479

Internal Ballistics.
By Lieut. -Colonel A. G. Hadcock.

(Communicated by Sir George Greenhill, F.R.S. Eeceived October 27, 1917.)

1. Introduction,

My object is to explain and illustrate a method which I have devised for

obtaining the pressure -volume relation of the gases in the bore of a gun,
from the instant of ignition of the charge to the instant when the shot
leaves the gun. By the aid of the expressions given below, the pressure-
volume curve, or the indicator diagram, of the charge can be plotted when
the nature and weight of charge is given.
The peculiarity of this problem, in comparison with similar problems of all
kinds of internal combustion engines other than the gun, is that energy is

produced in the gun by the burning of solid fuel within the gun itself

during a considerable fraction of the expansion, stroke. In other internal

combustion engines, energy is added to the charge by combustion of the
charge almost at constant volume, and no account need be taken of the rate
of combustion of the fuel. In the gun problem, the rate at which the
charge is burnt, that is the rate at which energy is produced, is fundamental
to any investigation of the subject. There is the additional complexity that
a discontinuity exists in the expa.nsion of the gases at the point where tlie

charge is just burnt. Up to this point expansion proceeds with the

continuous addition of energy from the burning charge. After this point
expansion proceeds nearly adiabatically. The influence of the resistance of the

driving band on the subsequent expansion of the gases, and on the maximum
pressure produced by the charge, is another vital element in the problem.
Whichever of the possible methods of thermodynamics be chosen to solve
the problem of internal ballistics, many assumptions have to be made to
meet the conditions which arise in practice. I have chosen to use the
pressure -volume equation for the expansion of the gas of the general form

p {
—— = j
/{;, a constant,

because its constant can be more easily adjusted to meet the conditions
found from experiments than with other methods.
p is the pressure in tons per square inch.
V the gravimetric volume of the charge (inches^/lb.). (This artillery
term will be explained later.)
z is the fraction of the charge burnt.
a is a constant called the co-volume (inches^/lb.).
480 Lieut. -ColoBel A. G. Hadcock.

2, Bate of Burning of the Charge,

The Mstorioal aspect of the subject up to 1875 has been dealt with by
Hoble and Abel* Since that date much has been done, and our knowledge
of the subject has been greatly increased by ISroble,t and also by other
experimenters. The latfer enquiries have followed, almost without exception,
Noble's lead in making use of strong steel vessels or cylinders, closed by
screw plugs. In this vessel the explosives have been burnt, and from the
results the rate of burning of the explosive under different pressures has
been determined, but the conclusions of the various investigators are by no
means in agreement. Although they all assume that combustion takes place
by parallel layers from the outer surface of the explosive, and they concur
that the rate of burning, or the thickness cr inches burnt per second, varies as
the pressure^ raised to some power s, they do not concur on the value to be
assigned to the power. Thus, in Sarrau's determination, the power s = |- for
the old French black gunpowder ; while, for similar powder, Sebert and
Hugoniot, as a result of trials carried out in a lO-cm. gun, came to the
conclusion that s~ l.| Vieille| adopts for colloidal powders s=f, while
Centerval,|| for the Swedish type of tubular baliistite, found that s = 0-9.

Major Mansel (1903), IT from experiments carried out in closed vessels with
cylindrical modiiSed cordite, formulates the expression 2a = hp + a inches per
second for the double thickness burnt off the diameter. Captain Grave, of
the Eussian Artillery (1904), for pyrocollodion powder, and Lees and
Petavel,^'* with Mark I cylindrical cordite, follow with similar results.

JPetavelft points out that the shape of the explosion vessel has a con-
siderable effect on the cooling curve of the explosive.
Gharbonnier|| selects 5 = 1 as the value of the power for French
B.M. powder, and Bianchi,|| of the Italian Artillery, also accepts a similar

relation for Italian baliistite. The choice seems, therefore, to rest between
the expressions

2(r = &^ + a, inches per second for the double thickness of the film burnt and
2flr = hp, inches per second. (1)

* "lEesearches on Explosives, Fired Gunpowder," Phil. Trans.,' vol. 165, Part '
I.

t " Researches on Explosives," ' PML Trans.,' A, vols. 205 and 206.
X
^
Memorial de FArtillerie de la Marine,' series 2, vol. 1 (1882).
55 Memorial des Poudres et Salp^tres,' 1893.
'

{]
Calcul des Elements Ballistiques Interieurs/ Stockholm, 1902.
*

IF See also PML Trans.,' A, vol. 207.

'

** *Roy. Soc. Proc.,' A, vol. 79.

n Phil. Trans.,' A, vol. 205.
'

I M6morial de FArtillerie de la Marine,' 33, 1905,

*

§§ Nozioni Pondamentali di Balistica Interna,' Turin, 1914.

