PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF

TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

(ARTICLE REVIEW)

Individual Submission By:

Prapti Kothari
INTRODUCTION

The author of this article is Lalita Prasad Vidyarthi, a prolific Indian anthropologist who gave
honor and glory to anthropology in India. He was born in a village near Patna, with multi-castes.
He had observed annoyance and constraints on caste behavior from the very childhood for
owning a middle caste position in the village. Here, the author is concerned with the scheduled
tribes policy, with special reference to Bihar. This paper was also presented by the Parliamentary
Committee on S.C. at the National Seminar. & H.T. Held in Delhi May 9-11, 1973.

The successive Five Year Plans implemented special programs for welfare and growth of
Schedule Tribes. It was important to consider about social policy guidelines for scheduled castes,
scheduled tribes, and denotified tribes that make up the poorest segment of the population of
India. They constitute the matrix of India's deprivation from the ecological, cultural, and
educational angles. Historically they were exposed to the worst form of oppression and social
inequality.

Taking into account the common pattern of deprivation and oppression, the two ethnic groups of
scheduled tribes and scheduled castes are grouped together to identify their problems, and
ameliorate their socio-economic conditions. According to the author, this approach is
unacceptable, because it obscures the correct interpretation of their issues and then the measures
taken for their improvement are insufficient and inaccurate. To illustrate his view, ecologically,
while the tribals are isolated, the scheduled castes are exposed; demographically, the former are
concentrated in some continuous geographical areas while the latter are scattered in high caste
villages; economically, the former are bound to land and forest, while the latter are largely
dependent on high caste villagers; culturally speaking, the former enjoy a distinct lifestyle
distinguished by their distinct cultures, heritage, love of independence and reverence for self-
identity, while the latter hold the lowest rank in the caste hierarchy and suffer from social
impairment and lack of esteem for themselves. In view of these factors, the two classes suffer
from two distinct types of diseases for a social doctor, and thus deserve specific treatment.

The central and the respective governments have made efforts to alter the fate of tribes living in
different parts of India. What the Union Governments have done in the name of tribal welfare
can be had from several reports1 like annual reports of the commissioner castes and scheduled
tribes from 1950 onward, report of Classes Commission 1955, reports of the study team on social
backward classes 1959, report of the committee on special tribal blocks 1960, report of the
employment of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes 1964, committee on tribal economy in
forest areas 1967, report team on tribal development program 1969, reports of the committee on
the welfare of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes a few other reports released by the
respective state government. These reports, as well as the past experience of the tribals in
the nation, it becomes evident that the desired results have not been achieved, and our goal; to do
good to the tribals has been suffered at three levels: (i) strategy, (ii) implementation, and (iii)
recruitment training.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

• What are the key shortcomings of earlier proposals in tribal affairs?

• What approach is needed in the area of tribal development?

• How different is welfare from development?

• How the ownership of land among the tribals is governed by a set of customary
rights?

• What is the dependence of tribals on the forests?

• How has the tribal population been affected by industrial urbanization?

• What are the aspects of Tribal Education?

1
Reports of the Study Team on Tribal Development Programmes, Planning Commission, Delhi, 1969
METHODOLOGY

The author has embraced a purely doctrinal and qualitative approach for thorough analysis of
existing data through studies, research papers, observation of focus groups, and surveys.

REASONS FOR POOR IMPACT

The key shortcomings of the earlier proposals can be summed up as follows:

• In spite of constitutional provisions, negligence and lack of special consideration for

tribal and scheduled regions.
• Very insufficient allocation of funds to cover all aspects of tribal development in both
general and special sectors; As in the third program, for example, the per capita spending
on tribals comes to Rs. 13.08 crores when both the state and the central sectors are added
together.
• A tribal development block's main programs with a scope of twenty-five thousand tribal
people per district were not significant enough to bring all the resources necessary for
their complete growth into the tribal areas.
• Insufficient administrative machinery for integrating all sectoral programs in tandem with
the lack of inter- and intra-departmental co-attachments within the central sectoral levels.
• Lack of successful government personnel policy reflected in the regular relocation of key
workers in administration, insufficient willingness to work in and with tribal areas, lack
of professional training in tribal culture and the inculcation of the spirit of social service
in them.
• Lack of policy dependence on the adoption of scientific planning and on empirical results
to ensure compliance.
• Unnecessary tribal politicization and the inability of tribal communities to put in
committed, articulated, and educated local leadership.

