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CLASS 12
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Trigonometry
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Trigonometric Identities
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Compound Angles
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Factorization Formula:

Factorization Formulae are used to convert Sum and differences into Product.
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Defactorization Formula:

Defactorization Formulae are used to convert product into sum and

differences
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Double Angle & Half angle Formula
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Double Angle & Half angle Formula
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Triple Angle Formula
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Some Standard Value
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General Solution
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Range of Trigonometric Expression
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Inverse Trigonometry
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MATRICES & DETERMINANTS

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rows
….

….
columns
1. Row Matrix

2. Column Matrix
Equality of Matrices

1. Their orders are equal

3. Zero/Null Matrix

2. Corresponding elements are equal.

4. Square Matrix
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➔ Additive identity
Let A be any matrix, then
A+O=O+A=A
➔ Additive inverse
Let A be any matrix, then
A + (−A) = (−A) + A = O
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ONLY for SQUARE MATRICES
|A| = ±1

|A2| = 0 or 1

|A| = ±1

|AT| = |A|

|AT| = |-A|

|A| = ±1
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Transpose of a Matrix PROPERTIES

Interchanging Rows and Columns

1) (AT)T = A
AT or A′
2) (A 土 B)T = AT 土 BT

3) (KA)T = K(AT)

4) (AB)T = BTAT (Reversal law holds)

5) (AT)m = (Am)T
6) adjAT = (adjA)T
7) (AT)-1= (A-1)-T
8) (ABC)T= CTBTAT
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5. If A is a symmetric matrix, then adjA is also

symmetric.
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Important Concept

If then

Tr(AAT)=a112+a122+a132+a212++a222
+a232+a312+a322+a332
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adj(Am) = (adj A)m

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Submatrix of a Matrix
Let A be a given matrix. The matrix obtained by deleting some
rows and columns of A is called a submatrix of A.

Singular and Non-singular Matrix

● A square matrix A is said to be singular, if |A| = 0.
● A square matrix A is said to be non-singular, if |A| ≠ 0.
● For |A| ≠ 0, |A-1| = 1/|A|
● If A is singular, then adjA is also singular.
● Let A be a non-singular matrix, then AB = AC ⇒ B = C and
BA = CA ⇒ B = C
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Characteristic equation

Cayley Hamilton theorem:

Every matrix satisfies its characteristic equation |A-λI|=0

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Properties of Determinant
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Properties of Determinant

● If |𝛌A| = 𝛌n|A|, where A = [aij]n×n

● If A and B are two square matrices of the
same order, then |AB| = |A||B|
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Homogeneous Equations
Ax =0
|A|≠0
Trivial Solutions |A| =0
x=y=z=0

Infinite Solutions
(trivial) & nontrivial

Important Note:
1. Homogeneous system is always consistent (as (0,0,0) always satisfies it)
2. (0,0,0) is also called trivial solution.
3. Homogeneous system has non-trivial (i.e., non-zero) solution if |A|=0.
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CRAMER’S RULE

D≠0 D=0

At least One D1=D2=D3 = 0 D1=D2=D3 = 0 One of

D1,D2,D3≠ 0 Consistent trivial Consistent D1,D2,D3≠ 0
Consistent solution Infinitely Solutions Inconsistent
Unique non - (except || lines) no solution
zero trivial solution
solution
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Differentiation of Determinant
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Integration of Determinant
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Area of triangle
Using determinants A (x1, y1)

B (x2 , y 2 ) C ( x3 , y 3 )

x1 y1 1
1
Area of Δ = x y 1
2 2 2
x3 y 3 1

NOTE: If Δ = 0, then three points are collinear.