'
 Internal Ballistics, 481

In any case the constant a is small, and the different values given to it,

and to h, by the several investigators, may be partly due to the differences

in the composition of the explosive, but the presence of the first-named
constant and its variation seems to point conclusively to the cooling effect
of the explosion vessel. This effect would manifest itself principally when
charges of low gravimetric density were fired, and the observed pressures
would consequently be lower than the amount of powder burnt seemed to
warrant. In a gun the cooling surface of the bore is continually increasing,
so that a inches per second, a constant for the closed vessel, would on this
hypothesis become a variable, and thus agree with PetaveFs observation. It
is usual to assume that, in a gun, the action of the explosion is so rapid that
the cooling effect of the bore may be ignored. We shall therefore adopt

the condition (1), which becomes for infinitely short lengths of time

_ = I6p, suitably selecting the value of &, and accounting for the loss of

energy by cooling and other losses —such as the momentum of the recoiling

gun, friction in the bore, and the rotation of the shot by the rifling, by
introducing a factor of effect, which is equivalent to assuming an increase in
the weight of the ]3rojectile. This factor will also take into account the
wear of the gun.
Cordite, and other similar explosives, made by different makers, varies con-
siderably in the rate of burning. This is due to the diversity of methods
adopted in the manufacture, besides also the natural variations of the raw
materials. In order, therefore, to obtain the ballistics stipulated in the
specification governing supply, the dry diameter of such cordite frequently
differs from that of normal cordite. The rate of burning considered in this
paper is that found by experiment for normal cordite.
For cylindrical modified cordite, heated to 80° F., before firing, the rate of
radial combustion is 1*33612? inches per second, on the diameter.

With tubular cordite there is reason for believing that the rate of com-
bustion inside the tube is higher than that outside, owing to the generated
gases inside the tube having to escape. This would induce a slightly greater
pressure inside the tube than that outside. There are two methods of
dealing with this feature : {a) by assuming a slight increase in the rate of
combustion for both inside and outside of the tube when compared with the
combustion of cylindrical cordite ;
(b) by assuming a different rate of com-
bustion for the inside surface of the tube.
In the present case we shall adopt (a), and assume that the rate of com-
bustion per second is 1*44 p instead of 1-3361 p. This value was obtained
independently, from actual ballistic results in a gun (see Example 2), but it
 —

482 Lieut. 'Colonel A. G. Hadcock.

corresponds with the pressure coefficient of the formula deduced from

Table D of "Investigation of the Law of Burning of Modified Cordite."*
This Table D is the result of experiments with modified tubular cordite in
closed vessels, and the formula I deduced from it is

Keduction in annulus at 80° F, in O'OOl second = 0-001407^? + 0-000473.

If z denotes the fraction of the charge xu burnt up to any time t, then for
sticks of explosive, of which the length is great in comparison to the other
dimensions, it can be easily proved that

I ^ M,j6 (z)p. (2)

where M denotes some function of the original sectional dimensions and the
rate of burning per second, and <p (z) is a function of z.

Thus for solid cordite, of diameter D inches, the sectional area of the burnt

portion when a layer a- thickness has been consumed is

Therefore the burnt fraction of the whole charge

'^|D2_(D-2o-)n
z = -1 (l ^4)
4

and
dz _ _4/ 2a\d<r 2.
J
..,

dt

Again for tubular cordite of external diameter D and inbernal diameter D',
supposing the rate of burning of the interior to be the same as for the exterior,

dz _ 2 -,

Similarly for strip powder of width e and thickness h

dz e'\-h f. 4eh "1*7
dt eh \ {e + hf J ^

It will be seen that of the general form (2)

M = ~— 21)
;
(;e) = ^\.^Zy for solid cylindrical cordite.

2h
M™ y~
— j-7 ; ^ iz) = 1, for tubular cordite.

M = —^^-~ h ; 6 {z) = A / 1— 7 ^-4-r. ^ fbi" strip cordite.

V {e-^-Jif

* Mansell, 'Phil. Trans./ A, vol. 207, No. 418.

 Internal Ballistics, 483

o. The Equation of Expansion,

Again gravimetric density is an artillery term which really means the
specific gravity of a charge of powder if considered to uniformly occupy some
definite space. This space is that between the base of the projectile and the
breech of the gun ; it is continually changing as the shot moves along the
bore, and, consequently, the specific gravity of the charge also changes at the
same time. Gravimetric density is therefore the ratio of the weight of the
charge of powder to the weight of water which would fill the space in a
gun behind the projectile. The gravimetric volume is the reciprocal of the
gravimetric density.
In the metric system, since the weight of a cubic decimetre of water, at

standard temperature, is 1 kgrm., the gravimetric density (or as it is called in

France the " densite de chargement ") is

A =™
and the gravimetric volume

tar

where w is in kilogrammes and C in decimetres.

With English units at the standard temperature of 62"^ F. the volume of
the Imperial gallon of 10 lb. of water, of the Act of Parliament, is

277-3 inches'^ or a cubic foot of water weighs 62*35 lb. ; thus 27*73 inches^
of water weighs 1 lb.

If C is in inches^ and m in lb., the gravimetric density

27*73 1^
A
and the gravimetric volume

V
c
27*73t5T'

In the United States the gallon of water is taken to occupy 276*8 cubic
inches, which corresponds to a density of water of about 62*4 lb. per cubic
foot at a temperature of 54° F.
Thus, if X represents the travel, in feet, of the projectile plus the equivalent

length of the chamber {i.e,, the length of a chamber of cross-sectional area

equal to A, the area in square inches of the bore, and of chamber capacity C in

cubic inches, thus the equivalent length = -— ), then for any point in the

bore the gravimetric volume of the charge is

JL ^ tX -XX X. XJ\.

V
• O 11
" = 2773^ = 2-31 T
^"«hes3/Hx
1
484 Lieut. -Colonel A. G. Hadcock.

or differentiating'
n
clx = ~ dv. (3)

by putting G= 2'31fEr.

Note,—-- is the equivalent of length in feet of the bore for one gravimetric

volume.

