Applied Thermal Engineering 146 (2019) 768–774

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Research Paper

Energy consumption investigation of electromagnetic valve train at gas T

pressure conditions
⁎
Xinyu Fana, , Siqin Changb, Jiayu Lub, Liang Liub, Shouguang Yaoa, Min Xiaoa
a
School of Energy and Power, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, 2 Mengxi Street, Jingkou District, Zhenjiang 212000, China
b
School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, 200 Xiaolingwei Street, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 210094, China

H I GH L IG H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Opening of EMVT has a delay of

0.2 ms per 0.1 MPa with combustion
gas pressure.
• Changing laws of EMVT’s energy
conversion is obtained with variable
gas pressure.
• Gas pressure causes increase of copper
loss and additional differential pres-
sure loss.

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Electromagnetic valve train (EMVT) shows enormous potential for the improvement of IC engine thermal effi-
Electromagnetic valve train ciency. The combustion gas pressure is one of challenges with EMVT applied to exhaust system, which makes
Combustion gas pressure serious disturbances to the opening performance and increases the energy consumption of EMVT. Therefore,
Opening performance coupled models between mathematical model of EMVT and engine thermodynamic model are carried out to
Energy consumption
study the effect of combustion gas pressure on EMVT. The experiments are established based on electromagnetic
Electromagnetic linear load simulator
linear load simulator innovatively, which has fast dynamic response and high loading precision. With the
electromagnetic linear load simulator, realistic combustion gas pressure conditions can be produced accurately.
Simulation and experimental results show robust valve opening performance for large variations in combustion
gas pressure, and the opening transition time keeps a constant of 3 ms at different gas pressure conditions, but
the valve opening has a delay of 0.2 ms per 0.1 MPa. Further, we get the conclusion that gas pressure would
cause an increase of EMVT’s energy consumption. At the condition of 0.6 MPa gas pressure, energy consumption
has an increase of 85.6%, which mainly embodies in the differential pressure loss and increase of copper loss,
while the iron loss and mechanical loss remains approximately constants.

1. Introduction energy vehicles is unsatisfactory, energy conservation of internal

combustion engine has to be one of mostly research topics in power
With the increasing concern for world energy crisis, high crude oil industry. As one kind of fully variable valve train, electromagnetic
price and greenhouse gas CO2 emissions, while the popularity of new valve trains actuate the valves by employing electromagnetic system in

Abbreviations: EMVT, electromagnetic valve train; IC, internal combustion; EVO, exhaust valve opening; DSP, digital signal processor; PWM, pulse width mod-
ulation
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: fanxy@just.edu.cn (X. Fan), changsq@njust.edu.cn (S. Chang), liuliang@njust.edu.cn (L. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.10.048
Received 8 June 2018; Received in revised form 9 September 2018; Accepted 11 October 2018
Available online 11 October 2018
1359-4311/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Fan et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 146 (2019) 768–774

