansley, 2001).
The point is not to argue that psychologists and other mental
health professionals must adopt a religious or spiritual orienta-
tion contrary to their own belief systems. The point is simply, as
others have stated,
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 Jerry L. Kernes, Richard T. Kinnier 217

Psychologists who provide psychotherapeutic services need to be sen-

sitive to clients’ needs to address religious and spiritual issues; those
who provide training to future counseling psychologists need to pre-
pare students to deal with these issues. (Rose et al., 2001, p. 67)

Similar arguments may be made for the question of life’s

meaning. What does one do if presented with a client, student, or
society that adopts a nihilistic view that “nothing matters?”
Furthermore, what does one do if they share in this nihilism?
How can one be an effective teacher, mentor, or therapist if one
does not believe that anything ultimately matters? Why live?
Why try? Why do anything? Why even ask the question?
Yet the question is asked and is likely to be asked as long as
there are human beings to question their purpose. Answers to the
question can come in many forms. Life may have no cosmic mean-
ing. Life may have only fleeting terrestrial meaning. There may
be meaning to life that we are incapable of understanding. We
may be able to discover “small truths” about life’s ultimate pur-
pose through honest and intensive search. All of these positions
are possible. The “point of it all” may very well be that that
Camus’s question remains the most important question we can
ask ourselves.

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