When a fraction z of the charge has been burnt, the space occupied by the
solid unburnt portion of the charge is, if S is the density of the explosive
compared with water,
27*73 (1 ~~z) m- inches-^
o

so that the available gas space behind the projectile is

12^A - 27-73 (1-";^) til i inches^.

The actual gravimetric volume of the gas for the fraction z of the charge

burnt is therefore

12^A-~27-73(l--0)?5T~
V „ '

27-73 ^riT

or by putting -^ = « (inches^lb.)
S

^^ —a = ,
(4)

where v is the gravimetric volume supposing the whole charge had been
converted into gas.
The constant ol is commonly called the co-volume, in cubic inches per
pound, and equals 0*633 for M.D. cordite of which the density S, compared
with water, is 1*58, i.e., 27*73 cubic inches of the explosive will weigh 1*58 lb.

If the gas, produced from the proportion of the charge burnt, expands
doing work on the shell, heat is lost, supposing no more cordite is consumed
during this process. But actually the cordite continues to burn and imparts
additional heat to the already generated gas. There would be thus, during
expansion, a loss of heat and at the same time a continual fresh supply of
heat until the charge had been completely burnt.
The expansion is, therefore, neither purely adiabatic nor is it isothermal
but something between the two. Probably no single condition satisfies the
whole process, but for our purpose the mean exponent is sufficiently explicit.

The co-efficient 7 of adiabatic expansion of the gases of modern gunpowders

 —

Internal Ballistics. 485

is usually taken as 1*2, while that for isothermal expansion is 1 ; the

coefficient of expansion up to the time of the total consumption of the cordite
is therefore taken as the mean between these two values, viz., 1*1.

In the following investigation it is assumed that the gas generated at

volume v' from any fractions of the charge, expands in accordance with the
law:
p(y' —ay = k,a, constant,

the index e being chosen between the value 1*2 for adiabatic expansion and 1
for isothermal expansion, namely 1*1.
Or more conveniently by eq. (4)

r(^)- = "^ (5)

The value oi k depends largely on the frictional resistance to motion of the

shot. It is evident from the form of this equation that for different values
of z the pressures and volumes follow clearly defined curves.

4. Expansion Gurms for Different Values of z,

A group of expansion curves for different values of z is shown in fig. 1 ; they
are hyperbolic in character, and the asymptotes are the axis of v and the
vertical line a. In this figure the trace of these curves, which may be termed
isopyrio lines, has been drawn for ^ = O'l, 0*2, etc., so that if two of the three
variables are known the third can be determined. Thus, knowing z and v, the
corresponding p can be found at once.

5. The Pressure Equation and the Variation of the Constant h.

The initial resistance, during engraving, of the copper driving band, which
is fitted to the projectile to give rotation, plays a most important part in the
development of both the gas pressure and the velocity of the shot. The
greater this initial resistance is, the earlier the maximum chamber pressure
will be attained,and the higher will be this pressure and the muzzle velocity.
The discussion of this part of the subject is deferred to the end of this
paper, but mention is made of it here so that the reader may understand that

i?o, %, %, and % are the pressure, gravimetric volume, velocity of the shot and
fraction of the charge burnt, when the engraving of the copper band is

completed.
The higher resistance while the band is being engraved will alter the value
of the constant h to h\ so that at the end of the engraving process the gases
generated from the proportion % of the charge would expand according to the
equation

'p^ { \ = //^ a constant.

486 Lieut. -Colonel A, G. Hadcock.

ZO '^ ^J^'

Fig. 1.

If pq is the pressure, fig. 2, which the generated gases at % would have if

expanded to Vi, then

Po = Fo
^0 / %
or Po -Pol — Ci/ .

\Vi

The pressure ^1 at volume Vi is po^ increased by an increment dp due to the

burning of a further proportion d^ of cordite. Therefore, by algebraical
reduction

pi =Poi^^^^—^) +dp.
— ^Vi a.
Again
Vi — ot'
and = pi +dp
Pi =Pi V2 — C)Cj
p2 (-:^
^V2 — )

Ct/

VQ—a
Po + dp -\-dp,
 Internal Ballistics, 487

Pn+i

ot 14% ^ ^ ^3 ^^ ^^+/

Fig. 2.

or generally

^„ = ^«(!;»=^y+rfp(!;iz:5y+^p(!;i~fy+...+,/^,
— a,
\7;„,— cty \Pn — t;,,
'yi (^l

(6)

'4i

At any volume v^+i the pressure

and from the hypothesis

j9,t = y^(
—^^ 4- a proportion of the expansion of z^

k
i^n 4- icZ(f) suppose.

So that Pn = /.^

{%rt + /^;^oO'

k
Also i?n + l = :(^w+i' + a:%0-
h
IV
Therefore P».+ l— P?^ = — «)* \Zn-\-\ '^n)'
('^n+i
488 Lieut. -Colonel A. G. Hadcock.

When pn approaches very close to p^+i

where V'-a represents generally Vn—a,

Inserting this value of dp in (6) we get

P7i = PO ] +6 Y~~ r- Z^^^ d.Z

h r Ik'
. .

^V.'+ -r — l)^o"

Therefore
¥
-—~1 = k: and we mav write generally for the mean pressure

in the bore

p = 7—^ C^'*-^
+ fcz^'y (7)

When all the explosive is burnt z — 1] we shall then put v == vi and

p = jji. Thus

It has been found with modified cordite and the present form of Service

driving bands that the average value of /*:;' = 80*6 and of k = 66, so that

/^ =-- 0-22121.