order to regulate the valve events independently and controllably

[1–5]. Thus the engine pumping loss can be reduced and volumetric
efficiency can be increased significantly [6–8]. A number of studies
have proved that the variable valve timing technology can potentially
improve engine power, reduce exhaust emissions and fuel consumption
[9–13].
The moving coil electromagnetic linear actuator [14,15] is the core
component of EMVT, which is an integrated system including me-
chanics, electronic and magnetism. The energy consumption compo-
nent of EMVT is complicated and also changing with the working
conditions. The energy consumption of EMVT not only relates to the
operation stability of system, but also has a significant influence on the
fuel economy of engine. At present, the researches of EMVT mostly
concerning about the engine intake system [16–18], there are still some
difficulties for it to be used on exhaust system. According to the ex-
perimental results of a traditional four-cylinder gasoline engine, typical
gas pressure focused on the exhaust valve at the EVO timing achieves
0.5 MPa and more at full load conditions. The gas pressure has a great
effect on the motion performance and energy consumption of EMVT.
Both Ryan R. Chladny [19,20] and Junfeng Zhao [21] have investigated
the impact of gas pressure on EMVT, and got conclusions that the
system stability can be improved with the optimization of control al- Fig. 1. Structure and prototype of EMVT.
gorithm, but the variation of energy consumption was not discussed.
There is no clear standard in specific definition of EMVT’s energy where I is the current; u is the voltage applied to the actuator; L is the
consumption form since it is a structural actuator. In essence, it is an inductance; R is the resistance; km is the force sensitivity of the actuator;
integrated system including mechanics, electronic and magnetism si- v is the velocity of the valve; m is the moving mass; c is the viscous
milar as general motor, so the EMVT’s energy consumption form can be friction damping coefficient; x is the position of the valve and Fg is the
defined based on motor for reference. Motor’s energy consumption gas force focused on exhaust valve. The gas force depends on the cy-
mainly consists of copper loss, iron loss, mechanical loss and other linder pressure, valve area and so on, which can be described by:
losses [22,23], so does the EMVT. Working by Jianguo Dai [24,25]
demonstrated the energy consumption composition and distribution of Fg = Cgf p (x , p0 , pb , φ) Av (2)
electromagnetic linear actuator under steady state conditions, but the
where Cgf is gas force coefficient during exhaust valve opening; p is the
influences of combustion gas pressure and variable valve conditions
cylinder pressure, which depends on the valve position x, initial pres-
were neglected. Then in this article, the effect of gas pressure on EMVT
sure p0 (cylinder pressure at EVO timing), backpressure pb (average gas
is analyzed deeply, and the changing laws of EMVT’s energy conversion
pressure behind exhaust valve) and crank angle φ; Av is the valve area.
are carried out under different gas pressure conditions. Thus, it will lay
To achieve better system performance, the motion control of the
a solid foundation for the follow-up study on camless engine’s con-
EMVT is based on the algorithm of inverse system method [14,15]. The
sumption reduction.
inverse system is a feedback linearization method to achieve linear-
ization of non-linear system, which is investigated by using proprietary
2. Modeling of EMVT with combustion gas pressure SIMULINK models and experimental test. It has been proved that the
EMVT with inverse control system can achieve fully variable valve
Models aim to research the effect of gas pressure on EMVT, which motion and a seating velocity of 0.05 m/s.
include mathematical model of EMVT, control algorithm of EMVT and Then the engine thermodynamic model would be carried out to si-
gas pressure model. The gas pressure which is decided by the engine mulate the gas exchange during the exhaust valve opening period, and
thermodynamic cycle will affect the valve motion, thus the coupled the gas force focused on exhaust valve can be calculated. In the model,
models between actuator system and engine thermodynamic model the mass flow rates at valve ports are calculated refer to the energy
would be carried out. equation for steady state orifice flow.

2.1. Simulation models 2.2. Coupling methodology and results

The EMVT based on moving coil electromagnetic linear actuator For the engine with EMVT, the processes of gas exchange in cylinder
which consists of inner yoke, outer yoke, permanent magnets, a valve and valve motion are interacting and controlling with each other.
and winding coils. Fig. 1 shows the structure and prototype of the Hence, the coupled models between EMVT system and engine ther-
EMVT to be researched. While the permanent magnetics are designed modynamic model are obtained to analyze the effect of gas pressure on
with the halbach magnet array [26] to maximize the magnetic field system performance. The coupling methodology and calculative stra-
intensity, the valve is actuated by the moving coil directly and the tegies are shown in Fig. 2.
driving force is almost proportional to the amount of current. Valve’s motion curve is generated by the signal from system control
EMVT is an integrated system including mechanical, electrical and block, and then the engine thermodynamic block is activated and in-
magnetic subsystems. As mentioned in the previous study [14,15], the itialized to simulate the gas exchange in cylinder. Meanwhile the
mathematical model can be described as changes of gas pressure are feedback to the EMVT and system control
block. At last, the law of valve’s motion at gas pressure conditions
u k R
⎧ I ̇ = L − Lm v− L I would be carried out.
⎪ Accuracy of the engine thermodynamic model is validated by the
km c Fg
⎨ v ̇ = m I − m v− m experiments of prototype engine in the previous study [13], and the
⎪ ẋ = v (1)
⎩ model can make the predictions with the errors less than 5%. With the