NEEDED AREA DEVELOPMENT APPROACH

Following the Government of India's policy, the Planning Commission formed a Steering Group
for the Welfare of Backward Classes under the chairmanship of the Minister of State for
Planning with a range of Task Forces and Study Groups on Tribal Area and Tribal Communities
Development.

The constitutional configuration of the need for "scheduled areas" re-excludes those tribal areas
which, despite their tribal concentration and eco-system, may have been considered "scheduled."
Then, tribal area divisions under regional planning blocks are subject to inspection once again.
Such units, previously delineated on national standards, were late realized by the Indian
government as too small to plan the area's integrated economic growth. In the new area
development approach these tribal development blocks that constitute 'micro-area' for the
purposes of planning and enforcement. A group of clustered tribal development blocks can be
called 'meso-areas.' Such a meso-area can fall within or overlap with the district boundary.
Within an even greater area of tribal concentration, say fifty percent can be called a 'region of
macro-development.' A categorization of extremely backward and retrograde areas may be
envisaged within this macro-development zone. In case of Bihar, for example, the existing
regions of Chotanagpur and Santhal Parganas may be carved out as such a development region.

The author feels that the requirements needed to identify "regions" and "backwardness" will need
to be analyzed with greater care. Nonetheless, the following diagnostic features can be suggested
here:

• Proportion of tribal population involved in the primary economic sector (hunting and
gathering, food-gathering, shifting cultivation, forestry,mining, crafts, etc.).
• The percentage of literacy to be calculated based on average state literacy as well as
average tribal literacy across India.
• Eco-social system- topography, soil, environment, drainage, population density, existence
of supply of labour,etc.
• Health and sanitary conditions.
• Nature and extent of drinking water supply.
• Irrigation and power.
• Industry.
 • Road and transport.
• Percentage of urban population, employment in urbanized industries.

WELFARE VRS. DEVELOPMENT

In addition to embracing the area-growth above the definition of "welfare" requires that of
"development." The existing approach didn't produce the desired results. This focus on tribal and
territorial advancement would entail the shift of government policy, reorganization of their
offices, and rigorous training programs for the officers expected to operate of tribal areas. We
need to review and improve the entire training program in the tribal areas. The dimension of their
implementation can also be worked out along with the issue of personnel policies. It's also
agreed that the tribal areas will not be used as postings for punishment. It is regrettable that this
dimension of personnel management with respect to trial areas is insensitive, if not acquiescent.
Therefore, it is the institutional basis for enforcing policies which are agreed in principle for
tribal areas.

Then, in the light of the new tribal development plan, these and other relevant issues will be
carefully studied with the aid of tribal culture, tribal economy, staff management, and tribal
administration experts and a blue print will be prepared for that purpose. A scientifically
developed project provides the administration to attain tribal growth target.

LAND, CUSTOMARY LAWS AND LAND ALIENATION

One collection of customary rights regulates land ownership among the tribals. While it is true
that individual ownership is prevalent by and Bihar, the example of group ownership, either
controlled by the village council or settled with the chief, is not uncommon either. Ownership is
prevalent among the Maler Raj Mahal. In many agricultural tribes the village group as such owns
certain forms of land and the rules of inheritance in matters of detail differ from situation to
situation. It was also noted that there has been less alienation of land where the land is owned by
the council, as in the case of the Malers or in Bastar area.

It is important, first of all, to research the specific pattern of land alienation covering all of the
planned areas. A follow-up study is also required on the number of cases lodged and disposed off
by the tribal court and land restored.