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VECTORS
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Important Point

ple
Exam
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Angle Bisector of Vectors

● Vector along internal angle bisector =

● Vector along external angle bisector =

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3D GEOMETRY
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Distance Formula
● The distance between two points A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) is

√ (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 + (z – z )2

2 1
Section Formula
● The point that divides A (x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) in ratio m:n
INTERNALLY is
mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1 mz2 + nz1
m+n , m+n ,
m+n
● The point that divides A (x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) in ratio m:n
EXTERNALLY is
mx2 - nx1 my2 - ny1 mz2 - nz1
m-n , m-n , m-n
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Centroid Formula
● Centroid of triangle formed by the triangle whose vertices are
A(x1, y1, z1) , B(x2, y2, z2) and C(x3, y3, z3) is

x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3 z1 + z2 + z3
3 3 3
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Skew lines
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=0
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Bisector of Angles between Two Planes

NOTE: Bisector of acute/obtuse angle: First make the constant

terms positive. Then
● a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 > 0⇒ Origin lies on obtuse angle
● a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 < 0⇒ Origin lies in acute angle
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Projection of a Line Segment on a Line
If P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) then the projection of PQ on a
line having direction cosines l, m, n is
|l(x2 - x1) + m(y2 - y1) + n(z2 - z1)|

Q. Find the projection of the line segment

ple joining A(1, 7, -5) and B(-3, 4, -2) on y - axis.
Exam
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Foot of Perpendicular
Foot of perpendicular Q(x’, y’, z’) drawn from the point
P(x1, y1, z1) to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by

P(x1, y1, z1)

Q(x’, y’, z’)

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Image of a Point w.r.t. a Plane
Let P(x1, y1, z1) is a given point and ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given plane.
And let Q(x’, y’, z’) is the image point. then

P(x1, y1, z1)

Q(x’, y’, z’)

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SPHERE

General equation of a sphere is x2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0.

● Centre of sphere = (-u, -v, -w)
● Radius of sphere =
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Continuity & Derivatives

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CONTINUITY
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Geometrical meaning of Differentiability

If LHD = RHD = finite value

i.e graph is smooth

Geometrically implies that there is a

unique tangent at x = a
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Relation between continuity and Differentiability

If function is differentiable, then it is continuous

If function is not continuous then function is not

differentiable
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Reasons of non-differentiability

Discontinuity Vertical Tangent Line Corner

A Function is not differentiable at ‘a’ if A Function is not differentiable at ‘a’ A Function is not differentiable
there is any types of discontinuity at ‘a’. if its graph has a vertical line at ‘a’. at ‘a’ if its graph has a corner or
kink at ‘a’.
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Standard Formulae of Differentiation
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Standard Formulae of Differentiation

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QUOTIENT RULE OF DIFFERENTIATION

The derivative of the quotient of two functions

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DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION OF A
FUNCTION (CHAIN RULE)

If y is a differentiable function of t and t is a differentiable

function of x i.e.
y = f(t) and t = g(x), then
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DIFFERENTIATION OF IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS

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DERIVATIVE OF PARAMETRIC FUNCTIONS
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DIFFERENTIATION OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
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DIFFERENTIATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTIONS

Function Substitution

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)
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Differentiability TABLE

f(x) g(x) f(x) ± g(x) f(x).g(x) and f(x)/g(x)

Differentiable Differentiable Differentiable Differentiable

Differentiable Not Differentiable Not Differentiable May be Differentiable

Not Differentiable Not Differentiable May be Differentiable May be Differentiable

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APPLICATION OF
DERIVATIVES
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Derivative as a Rate Measure

The ratio is average rate of change of ‘y’ with respect to ‘x’

where Δx represents change in ‘x’

& Δy represents change in ‘y’
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Derivative as a Rate Measure

Now, if we apply the limit Δx → 0

represents
instantaneous. rate of change of ‘y’ w.r.t. x, at x = x0
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Tangents

y = f (x )
We know that

P
(x0, y0)

Hence, equation of a tangent at (x0 , y0) is y – y0 = f ′(x0)(x – x0)

f ′(x0) = Slope of tangent at (x0, y0)

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Normals

y = f (x )