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X. Fan et al.
Fig. 2. Diagram of the coupled models.
Fig. 3. Relation curves of valve motion and gas pressure.
preliminary calculation, the relation curves of the EMVT’s motion and
different gas pressure are described in Fig. 3. Because of the non-
linearity and complexity of engine thermodynamic model, the gas
pressure is simplified to a function of initial pressure p0 and valve po-
sition x based on the method of linear fitting, which can be described
by:
Fg = Cgf (p0 −pb ) Av e−600x
(3)
As Fig. 3 shows, the simplified results have small prediction errors
compared to the simulated results. With the equation (3), it identifies
the driving demand of EMVT and provides a theoretical reference for
the following experiments.
3. Experimental approach and setup
A test-bench is designed and fabricated utilizing a linear load si-
mulator. By making use of a linear load simulator, realistic gas pressure
conditions based on the equation (3) can be produced to evaluate the
system performance and energy conversion laws of EMVT without the
additional complications or risk of damaging a research test engine
setup. Fig. 4 illustrates the test bench configuration and principle. The
tests are carried out at room temperature.
A linear load simulator based on the moving coil electromagnetic
linear actuator is developed innovatively and originally in this study,
which could load the linear force accurately through the current control
of the moving coil. Considering the gas pressure changes following
valve lift, the moving coils of EMVT and linear load simulator are de-
signed with rigidity connection. However, because of the passive fol-
lowing movement of moving coil, the dynamic load force is hard to
measure and calculate. Considering this defect, a force transducer is
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Applied Thermal Engineering 146 (2019) 768–774
Fig. 4. Test-bench configuration and principle.
equipped to collect the force signals which imposed on the stator of
linear load simulator according to Newton’s Third Law.
In the experiment system, a fixed-point TMS320F2812 DSP with a
clock frequency of 150 MHz is chosen as the digital controller. In order
to ensure the synchronous movements, both of the EMVT and linear
load simulator are controlled by the PWM outputs of event manager A
in DSP. Also, a position sensor (Schaevitz 500 LCIT) is mounted by the
side of EMVT to provide the position feedback. Current sensors
(TBC10SY) and voltage sensors (SMIV ± 50DCE) are used to measure
the input current and voltage of EMVT and linear load simulator.
Based on the mathematical analysis of linear load simulator, the
surplus force [27] plays a great negative impact on the performance of
the loading system, which mainly include the inertia force and counter
electromotive force. Therefore, a feedback-feedforward control scheme
according to the invariance theory is proposed to suppress the surplus
force, which makes the loading system has fast dynamic response and
high loading precision. Figs. 5 and 6 show the variable output force
results, while the moving coil remains at the same location. The re-
ference output forces are electronic signals with step changes and
continuous changes respectively.
As indicated above, the linear load simulator could load different
kinds of force with fast response time (⩽8 ms) and high tracking pre-
cision (⩽ ±2 N) based on the control scheme of feedback-feedforward,
which lays a good foundation for the following studies.
4. Results and discussion
Based on the simulation models and experimental approach, both
the simulation and experimental results will be given and compared.
The EMVT is operated with a typical condition, which the maximum
valve lift is 8 mm and opening transition time (the time in which valve
moves from 5% to 95% of the travel) is 3 ms. During the valve opening
period, linear load simulator would simulate the gas force loads based
on the Eq. (3). While Table 1 shows the ratio of gas pressure in cylinder
Fig. 5. Output force with step changes.
X. Fan et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 146 (2019) 768–774

Fig. 6. Output force with continuous changes.