6. The L'lstantaneo'iis Mean Pressure m the Gun.

The pressure in tons per square inch on the face of the breech screw is greater

than that acting on the base of the projectile. Experiment proves this to be
the case. Crusher gauges inserted in the base of the projectile always give a
lower pressure reading than those placed in the chamber at the breech. It is

reasonable to suppose that the pressure in the bore falls more or less regularly

from the breech to the base of the shot, and that the mean rate of burning of
the explosive is that due to the mean pressure in the bore.
The unburnt portion of the charge is assumed to be spread out equally
over the space between the breech of the gun and the base of the projectile.
Let 'i^ be the velocity in feet per second of the shot relative to the gun, lu the
mean velocity of the charge, P the pressure in tons per square inch on the
breech and ps that on the base of the shot, W the weight in pounds of the
projectile and m that of the charge, A the area in square inches of the bore,

fi the coefficient of friction, supposed proportional to ps, of the shot passing

along the bore, and fi' the coefficient of friction of the gases in the bore.
 Internal Ballistics. 489

At the breech the momentum of the charge and projectile is

'
m —+ W- )
sec. tons,
2240 \ g g
and the impressed force is
(P— //,ps--//.'p) A tons.

At the base of the shot the momentum is

W u
- sec. tons,
2240 g
and the impressed force is
^^(l— />(,) A tons.
Consequently

"2240"^^-^-^^^'^ ^^^^

The mean frictional resistance /m' of the gas is unknown ; it may be

included in the general loss yct and accounted for in the factor of effect.

Therefore eliminating —
fJ'7/

(a/O
and putting (l — /ji) z=f\ the factor of effecfc, we
obtain

V =:U ^/+ 1 ) Ps (tons/inch^),

It is found that the value of I which suits practical results best is f ; then
for the mean pressure

P = H'P+P^)={l^f+'^)ps^Bp„ (9)

putting - ~-/+l = B for convenience,

5 W
and then P = (2— — U:> (tons/inch^). (10)

7. Motion of the Shot.

The equation of motion of the shot is

where yu, includes the frictional and other losses, estimated as a fraction.
If u is the velocity, in feet per second, of the projectile at any moment
then by (9) the above expression can be written
du A r

dt B '^^
if for convenience we put m instead 1W
of —-ttt -.
2240,^
490 Lieut. -Colonel A. G. Hadcock.

Eliminating the mean pressure 'p and dt by (2)

Af
mdu ™ --^
^ dz
_._--^.
ME j> {z)

Integrating between limits % and %, z and z^

,/-%0 = ~-4^,-rV! (11)

mMI
dz
,

where YJZq
„
= 1

H ^(z)

This result is identical with Charbonnier's*' except that he assumes the

velocity u^ — 0, immediately after the driving band has been engraved,
whereas it may attain to a considerable magnitude.
Since u is the velocity at any moment (ft./sec.X udt gives the distance
'dx (ft.) which the shot moves through in time dt(8eQ.), and now making '^o the
datum point or origin

dx = —Af
v'—
mMB V: ^«
dt.

Putting dx = --- ch, from (3), and eliminating dt by (2) we get

pdv = -—i~7^A^;

Integrating between limits v and %, ?v and % and putting

GmMmk

I " (1^)
(^^-^^)-i ^^^^0'
6-1 l(7;o-a)^-i

where X-„ =
o2;*-- + /C%'^ ^(:S)
Tables I and II give X^^ for different values of z and % for cylindrical and
tubular modified cordite.
As vq is known from the initial conditions, equation (13) gives the volume v
and hence the distance x for any proportion of the charge burnt. The
corresponding pressure p fouAd from (7) and the velocity from (11).
is

When z =1 the corresponding volume and pressure will be denoted by %

and pi and at the muzzle of the gun by % and p2.

* *
Memorial de rArtillerie Navale/ 1907, p. 287.
 I

Internal Ballistics. 491

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VOL. XOIV. — A. 2 Q
 <

492 Lieut. -Colonel A. G. Hadcock.

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 Internal Ballistics. 493

After z ==1, when the whole of the charge has been converted into gas,
ordinary adiabatic expansion is assumed to take place, so that

p(i;— a)Y = constant = 'pi{vi — a)y,

where 7 = and f or j?i is the mean gas pressure in the
1'2, bore. Writing
the equation of motion of the shot in the form

m u du = G fps dv
we obtain from the above general condition and from p = Bp^

vT/ dv
m tc.du = -:^pi{vi — a)yj
Integrating between limits % and U, where U is the muzzle velocity ; % and
% where V2 is the gravimetric volume of expansion at the muzzle,

or giving pi its value from (8) and transposing

v^ = V+ A ^^|(i+..oOr-VT|i-r^^^y"l (15)

where the value of % is obtained from (11) and (20)

^\=:^ifn + (l-n)Y,'''}. (16)

The mean pressure p2 of the gas when the projectile is just leaving the
muzzle is obtained at once from the general condition

P^ = v^
[:^ (17)

8. Mamimum Presstire.

It is imiportant to know the maximum pressure and its position in the

gun. To find this position, differentiate equation (7) in the form

J? (t? — «)^ = ^ {Z^ -f KZq^).

Thus since X(f is a constant for any particular set of conditions

{v — ay dp + €p(V'— a)^""i dv =
- e/i;^^"^ dz.