P Normal is perpendicular to Tangent

(x0, y0)

Slope of Normal at

Hence, the equation of a Normal at (x0 , y0) is

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Angle of Intersection
Angle between their tangents at the point of
intersection is defined as angle of intersection m1 = f ′(x1)
y = f (x )

θ
Modulus is to m2 = g′(x1)
(x 1 , y 1 )
obtain acute angle

Condition of Orthogonality y = g (x )
m1 m2 = – 1
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INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

A function f (x) is said to be STRICTLY increasing if

f(x2)
x 2 > x 1 ⇒ f (x 2 ) > f (x 1 )
f(x1)
A function f (x) is said to be Increasing if

x1 x2 x 2 > x 1 ⇒ f (x 2 ) ≥ f (x 1 )
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INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

A function f (x) is said to be STRICTLY decreasing if

x 2 > x 1 ⇒ f (x 2 ) < f (x 1 )

f(x1) x2 A function f (x) is said to be Decreasing if

x1
f(x2) x 2 > x 1 ⇒ f (x 2 ) ≤ f (x 1 )
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FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST

f ′(x) > 0 ⇒ f is increasing

f ′(x) < 0 ⇒ f is decreasing

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Critical points

It is collection of points inside the interval for which

1. f ′(x) = 0 End points are

or never critical points!
2. f ′(x) is not defined.
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Monotonic functions
Monotonic means “single behavior”
A function is said to be monotonic in (a , b)
if it is either only increasing or only decreasing in (a , b)

From a to c this function

is not monotonic
a b c

In the interval (a , b) the above function is monotonic increasing

In the interval (b , c) the above function is monotonic decreasing

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Maxima/Minima

Let f be a real valued function and let c be an interior point in the

domain of f , then
(a) c is called a point of local maxima if there is an h > 0 s.t
f(c) > f(x) , for all x ϵ (c ̶ h , c + h)

(b) c is called a point of local minima if there is an h > 0 s.t

f(c) < f(x) , for all x ϵ (c ̶ h , c + h)

c-h c c+h c-h c c+h

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f ′=0 Critical points are basically

f ′ is not defined “contenders” for
f ′=0 maxima/minima

f′>0 f ′=0
f′>0
f′<0 f′<0
f′>0

a x1 x2 x3 x4 b
Here; x1, x2, x3 and x4 are critical points.
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f ′=0 Critical points are basically

f ′ is not defined “contenders” for
f ′=0 maxima/minima

f′>0 f ′=0
f′>0
f′<0 f′<0
f′>0

In closed [a, b] there is a

a x1 x2 x3 x4 b minima at x = a and x = b.

Maxima Minima Maxima

Here; x1, x2, x3 and x4 are critical points.
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The following test applies only to continuous
functions

At a critical point,

If f ′(x) changes sign from positive to negative at x = c,

then f(x) has maxima at x = c

f′>0 f′<0 Maxima at x = c

c
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At a critical point,

If f ′(x) changes sign from negative to positive;

then f(x) has minima at x = c
Minima at x = c

f′<0 f′>0

c
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If f ′(x) does not change sign;

then f(x) has no local extremum.

f′>0 f′ < 0
f′ > 0
f′ < 0

c c
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ERRORS AND APPROXIMATIONS

We know, if Δx → 0, then the quantity

However, if Δx is small, then

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Some definitions

If Absolute Error in x = Δx

Relative Error in

Percentage Error in
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Integration
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Integration
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Properties of Indefinite Integration
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Standard Formula of Integration

● ●

● ●

● ●

●
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TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTIONS

Function Substitution

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)
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Standard Formula of Integration

●
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Some standard integrals :
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Some standard integrals :
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Integration By Parts
d
∫ ∫
f(x) g(x) = f(x) g(x)dx – ∫ dx ∫
f(x)× g(x)dx dx