Related with land alienation is the debt issue among the tribals who have pledged to get their
land in cash and kind to the moneylenders for agricultural inputs. The Bihar Government
Welfare Department conducted a large-scale survey of tribal indebtedness in Bihar with the
financial assistance of the central government. The survey was good enough to familiarize the
administration with the essence of indebtedness, and to use it to enact legislative initiatives and
devise policies to avoid exploitation and corruption on this account.

TRIBALS AND THE FOREST

It is well established that the tribals rely on whether forest dwellers or those whose economy is
supplemented by forest produce. A study 2 in Bihar reveals that while forest dwelling tribes such
as the Birhor and the Maler rely on the forest to the extent of 90%, farming tribes such as the
Munda and Oraon rely on it to the extent of 45%. The Regulation of 1952, requires the local
tribes to use the forest for other concessions. Such concessions include:

1. Right to take water for use in agriculture.

2. For agricultural purposes the construction of wells or canals.

3. Open grazing (under passes) in open woodland.

4. Stone and soil removals for domestic or agricultural use.

5. Removal of timbers / bamboos / breeds / canes, etc., for building and repairing buildings, and
for farm implements.

2
Rai, B.K. Nature and Man : A Study of Interaction between Man and Forest in Chota-nagpur, unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,
6. Collecting and extracting headload of dead wood for household use.

7. Excluding endangered fauna, fishing and hunting.

8. Shifting Cultivation.

9. Minor forest produce collection for domestic consumption and sale.

Often these concessions are not easily and consistently given, and the tribals are abused on one
pretext or the other by the lower level forest officials. Similar cases of the excise officers being
abused are numerous. Studying the essence of tribal forest exploitation and the excise agents, and
designing adequate machinery to avoid them, would be worthwhile.

TRIBALS AND INDUSTRIALISATION

After the First World War, and particularly after Indian Independence, the speed of
industrialization and, with it, that of urbanization has accelerated correspondingly. Middle India's
tribal belt is in the grip of industrial revolution and is subject to factory-based urban development
as a consequence of rapid urbanization comparatively in a short span of time. In some cases, it
has resulted in over-urbanization that is reflected in congestion and overcrowding, slum
development, primarily in industrial and mining towns, lack of electricity, educational,
recreational and other or unemployment facilities. Overall the mining towns but industrial
services are largely lacking. Many forest towns also lack urban infrastructure, and in most cases
the public facilities have been reported as deplorable. Reports of the socio-cultural consequences
of industrialization carry the severity of the challenge of industrial nomadism, slum culture,
inadequate urban planning, and industrial administration to be discussed with all gravity and
sincerity.

Although it is not feasible or desirable to stop the industrialization process, the planners must
make built-in protections for the welfare of the planned tribes in these areas. In India
industrialization has impaired tribal culture in some parts of the country. The tribals are typical
natives to some parts of the country, particularly where there are forests because they rely on
them for their livelihood. Rather of consulting the tribals before making mining or heavy
industry decisions, forests were denuded and agricultural land was usurped.

TRIBALS AND EDUCATION

Our national tribal welfare programs have long recognized the value of education as a
development agency, as well as a source of jobs. A larger proportion of the grant was spent in
primary, pre-matric, and post-matric education from both state and central sectors. The loss and
drop-outs in tribal education, however, were equally magnificent. Despite of this, only those
parts of the tribes which were prepared to take advantage of this system enjoyed the necessary
benefits.

There are numerous aspects of tribal education-teaching medium, textbooks, teachers, audo-
visual method, school forms, etc.-which the NCERT tribal unit has studied extensively.
However, there are several problems which are very evident and need to be carefully included in
the Fifth Five Year Plan. Training of the girls among the tribals should be given top priority. It
will be beneficial to bring about social and economic change within the tribal families through
their women's education. Second, the various jungle tribes that have been alluded earlier are still
at the pre-literacy stage. And this is so primarily due to their alienation, economic degeneracy,
and culturally specific problems. For example, the nomadic Birhor would not be illiterate if the
school were to travel from jungle to jungle with them too.