Table 1
The ratio of gas pressure in cylinder and loading force.
Gas pressure in cylinder (MPa) Loading force (N)

0.6 −178
0.5 −142.4
0.4 −106.7
0.3 −71.2
0.2 −35.6

and loading force, and the negative value means an opposite direction.
The loading force produced by linear load simulator has a unique
character, which is at the maximum before the exhaust valve opening. Fig. 7. Comparison of simulation and experiment: (a) Loading force; (b) Valve
Once the exhaust valve is opened, the loading force would decay ra- lift.
pidly. So the changes of loading force are controlled based on the signal
of valve lift, and it should be loaded to the maximum value before the
mean speed of valve movement. With the different gas pressure, the
exhaust valve opening. Fig. 7 shows the results with a reference of
exhaust valve has an invariable opening transition time about 3 ms. We
−58 N. The experimental loading force and valve lift are illustrated and
can find out the reasons with the analyses of valve velocity, as shown in
compared with the simulation results respectively.
Fig. 8(c). Under the condition of −34 N (the gas pressure is 0.2 MPa),
The linear load simulator operates at 0 ms without the working of
the valve velocity achieves the maximum about 3.1 m/s at the moment
EMVT, and the loading force is loaded to the reference value of −58 N
of 16.6 ms. With the increasing of loading force, the rise of valve ve-
accurately. Then at the time of 15 ms, exhaust valve is opening in the
locity is delayed, which means a hysteresis of the valve opening lift.
presence of loading force. During this period, the exhaust valve opens
While under the condition of -143 N (the gas pressure is 0.5 MPa), the
quickly and precisely, both the simulated and experimental transition
valve velocity achieves the maximum about 3.4 m/s at the moment of
times for valve opening are about 3 ms. Ten cycles of experimental
18.3 ms, and the peak velocity has an increase of 0.3 m/s and the ar-
valve lifts are superimposed in Fig. 7(b). The result shows that the valve
riving time has a delay of 1.7 ms compares with the condition of
profile is quite repeatable, which also proves the accuracy of coupled
−34 N.
models and strong robustness of the valve motion control while subject
So we can get the conclusions that, in the presence of gas pressure, a
to the cylinder pressure disturbances. In Fig. 7(a), the loading force
lager driving force is offered by the controller of EMVT, the opening of
reduces rapidly following the change of valve lift, which shows that the
exhaust valve would be delayed and the mean velocity of valve motion
controller of linear load simulator exhibits excellent tracking perfor-
has a decrease at the first half of valve lift. With the valve opening, the
mance and high dynamic response speed.
gas pressure decreases rapidly, and the mean velocity of valve motion
Specifically, the control performance and the effect of gas pressure
has an increase at the second half of valve lift. Taken together the
on valve motion would be evaluated over a range of different operating
variation of valve velocity at the entire stage, the opening transition
pressures during steady engine operations. The reference values of
time of electromagnetic exhaust valve remains constant with variable
loading force are set as −34 N, −75 N, −110 N and −143 N, which is
gas pressure.
equivalent to the gas pressure about 0.2 MPa, 0.31 MPa, 0.41 MPa and
Fig. 9 shows the coil current of electromagnetic exhaust valve train,
0.5 MPa. While the maximum valve lift is 8 mm, and the experimental
the current required to pull the valve open increases with the augment
results are shown in Figs. 8 and 9.
of gas pressure. Under the condition of −143 N (the gas pressure is
The linear load simulator operates in advance until the loading force
0.5 MPa), the peak current reaches 15.05 A, which has an increase of
reaches the steady reference value, then the exhaust valve opens at
26.9% compares with the condition of −34 N. This has a considerable
15 ms. Fig. 8(a) displays the test results of different loading force, which
effect on the energy consumption as detailed in the following discus-
lead to a distinct hysteresis of the valve opening. As shown in Fig. 8(b),
sion.
a larger loading force means a longer delay time. At the condition of
−143 N (the gas pressure is 0.5 MPa), the opening of exhaust valve has
a delay of 0.6 ms compared with the condition of −34 N (the gas
5. Energy conversion of EMVT
pressure is 0.2 MPa), which has a gradient of 0.2 ms per 0.1 MPa.
The results also indicate that the gas pressure does not slows the
Combustion gas pressure has a significant impact on the energy