To solve Integration by Parts we make use of ILATE

rule
I INVERSE
L LOGARITHMIC

A ALGEBRAIC
T TRIGONOMETRIC
E EXPONENTIAL
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Classic Integrals

∫e x
(f(x) + f ′(x)) dx = e x f ( x) + c

∫x f ′ (x) + f (x) dx = x f ( x) + c
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Classic Integrals
Example
∫e x
(sec x + sec x tan x) dx
f (x) = sec x f ′ (x) = sec x tan x

∫e x
(sec x + sec x tan x) dx = ex sec x + c

Example
∫ xsec x tanx + sec x ) dx
f ( x) = sec x ∫ x sec x tanx + sec x dx = x sec x + c
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INTEGRATION SUPER SHORTCUT

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Partial Fraction
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Definite Integration
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Properties of Definite Integration
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Properties of Definite Integration
If f (x) is a periodic function with period T, then f (x + T) = f (x)
T
a + nT
(a)
∫a
f(x) dx = n
∫ 0
f(x) dx ; where n ∈ I

nT T

(b)
∫ f(x) dx = (n – m) ∫f(x) dx ; where n, m ∈ I
mT 0

b + nT b

(c)
∫ f(x) dx = ∫ f(x) dx, where n ∈ I
a + nT a
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Reduction formula :
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Reduction formula :
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LIMIT OF A SUM
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

An equation that involves independent variable, dependent variable and

derivatives of dependent variables is called Differential Equation.

dy
e.g. 2x – 3y + 5 =0
dx

i.e. f x , y , y′ , y′′ = 0
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ORDER OF a DE

It is the order of highest differential coefficient occurring in the equation.

dy
Order = 1
dx
d 2y
Order = 2
dx2
d 3y
Order = 3
dx3
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DEGREE OF a DE
It is the highest power of highest order derivative occurring in it,
after it has been expressed as a polynomial of derivatives.
If we are able to write If we aren’t
it as polynomial of able to write it
derivatives

Degree is the highest power Degree is NOT DEFINED

of highest order derivative
NOTE:
Write the equation as a polynomial of derivatives.
● No negative and fractional powers are allowed.
● Powers of derivative should be natural nos (1, 2, 3 ….. n)
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Formation of DE
Some standard steps are followed
Given : F (x, y, c1, c2, …. cn) = 0 …. (i)
where c1 , c2, …. cn are ‘n’ arbitrary independent constants.
Its DE is formed as :
1. Differentiate equation (i) ‘n’ times

2. Eliminate all arbitrary constants

3. The eliminant obtained is the required DE

and its order will be ‘n’.
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SOLVING OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

e 1 VARIABLE
Typ SEPARABLE

y pe2 HOMOGENEOUS
T
EQUATION

3
Type LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION
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e 1 VARIABLE
Typ SEPARABLE

Variable Separable Differential Equations

f(x) dx = g(y) dy

Solution can be obtained by integrating

each side separately

∫ f(x) dx = ∫ g(y) dy + C.
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e 2
Typ HOMOGENEOUS
EQUATION
dy f (x , y )
A differential equation of the form =
dx g (x , y )

where f & g are homogenous functions of x & y; of the

same degree is called homogeneous equation.

Each term has same degree

eg x3 + y 3 ; x2 + y2 + xy; x3 + y3 + 3x2y + xy2

Degree 3 Degree 2 Degree 3
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3
Type LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION

A LDE, in general, looks like

dy
+ P .
y = Q → LDE In y
dx
Functions of ‘x’ only.

dx
+ P .
x = Q → LDE In x
dy
Functions of ‘y’ only.
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Bernoulli’s Equation
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Q. If a curve y = f(x), passing through the point

(1, 2), is the solution of the differential equation,
2x2dy = (2xy + y2)dx, then is equal to

D
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AREA UNDER THE CURVE

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Symmetry about the x-axis Symmetry about the y-axis Symmetry about both axis

powers of ‘y’ in the All powers of ‘x’ & y in the

powers of ‘x’ in the
equation are even equation are even
equation are even
Symmetry about the line y = x Symmetry in opposite quadrants
equation of the curve remains unaltered
equation of the curve remains unchanged
when ‘x’ and ‘y’ are replaced by ‘-x’ and ‘-y’
on interchanging ‘x’ and ‘y’
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The area bounded by the continuous curve

y = f(x), the axis of x and the ordinates x = a
and x = b (where b > a) is given by
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Probability
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Random Experiment :

An experiment whose outcome cannot be predicted with

certainty is called a random experiment.