For a maximum value of p, ^

dv
=
and piv"- a)^~^ dv = kz^~'^ dz,
or
dv _ z^-'^dz
v —a z^ + KZo""'

Eliminating ——-
«^
between this equation and (12), and writing v and ^

2 Q 2
 :

494 Lieut. -Colonel A. G. Hadcock.

for the values of v and z respectiveljj corresponding witli the maximum value
of p, the following expression is obtained

^,
so that
^ —— =
1 r
< T
Vf
.~-~-~^^-~-~
1 __L.
Ve-i.

Again from equation (13) by treating v and z as corresponding to the

maximum value of p and transposing

We have therefore from these two expressions the relation

^ • - —1^ 4- (e™ 1) xt

(19)

Since r and % are known from the initial conditions ^ can be found from
1
Tables I and II, can then be found from equation (18).

9. Mesistance of driving Band,

When a projectile, fitted with a copper or other metal driving band, is

forced through a short rifled cylinder by hydraulic pressure, the resistance

offered by the band depends on the amount of copper to be forced through
the rifling grooves. It depends also on the clearance in rear of the band
between the projectile and the gun bore.
There are two general forms of driving band in use, viz., (a) that with a
parallel profile of which the external diameter is a little larger than the
diameter over the rifling grooves in the gun, (h) the gas-check type with a
tapered profile of which the largest diameter, towards the base of the
projectile, rests against the front cone of the gun chamber and so seals it.

The flat profile of the first type of band does not as a rule properly seal
the chamber. The resistance of this band to being forced into the rifling

appears to depend on the total shearing circumference of the rifling, and the
experimental results already collected seem to agree with this.

With the gas-check type of band, actual trial shows that in many cases

the maximum resistance takes place before the band has entered the rifling,
that is to say, the maximum pressure is developed in deforming the copper,
or other metal of the band, in forcing it through a diameter smaller than
itself.
 —

Internal Ballistics, 495

Experiments with standard and other bands are still in progress, but the
results are not sufficiently advanced for publication. Only one or two forms
are consequently dealt with for the purpose of illustrating the present paper.
The shape of the band differs in most cases, and it is only in the larger
natures that the bands are made proportional to the diameter of the bore.
No general law can at present be laid down for the resistance. For a correct
determination, recourse must be had to experiments with each type of band.
Owing to the wear of the band in high-velocity guns the amount of copper
in the section must be considerably greater than with that intended for low
velocity guns. It is usually preferable to add to the amount of copper w^here
necessary, by increasing the diameter of the band.
The resistance begins with a fairly rapid rise, and the curve usually takes
a parabolic form ; it then flattens, and when about two-thirds of the band is

engraved, the resistance gradually falls until the engraving is completed.

The curve then runs nearly parallel to the datum line.

In a gun, during the brief period of engraving the band, the velocity
attained by the projectile is never high (say, 60 or 70 ft./sec.) and it can,
therefore, be assumed that the resistance is similar to that occurring
in the statical cylinders. As the shot travels along the bore the band
wears ; moreover, the pressure on the rifling which produces rotation is

speaking broadly— proportional to the gas pressure. We may, therefore,

fairly assume that the resistance of the band after engraving is proportional
to the pressure.
If the curve of resistance during the engraving process is assumed to be a
we shall not be
parabola, greatly in error, especially if we take into account
the mean resistance in the calculation. The gas pressure may also be
assumed with even more correctness to rise as a parabola during the engrav-
ing of the band. In that case the resistance and pressure are proportional
and the formulae already found again apply, the constants must, however, be
changed to suit the engraving conditions.
Thus let ]ps be the gas pressure at any instant (tons/inch^),
q the resistance at the same instant (tons/inch^),

4(^-?)sfe^^(2)-^(^)-
Put -^ = n, a fraction, n is therefore also equal to the ratio of the mean

values of q and p multiplied by B.

496 Lieut. -Colonel A. G. Hadcock.

Integrating, starting with the shot at rest and z = 0, and again, for

convenience, putting m for -

W 1
2240 g
A
mu "-
MB (l^n)Nl. (20)

But as ii
dx ___ G dv
d.t A dt
7
A (1 — %) y —>

Until the band is fully engraved p = k^

V—oc/
z
dv __ A^(l~-7i) Vo dz
therefore
{v-ay GmM^B^' z^ (^{zy

or, integrating betveeen limits %', the gravimetric volume of the chamber
before the shot moves, and Vq, and'^Jo,

1
6-1 \(V— ^)'~^ {v(^-oty~^

where n" ,, \,r 21574

_ B. mean resis tance ( = g) __ 3/ ^9 /9o\

mean pressure (= /^l^o) ^0

po is chosen and z found from the column z^ == 0*00 in the Tables, if these
values satisfy the expression

p:=:Jcf (-^-^ (23)

they are the correct values. Then ^^0 can be found from equation (20),

The correct values of Pq and zq are most easily found graphically by

plotting the curve eq. (23), then from (21) plotting values of p and z. The
point where these lines intersect gives 2^0 and z^.

In the above investigations we have, for the sake of convenience, taken

the important process of engraving the driving band last ; but actually imme-
diately the charge in the gun is ignited gas is generated, and begins to force
the driving band into the grooves. As the gas pressure during this operation
is comparatively low, the actual engraving occupies quite an appreciable
time, but after the band is engraved the pressure in the gun rapidly rises to

its maximum, subsequently falling until the whole of the charge is burnt.

It is not possible for the maximum pressure to take place after the com-
bustion of the charge is completed, but the maximum pressure and the com-
pletion of the combustion may occur at the same instant.
 ?