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Fig. 9. The coil current for gas pressure from 0.2 to 0.5 MPa.

The mechanical loss Wmech depends on the mechanical motion of

moving coil, which can be shown as below.

Wmech = ∫ Ikm vdt (5)

The copper loss is defined as the winding loss produced in a power-
on state, which can be obtained by integrating the product of squared
current and resistance.

Wcu = ∫ I 2Rdt (6)

The iron loss is generated in the changing magnetic field, which
mainly includes eddy-current loss We, hysteresis loss Wh and stray loss
Wex.
Wfe = We + Wh + Wex (7)
For the electromagnetic exhaust valve train, the gas pressure leads
to a high transient current in moving coil, which will change the dis-
tribution of energy consumption. And the additional energy is con-
sumed to overcome the gas pressure during opening motion of exhaust
valve, as shown below.
Welec = Wmech + Wcu + Wfe + Wg (8)
where Wg is defined as differential pressure loss, which can be obtained.

Wg = ∫ Fg vdt (9)

5.2. Energy consumption without gas pressure

In a first set of experiments, the analysis of energy consumption is

Fig. 8. Exhaust valve opening performance for gas pressures from 0.2 to
0.5 MPa. (a) Loading force (b) valve lift (c) valve velocity.
consumption of electromagnetic exhaust valve train, which relates to
the economic advantages and operation stability of EMVT. In this sec-
tion, the changing laws of EMVT’s energy conversion would be carried
out under different gas pressure conditions.
5.1. Distribution of energy consumption
carried out without the gas pressure. And the maximum valve lift is
8 mm, the transition time is 3 ms. Table 2 summarizes the energy
consumption of electromagnetic exhaust valve at different period. It is
found that the energy consumption is mainly consumed in the process
of opening and closing motion. By contrast, losses during the holding
period are only taking a small part. This is attributed to the variation of
coil current, larger electromagnetic force is required to drive the valve
opening and closing than the holding period.
The valve lifts with different opening duration can be obtained by
changing the control parameters of EMVT, and the differences of energy

In the camless engine, the operating of EMVT is also driven by Table 2

electric energy, which will cause energy losses in the process of elec- Energy consumption at different period.
tromechanical energy conversion inevitably. Based on the previous Energy (J)
research [28], the distribution of energy consumption can be obtained.
Opening period 0.51
Welec = Wmech + Wcu + Wfe (4) Holding period 0.04
Closing period 0.63
where Welec is the input energy, Wmech is the mechanical loss, Wcu is the Energy/cycle 1.18
copper loss and Wfe is the iron loss.