The creation of residential schools, midday meals, etc. has solved a small portion of tribal boys'
problem. It is also being suggested that setting up a network of night schools would enable the
tribals to study after their day's work in the evening. This also matches the genius of tribal
culture, as tribals are used in the evening to attend their youth dormitories that operated as
traditional schools.
CONCLUSION

It is a positive augur that the Parliamentary Forum on Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes,
on the eve of the Fifth Plan, took together the interested MPs and State legislators, concerned
ministers and officials from both central and state governments, well-known social workers, and
respected experts and scholars. To conclude, the desired effect has not been rendered by India's
socio-economic improvements to the scheduled tribes. To increase the pace and counter the tribal
communities' poverty crisis, such an insipid, unscientific, and unempathetic approach to tribal
problems has to go. The use of research materials has been the least favored by the State
governments in particular. Until now, there has been a disparity between scholars, administrators
and tribal members.

The path of implementing a new strategy for fulfilling constitutional obligations is to be

developed at the policy, implementation, and personal scales. It is obvious in the light of a
significant objectives but poor results, that the whole issue of tribal growth requires a fresh
look. It is high time a new look was given to identify the scheduled tribes and scheduled areas in
terms of ecosystems and the scales of developmental. The regions of tribal concentration are to
be congregated into development zones, taking into account area size, population, ethnic
composition, and other natural resource factors, level of growth, and other related factors. They
are to be further graded for the purposes of planning and executing schemes through the correct
administrative system in terms of meso and micro regions.

Development is required over welfare. For tribal development, both the general and
supplementary sectors should be emphasized equally in the allocation of funds, and free flow of
funds from both sectors should be ensured in order to improve the tribal region. It would be
beneficial to conduct a comprehensive long-term analysis of the tribal communities' customary
rights and to prepare records of rights for those areas for which no such document is available
and the question of indebtedness needs to be addressed. It would be worthwhile to set up a team
of experts to discuss the various consequences of land alienation and to increase the pace of land
restoration by either conciliatory or legal process. This will also be the team's duty to investigate
the quantum land displacement that has occurred in the past and suggest ways of preventing it in
the present time.
Permissions to use forests are not easily and universally given to the tribal communities, and are
abused on one pretext or the other by lower-level forest officials. It is also proposed that the
forest department should also contribute at least five percent of its revenue to the development of
the tribal villagers residing in the departments should manage the activities and ensure the flow
of funds.

Industrialization must not kill the rights and dignity of man. It should be possible to formulate
the plans of industrial development in such a manner that the industrial framework can absorb
and rehabilitate the uprooted tribals. To avoid further invasion of tribal land and exploitation of
tribal resources, drastic steps would have to be envisaged. Although a few in-depth studies have
been performed on this issue; there is a further need to examine the spectrum and scope of this
issue and also to suggest ways and means to tackle it.

Education and economy are indivisible in tribal society, and a significant proportion of loss and
dropout can be clarified in terms of the families' use of the children for economic purposes. The
only identity left with today's common tribals is their existential state, which is rising poverty
and unemployment. Specific and comprehensive projects to eliminate the darkness of full
analphabetism from these primitive tribal groups spread in various pockets in different states of
India need to be worked out.

Illiteracy and destabilization through land dispossession destruction and rising marginalization.
The loss of primeval features is immense. The only bond that holds tribals united is
constitutional protections.

REFERENCES

• Reports of the Study Team on Tribal Development Programmes, Planning Commission,

Delhi, 1969

• Rai, B.K. Nature and Man : A Study of Interaction between Man and Forest in Chota-
nagpur, (unpublished) Ph.D. Thesis,

• VIDYARTHI, L.P. "Problems and Prospects of Tribal Development in India." Indian

Anthropologist 2, no. 2 (1972)