Internal Ballistics. 497

By solving formula (13) for z ^1 the position in the gun % at which all

the charge is burnt is found. Whether the charge is completely burnt

before the shot reaches the muzzle is of great importance from an artillery

point of view, because it is found that greater regularity as regards range and
deflection is obtained when the charge is all consumed at a point in the gun
some distance from the muzzle.

10. Values of the Ftcnetions and Examples,

In order to make use of these formulae I have calculated, see Table I, the

values of V!^, X^^ and YJ^, for modified cylindrical cordite for z = 0, 0*05, 0*10,

0*15, 0*20, 0*25, and 0*30. Experience has shown that it is very rarely that so
large a fraction of the charge is burnt as ;so = 0*30 before the driving band is

fully engraved.
Similar X!^ and Y^^ functions (see Table II) for modified tubular cordite

have also been calculated. The value of V^^^ for tubular cordite is immediately
obtained, as it is identical with z—z^. It should be noted that the rate of
radial burning, 1*44^ inches per second, may require to be modified if the
diameter of the central hole is unduly reduced.
To illustrate the method of plotting the pressure-volume diagram, I have
chosen an example from ordinary modified cylindrical cordite and one from
modified tubular cordite. The driving band in each case was identical, but
the guns differed both as regards length and capacity of chamber. The
factor of effect may vary considerably, as, even in the same gun with different
batches of cordite of the same nature, the ballistics actually obtained may
differ by 15-20 ft./sec. in velocity with a corresponding variation in pressure.
For cylindrical cordite the function

y:; = f v/i^^^^ = 2{v/r~~^o-\/T^}.

\/i — %— -v/i— dz
XI =
;<;

or
\/i —
^.e
,v 4-a:^o'

x/I—Zq — \/i—z

the evaluation was performed by approximate integration.

For tubular cordite
 •

498 Lieut. -Colonel A. G. Hadcock.

Here again the X and Y functions were obtained by approximate

integration.
The following examples will show the general method of calculation : —
(1) Gun, 6-inch, 50-calibre : total bore capacity, including chamber,
9268 cubic inches : chamber capacity, 1658 cubic inches ; area of bore,
including grooves, 28*942 square inches ; charge, 28*625 lb. ; modified
cordite, size 26 (D = 0*1891 inches).
The actual mean muzzle velocity obtained with a shot of 100 lbs. was
2905 ft. /sec, and a mean chamber pressure of 17*93 tons per square inch.
The driving band used was of cupro-nickel, and its mean resistance, when
forced through a rifled cylinder, was found to be 1*61 tons per square inch of
bore area for a distance of 0*1416 feet.

Here A r= 28*942 sq. in. D =: 0*1891 ins.

W ^ 100 lb. ^ = 28*625

The initial gravimetric volume of the charge is

"^' ^ 28*62^x^7*73 ^ ^"^^^^'

%'-^ == 2*0887- 0*633 = 1*4557.

When the band has fully entered the rifling, the projectile has advanced a
distance of 0*1416 feet, thus increasing the chamber capacity by 49 cubic
inches. The gravimetric volume at this stage is

1658 + 49 oiP:Ar

or -yo-a ^ 2*1505-0*633 ^ 1*5175.

At the muzzle the gravimetric volume is

"^^ "" " '

28*625 X 27*73

V2~ot =: 11*676-0*633 = 11*043.

The constants tq and r should now^ be found

A2(l-?i)^x2240
n
A^(l-?2,)D^x 32*2x2240
2*31 .m .4, (1*3361)2 . wi^—f-i-l) 80*6
 Internal Ballistics. 499

Assume the factor of effect /to be 0'96, then

^'^
W _" 28-625 100
/ "5 0-97

= 109-892.

To = 0-538116 (1-w)
and as e = 1-1 (e — l)ro = 0-0538116(1— w)
_ AV^2240 _ ^^'''^'^
.„ A2 X (F
''
- GWWBk - „K„„ ' /I ^W'
= 0-630868
r

(€-l)r = 0-0630868.
It is necessary to find the ballistic conditions when the driving band is

jnst fully engraved. Equation (21), together with the expression

p= i' __!_ = 80-6

yV^—a.1 \1-5175,
enables sa to be found.
^ = 0-96315, -. ^-^-, = 0-95915.

Therefore
1
= 0-96315-0-95915,

or (6-l)roX?= 0-004,

X^o ^-^^ = 0-074333 '

0-0538116 (1-^) 1~^

B = ii/+l =1-05496,

From eq. (22)

n uB ^
,3t> -^= 3
~ A^^oA X 1'61
X 11-05496 = 2-54773
2 j^o 2 j9o ^0
Suppose j^o = 4 tons/inch^, then
=n 0-63693, l-?^ = 0*36307,

Xjo = 0-204736 and from Table I, Column O'OO,

^0 = 0-14384.
If j?o = 5 tons,
=n 0-50955, 1-7?. = 0*49045,

Xgo = 0-151562, 00 = 0-10478.

.or j?o = 6 tons,
fi = 0-42462, X-n = 0-57538,

Xjo = 0-129190, 00 = 0-08836.

 . . 5 ,

500 Lieut. -Colonel A. G. Hadcock.

Plot on squared paper (see fig. 3), from z == to z = 0*15 the curve

p = 80*6

and draw a curve through the three points po, % found above. Where these
curves intersect, viz., po = 4*65 tons, zq = 0*1135, is the pressure in the gun
and the fraction of the charge burnt when the driving band is Just fully
engraved.