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X. Fan et al.
Fig. 10. Energy consumption of EMVT with variable transition time.
consumption are nearly negligible because the energy is mainly con-
sumed in the opening and closing period, this also can be verified by the
experimental results. Fig. 10 shows the energy consumption of EMVT
with variable transition time. The valve opening time and opening
duration are held constant.
We can get the conclusion that, the copper loss takes a largest
percentage, the iron loss contributes a small percentage and the me-
chanical loss remains the original status about 0.29 J per cycle. With the
increase of transition time, energy consumption of EMVT has a decrease
obviously. As shown in Fig. 10, the energy consumption decreases from
1.18 J to 0.7 J per cycle when the transition time changes from 3 ms to
5 ms, which mainly in the decline of copper loss and iron loss, by 47.2%
and 69.7% respectively.
5.3. Energy consumption with gas pressure
In a second set of experiments the loading force is −130 N (the gas
pressure is 0.47 MPa). The maximum valve lift is 8 mm, the transition
time is 3 ms. Fig. 11 shows result of the differential pressure loss, about
80% of the differential pressure loss occurs in the first half of valve lift.
This is because that the gas pressure decays rapidly once the valve is
opening. At this condition, the differential pressure loss is about 0.23 J
per cycle.
Moreover, the gas pressure would change the distribution of EMVT’s
energy consumption. As shown in Fig. 12, the total energy consumption
has an increase of 0.58 J compares with the condition of no gas
Fig. 11. The differential pressure loss with 0.47 MPa gas pressure.
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Applied Thermal Engineering 146 (2019) 768–774
Fig. 12. The energy consumption with 0.47 MPa gas pressure.
pressure, which mainly embodies in the differential pressure loss and
significant increase of copper loss by 79.8%. By contrast, the changes of
iron loss and mechanical loss are virtually invisible.
For further investigates, experiments are carried out with variable
gas pressure from 0.1 to 0.6 MPa. Fig. 13 shows the increments of the
total energy consumption, copper loss and differential pressure loss
caused by gas pressure. A higher gas pressure leads to a larger incre-
ment of energy consumption. At the condition of 0.6 MPa gas pressure,
the increment of energy consumption reaches to 1.01 J, in that the
copper loss increases by 0.73 J and the differential pressure loss is
0.32 J. Therefore, at this condition, the energy consumption of EMVT is
about 2.19 J per cycle, which has an increase of 85.6% compares with
no gas pressure condition. Meanwhile, we gets the conclusion that the
increments of EMVT’s energy consumption can be considered as the
sum of differential pressure loss and increment of copper loss ap-
proximately, which is shown as below.
ΔWelec ≈ Wg + ΔWcu (10)
In a typical 2.0 L, 16 valves, four stroke IC engine, the energy
consumption for each intake valve at 6000 r/min is approximately 2.5 J
per cycle [29]. At full open throttle, exhaust valves require an addi-
tional 0.8 J per cycle due to gas pressure [30]. Therefore, the EMVT has
an obvious advantage of energy conservation compares with the tra-
ditional camshaft mechanism.
6. Conclusion
This paper mainly studied the effects of combustion gas pressure on
the opening performance of EMVT and the changing laws of EMVT’s
Fig. 13. Increments of energy consumption with different gas pressure.
X. Fan et al.
energy conversion. For the experimental investigation, a linear load
simulator based on moving coil electromagnetic linear actuator is de-
signed and utilized innovatively. Main results are summarized below:
(1) The combustion gas pressure focused on exhaust valve has a
unique character, which is at the maximum before the exhaust valve
opening, and decays rapidly once the exhaust valve is opened.
(2) The combustion gas pressure can lead to a distinct hysteresis of
the valve opening, which has a gradient of 0.2 ms per 0.1 MPa. But the
opening transition of EMVT keeps the constant of 3 ms with different
gas pressure.
(3) Energy consumption of EMVT mainly consumed in the process of
opening and closing motion, in which copper loss takes a large per-
centage, iron loss contributes a small percentage and mechanical loss
keeps constant. It decreases from 1.18 J to 0.7 J per cycle when the
transition time changes from 3 ms to 5 ms.
(4) The combustion gas pressure can cause an increase of EMVT’s
energy consumption. At the condition of 0.6 MPa gas pressure, energy
consumption reaches up to 2.19 J per cycle, increases by 85.6%.
Increments of energy consumption mainly embodies in the differential
pressure loss and increase of copper loss.
Energy consumption investigation of EMVT contributes significantly
to the energy conservation of camless engine. Further work is being
pursued to implement the described techniques on IC engine for per-
formance evaluation.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China [grant number 51776092].
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