A fallacy is an incorrect argument in logic and rhetoric.

A fallacy is an incorrect view, particularly one that

is supported by weak evidence or flawed logic. It is an argument that is misleadingly appealing or
deceitful, and it is frequently used to manipulate or trick other people.

Formal fallacies are mistakes in an argument's construction that make it unsound. Usually, the logical
structure of the argument has problems rather than the content of the argument itself that cause these
mistakes. Informal fallacies, on the other hand, are reasoning mistakes that arise in an argument's
substance as opposed to its structure. Usually, these fallacies are founded on incorrect presumptions,
deceptive wording, or unrelated facts.

Formal Fallacy Example:

All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Informal Fallacy Example:

"You can't trust what she says about politics, she's a known liar." - ad hominem.

2.

anecdotal fallacies- When someone bases a claim or argument on anecdotal evidence or personal
experiences, they are committing the fallacy known as the anecdotal fallacy. Because it simply represents
one person's perspective and does not correctly reflect the whole picture or evidence on a given topic,
this kind of evidence is frequently untrustworthy and misleading.

Argument from fallacy is a formal fallacy that occurs when someone analyses an argument and
concludes that it must be erroneous because it contains a fallacy. the assumption that a conclusion is
false on its own if a specific argument supporting it is wrong.

masked man fallacy- The masked-man fallacy is a type of logical fallacy that occurs when someone
believes that, in a scenario where it isn't true, two or more names or descriptions that refer to the same
entity can be freely substituted with one another.

affirming a disjunct-wrongly believing that if one of two options is true, the other must be false when
faced with an either/or choice. This is the case when the term "or" is not stated as exclusive.

3. ad hominem - Ad hominem is a logical fallacy in which the focus is not on the argument itself, but
rather on the person presenting the argument or asserting something. This line of reasoning is regarded
as faulty since it doesn't offer a convincing refutation of the argument.

equivocation- Equivocation is a logical fallacy in which someone purposefully misleads or deceives

another person by using a word or phrase with more than one meaning. In order to avoid making a clear
commitment to a position or to appear to be saying one thing while actually meaning another, this
fallacy involves using ambiguous language.

hasty generalization- A hasty generalization occurs when someone extrapolates a broad conclusion from
scant data or a small sample size. This may cause incorrect inferences to be made about a broader
population or group.

Activity 2

1. .Concrete Concepts: expresses a “form” and a “subject” Ex. The flower rose Abstract Concepts:
has a “form” only , has intangible quality, that which cannot be perceived by the senses Ex.
Beauty in a woman

2. Absolute Concepts: signifies the meaning of a concept, all definitions are absolute concepts Ex. A
triangle is a three-sided figure. Connotative Concepts: signifies a characteristic existing in the
concept, all modifiers are connotative concepts Ex. Drummer boy

3. Positive Concepts: signifies the existence or possession of something Ex. happy Negative
Concepts: signifies the absence of something Ex. sad

2. Conceptualization is the process of specifying a term (so that

others know what it is), giving it cognitive borders.

Conceptualization aids in the investigation of abstract concepts and ideas in philosophy. For instance,
in philosophical discourse, the idea of "free will" refers to people's capacity to make decisions
independently of past events or outside forces. Philosophers can examine human agency,
responsibility, and morality with the use of this idea.

3. Conceptualize - Corruption can be conceptualized as the abuse of power or authority for

personal gain, often at the expense of public interest. In the context of Cameroon, corruption
encompasses various illicit activities, including bribery, embezzlement, nepotism, and
misappropriation of funds. These practices undermine the rule of law, weaken democratic
institutions, and hinder economic development.

Contextualize - Cameroon, a Central African country, has been grappling with corruption for
decades. The issue is deeply rooted in the political, economic, and social fabric of the nation.
Some factors that contribute to corruption in Cameroon include:

Political Culture: Cameroon's political landscape is characterized by a centralized, authoritarian

system, where power is concentrated in the hands of the president and his inner circle. This
centralization of power creates opportunities for corruption and abuse of authority.

4.

Operationalizing the relationship between a clean environment and improved well-being

involves identifying measurable factors and indicators that demonstrate the positive impact of a
clean environment on people's overall well-being.

5.

Criterion Related Measure- A criterion-related measure is an assessment method that evaluates

an individual's performance or ability based on a specific, predetermined criterion or standard. It
is used to determine the validity and usefulness of a test or evaluation method by comparing its
results to the actual performance or behavior in a real-life situation.

Alternative Criterion - An alternative criterion refers to a different standard or measure that can
be used to evaluate or judge a particular situation, decision, or outcome. It provides an option
other than the conventional or existing criteria, often offering a new perspective or approach.

Related Measure - A related measure logic example can be found in the field of economics,
specifically when analyzing the relationship between inflation and interest rates. In this case, the
related measure is the Phillips Curve, which is a theoretical relationship between inflation and
unemployment rates.

Subjective Approach - A subjective approach is a methodology that emphasizes the individual's

personal perspective, emotions, and experiences when analyzing or interpreting a situation,
phenomenon, or piece of information. An example of a subjective approach can be found in the
field of psychology, particularly in the study of emotions and personal experiences.

6.

Operationalizing the concept of gender-based violence involves developing measurable

strategies, methods, and interventions to address and prevent this issue. Here are some steps to
operationalize the concept:

Define and clarify the concept: Gender-based violence (GBV) refers to any act or threat
of violence that results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual, or mental harm or suffering to
individuals based on their gender or gender identity. This includes acts like domestic violence,
sexual assault, harassment, and human trafficking.

Activity 3

Critical Thinker - A critical thinker is someone who can assess, consider, and formulate well-
reasoned conclusions regarding ideas, facts, and arguments, among other parts of life. They are
able to use a range of cognitive processes to think carefully, un-biasedly, and methodically in
order to reach well-informed decisions.

2. The general process of analysing, evaluating, and making defensible conclusions through the
use of logical reasoning and conceptualization is known as critical thinking. Contextualization
makes complicated ideas easier to understand and organise, whereas logical reasoning offers the
framework and guidelines for assessing the viability of arguments. When combined, these
processes help people think critically and make wise decisions in a variety of circumstances.