•. i« . ^....-A.
A
/
/
\5
>
/ r 1

4-€5
y~fe oilt35
H
<u

In
,

/ ^-.
"w^
^v .
.

/I
Q -/
..

it?

5^
/y
<0
Z y
y
\A
/
to.
"

'i

_,.,_j
~ ^""i "

''

y
/^ ""'"

Zq^o
./.
A 0-05 0^1 0-15
S
1

Fig. 3.

The position in the gun, where the combustion of the charge is completed,^

is found from equation (13).

— \% i^ TjSl.^,^,

From Table I by interpolation

XL = 2-269112,

(6--l)rX:;, = 0-143151,

^ ^ 0-9591

'j
^
. 1
^
— 0-815999
V JL C/ tJ ty
yJ> t,f

{ih—ay-^
(v^^a) - 7-6402 % == 8'2732
 Internal Ballistics. 501

The pressure can be found from ,eq. (8)

l + «^o^= 1 + 0-021097,
pi = 7*2 tons/inch^ mean pressure.

The velocity of the shot at the completion of combustion is by eq. (16)

_ A^224Q . r^i 1-n ^.1

%2 =, 728567500 /j~-^5_y(vJ, +
^^%J\
2*54773 1
% rr rL^^_ and _-~71 = 0-47094,
4'65 /
ir^ V% = 0-47094 X 0-117068 by Table I,

= 0-065103,
¥4 = 1-882932,

Vj^ + l:i:!?'V§^ = 1-938035,

u^^ = 6787363, %= 2605 f./s.

After the charge is bm^nt adiabatic expansion takes place according to the
expression

2 G/ife32-2x2240 ^-, ,
,s 1 f.

= w /<... .\ 1 11 /% — ^V ''"

109966350 , " ,,, (1 + /^^O , , , i 1 ,

5 /
'^LZLfy""' = 0-928974, l_/Br:^^y"' = 0-071026,

const. — E-_--, (1 4- KZ(f) 7 ^-~--- •< 1 — j ^^^™ )

l = 1695170,

u{^ = 6787363, U^ = 8482533, U= 2913 Is.

The mean muzzle pressure ^^2 = [-^'^^\

pi = 4-63 tons/inch^.

For maximum pressure, use eq. (19)

^-1^ = 1-520367 = yf,.

502 Lie ut« -Colonel A, G. Hadcock.

From Table I by interpolation, the fraction ^ of the charge burnt when the
maximum, pressure is developed is

^ = 0-69319, Xi := 0-648272, (e-l)rXi^ ^ 0-040897,

^ = 0-959150, _J— ---:^ rr: 0-918253,

(7;o— a>"-^ (%-^^)'"^

X-^.e = 2-3463, X = 2-9793 volumes,

^7max ~ T~^ — (?' + ^'"^^oO = 17*80 tons/iuch^.

This is the mean pressure in the bore behind the projectile when it has
advanced to a distance equivalent to % volumes.
The pressure on the breech screw face is

-1' ^ (2—gj/Arax.
2~-i ^. 2-0-9479 = 1-0521,

and P =: 1-0521 x 17-80

= 18-73 tons/inch^.

(2) A charge of 30 lb. 6 oz. of modified tubular cordite gave, in a 6~inch

45-calibre gun, an actual muzzle velocity of 2797 ft./sec. to a projectile

weighing 100 lb. The chamber pressure, as given by crusher gauges, was
15*78 tons per square inch.
The dry dimensions of the cordite tubes were external diameter
= 0*463 inch and internal diameter = 0*167 inch.
The capacity of the chamber was 1715 cubic inches and the total capacity

of the gun bore 8550 cubic inches. The same driving band was used on the
projectile as that in the previous example.

Here A= 28-942 in.^ D-D' = 0'463~0-167 = 0*296 in.

W == 100 lb. m = 30*375 lb.

We have

v^ r= ^^ yi^^
30-375 X 27-73
,^ ^ 2-0361; V-^- 1*4031,

= '''''' =
^"
3oS^^= -^
.„-« 1-4613.

-- 30:31^3 = ^^-^^0«^ ..-« = 9-5178.

 Internal Ballistics. 50!

The factor of effect will be taken as 0*98 ; the constants n and r are then

^^0
A2(1-tO(D-D')2x 32*2x2240
2-31 xmx 4(144)2W fi :^/+ 1) 80'6

^(^g^ + yj

= 1*06607 (l-^i),

(6-l)ro = 0-106507 (1-^/iX

r = 57-0378 ^^i^"^'^^'. = 1-27467,

(€--l)r = 0127467.
In order to find ^0 we have

- ,
-^
, ,
= 0-96670, -;
^—~- == 0-96278,

^ ^'
and eq. (21) (6-l)roXo" =

= 0-96670-0-96278,
= 0-00392.
0-00392 1 0-036805
Therefore X?^ =
- 0-106507 1-n l-n
rrr- /-j- X = X*U0t/04r,
Jl> ^^^^

5
r:^

W^
By plotting, as in the first example

and :^o assuming, in order to obtain the value of Xq'', that ^=4 tons, 3'5 tons,,
and 3 tons per square inch, it will be found that

Pq= 3*64 tons/in.^

and %= 0*0875.

The position in the gun where combustion is completed is given by

From Table II by interpolation

Xj, = 0*723306,
504 Lieut. -Colonel A. G. Hadcock.

then (6-l)rX',=: 0-092198,

0-962780,
— a) b—i
:

(Vo

and ^-_-L_^ :::::: 0-870582,

whence "Z/'i— « = 3*9986.