Sample Space :

The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is

called the sample space for that experiment.
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Event :
Any subset of a sample space is known as event.

Complements of Event :
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Equally likely Events

Two events are said to be equally likely when chance of

occurrence of one event is equal to chance of occurrence of other.

Exhaustive Events : -

Events are said to be exhaustive if nothing else can occur beyond

them. Union of exhaustive events is equal to sample space.
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Mutually exclusive events :

Two events are said to be mutually exclusive if they cannot occur

together. i.e. their intersection is null set.

Q. A coin is tossed three times, consider the following events.

A: “no heads appears”
B: “exactly one head appears”
C: “at least two head appears”
Do they form a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive
events?
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CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY

The probability of occurrence of event A given that event B

has already occurred is known as conditional probability.
It is denoted by P(A/B)

n(A∩B) P(A∩B)
P(A/B) = P(A/B) =
n(B) P(B)
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MULTIPLICATION THEOREM IN PROBABILITY

P(B) × P(A/B) = P(A∩B)

P(A∩B)
P(A∩B) = P(A) × P(B/A) P(B)

P(I∩II) = P(I) × P(II/I)

P(I∩II∩III) = P(I) × P(II/I) × P(III/I ∩II)

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Independent events
Two events are said to be independent if occurrence or non
occurrence of one does not affect the occurrence or non occurrence
of other.
Note : If A & B are independent events then
❑ P(A/B) = P(A)

P(B) × P(A/B) = P(A∩B) P(A∩B)

P(B)
Note : If A & B are independent events then
❑ P(A ∩ B) = P(A) × P(B)
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Note : If A & B are independent events then
A′ and B ′
A′ and B
A and B ′
are also independent events
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BAYE’S THEOREM

E1 E2 E3 En

A
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TOTAL PROBABILITY LAW

If an event A can occur with n mutually exclusive and

exhaustive events B1, B2, B3, ……… Bn .

Then P(A) = P (A∩B1) + P (A∩B2)+ P (A∩B3)+ …… + P (A∩Bn)

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BAYE’S THEOREM

If an event A can occur with n

mutually exclusive and exhaustive B1 B2 B3 Bn
events B1, B2, B3, ……… Bn .
A

P(B1/A) = P (A∩B1) / P(A)

P(A) = P(B1) × P(A/B1) + P(B2) × P(A/B2) + …… + P(Bn) × P(A/Bn)

P(B1) × P(A/B1)
P(B1/A) =
P(B1) × P(A/B1) + P(B2) × P(A/B2) + …… + P(Bn) × P(A/Bn)
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De Morgan’s Laws
(i) (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ Bc
(ii)(A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ Bc

Distributive Laws

(i) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
(ii)A ∩ (B ∪ C) =(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
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Random Variable
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Probability Distribution
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BERNOULLI’S TRIAL

1. The number of observations or trials is fixed.

2. Each observation or trial is independent.
3. The probability of success (tails, heads, fail or pass) is exactly
the same from one trial to another.
4. It can only have two outcomes.
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Binomial Distribution

A trial having only 2 possible outcomes is known as

Bernoulli’s trial
Let probability of success = p
p+q=1
Probability of failure = q

If this experiment with same probabilities is

repeated ‘n’ times

Then probability of ‘r’ success, P(r) = nCr pr qn – r

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Mean, Variance and Standard deviation