For the pressure when combustion is completed

1 + fczo' = 1 + 0-015171
said pi =7 —^-- (1 -f /czo^)

= 14'59 tons/in.^.

The velocity of the projectile at the completion of combustion is obtained

from

m' = 627224000 ^1]^Z^(V,V+ ^ V^

1 1^
V'J = ~-?^^ X 0-0875 = 0-026495,
/ 0*98

Yo =
^1
. 0-912500.
Therefore

'I
Vf
1—n
+"-/
.

Vg* = 0-938955.
/
so that ui^ == 3472240, ui = 1863 f./s.

After the charge is burnt the same formula as for Example 1 is used, tIz.,

u^ = ^^^109966350 ^
^ ,,, (i+z^^o) -—J--_ /i-^f^-i:::?)""'
-p ra: +—
^ /
^V:-^^ 3:9986 /!V::^r^ ^ 0-840763, l-f^i:!^')'"' = 0-159237,
V2-ot 9-5178' Ws-^/ U-«/
so that
U^ =z 3472240 + 4347900 == 7820140, U= 2796 f./s.

For maximum pressure

— 1
^i__^^^ ^ 0-755317 = Y^
/

From Table II we find that the fraction ^ of the charge burnt when tlie

maximum pressure is developed is

f =: 0-77300.
 Internal Ballistics, 505

From Table II Xf^ = 0-519863,

.and (e-l)rXf^ = 0*066265,

and since , K-~7 = 0-962780,

1
0-896515, x-oL=: 2-98143,
ix-ay-^
k

This is the mean pressure in the bore. At the breech the maximum
pressure is

/ 1^

1 = 0-9439, 2--4 = 1-0561,

P = 1-0561 X 15-25 = 16-1 tons/inA

The results of the calculation of Example 1 are plotted in fig. 4; the

isopyric lines begin with that for ^o = 0*1135, the fraction of the charge
burnt when the driving band is just engraved. The trace of this curve
follows the equation

jj^SO-e/^-^:^^'''

The remainder of these curves for z = 0*2, 0*3, etc., follow the equation

where k^^'^ = 0*021097.

The pressure curve begins at %'•— « at 0, it rises nearly vertically until
it reaches a value of 4*65 tons when it cuts the isopyric line % = 0*1135.
As the pressure curve continues to rise to its maximum, and then to fall, it
intersects the remainder of the isopyric lines, so that the diagram gives, for
any mean gas pressure in the gun, the position ^y— a of the shot and the
fraction z of the charge burnt. When the charge has just been completely
bmmt the pressure curve joins the isopyric line z = 1*0. After this the
expansion proceeds adiabatically until the shot leaves the gun. This figure
has been plotted for convenience with v~-a equal to 1, 2, 3, etc.

The velocity curve is shown in the dash-and-dot line ; when the driving
band is just engraved the projectile has a velocity of 77 ft./sec.
The pressure curve can be more expeditiously drawn by using logarithmic
ruled paper, as shown in fig. 5. The isopyric curves then become a group of
inclined parallel straight lines.
 506 Lieut. -Colonel A. G. Hadcock.

PUO099 a9d :p^i — i4poi9A

o oo «^ ^ c^ O oO
M
O
H H
O
H
O ^1
tO c<^ c^ 0^ ^i c^
qom -^xvahg X9d 9uoj^ — 9j:ti99'9:ij
 (

Internal Ballistics, 507

6
2q=o-ii3S 1—

l^'^^^^^fe 4 5
X-oc-Z'Mm Tolutnes
VOL. XCIV.—A. 2 R
508 Lieut. -Colonel A. G. Hadcock.

The maximum pressure found above of 18*73 tons per square inch on the
breech screw is nearly a ton too high, as found by the crusher gauges, but

^G-o-

usually the crusher gauges, placed loose in the gun at the breech, are

carried forward with the rush of gas, so that the pressure registered by
 Internal Ballistics, 509

them may be that due to some intermediate position between the breech and
the shot.
This is borne out by an experiment lately carried out with a small bore
gUn having a long chamber. Fixed crusher gauges were inserted in the
chamber {a) at 2 inches from the breech end, and (&) at 4*8 inches from the
first-named gauge, as shown in fig. 6.

The mean pressure of three rounds (charge 1 oz. 11 drams modified

cordite, diameter = 0*039 inch) was at {a) 16*45 tons per square inch, at
(V) 15*15 tons. With a charge of 1 oz. 12 drams modified cordite,
diameter = 0*0298 inch, the mean of three rounds was at (a) 18*8 tons, at
(6) 17*3 tons per square inch. The projectile was fitted with a copper
driving band and weighed in all the experiments 6 oz.

The maximum pressure in this experimental gun will take place at about
double the distance (b) is from (<x), so that applying the above rule for the
difference of pressures, those actually obtained are closely approximated to.
Hefferman* finds from experience formulae equivalent to

2l = 1-5 for cylindrical cordite,

= 2*0 for tubes.

While Lissakf finds with powder with a decreasing surface like cylindrical
cordite, a value of 1*45.

The values found in the above examples are

cylindrical cordite -^^

V— a = 2*3463 ~ ^'&^y
ytk^

for tubular = ""

^^ ,, = 2*12.
1-4031

They will, however, vary in every case.

^ See '
Internal Ballistics,' 1907.
t *
Ordnance and Gunnery,' New York, 1907.

VOL. XCIV.— A. 2 S