URP332 – Research Methods

Course Focus
The focus is for the student to understand the need for research, especially social science
research, by examining its types and ethics, structure/characteristics, variables operational
definitions, methods of data analysis, presentation and interpretation and then introduction to
SPSS as well as the research report format.
Course Outline
1. Meaning of Research in Social Science
2. Types of Social Scientific Research
3. Ethics of Social Science Research
4. Structure/Characteristics of Research: Activities or Actions taken.
5. Operational definitions of Variables in Social Research
6. Methods of Data Analysis, Presentation and Interpretation
7. The Research Report Format in Social Research
8. Introduction of Statistical Package for the Social Scientists (SPSS) in Data Analysis

Meaning of Research in Social Science

Research is an inquiry, investigation or observation to provide answers to the unknown. It is the
systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and
reach new conclusions. Also, research is the careful or diligent search or investigation aimed at
the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new
facts or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws. In short, it is a systematic
investigative process employed to increase or revise current knowledge by discovering new
facts.

In environmental sciences as well as other science related disciplines, the domain of research is
in social science and hence the research interest is called social science research or social
scientific research. Social Science Research is the activity of gathering, analysing and
interpreting information for a variety of social, economic, educational and political purposes. It is
focused on finding reasons for human behaviour, and is conducted using the scientific method by
asking a question, forming a hypothesis, conducting empirical research, drawing a conclusion,
and evaluating the conclusion. Social science research attempts to discover cause-and-effect
relationships between social problems and answer or solve the social problems. Survey research
or field research is one of the most important procedures that involve asking questions from the
respondents in social research.
The characteristics of social scientific research is that

1. Research is performed in a methodical manner in order to prove a hypothesis or answer a

specific question or solve a problem. Finding a definitive answer is the central goal.
2. Research is a systematic process that follows a series of steps and standard rules. These
rules/steps are broadly similar but may vary slightly between the different fields of
science.
3. Research is the organisation and planning, including literature reviews of past research
and evaluating what questions need to be answered.

Because of the nature of planning, our interest is on humans/social inquiries in the context of the
environment. Examples of such research interests could be in area of poverty, migration, health
status of people, land use change, variations in land and housing values, traffic congestion or
pattern and residential locations etc. Therefore, for such investigation, a scientific approach is
required which must be systematic and follow a series of steps in order to provide answer to the
question or solve the problem.

Types of Social Scientific Research

The commonly types of social scientific research conducted are as follows:
1. Quantitative Research
2. Qualitative research
3. Applied research
4. Pure Research
5. Exploratory Research
6. Descriptive Research
7. Analytical Research
8. Explanatory Research
9. Conceptual Research
10. Empirical Research
11. Deductive Research
12. Inductive Research
13. Predictive Research

Quantitative Research
Quantitative research refers to collecting and statistically analysing numerical data. It helps in
finding patterns, predictions, averages in the collected data. Quantitative data is collected
through conducting surveys, polls, and interviews. Quantitative research model is used to
perform statistical calculations based on the numerical data collected. Numerical data are
quantified variables like age, income, height, household size, room size, etc
Example: To investigate how many people who attended the seminar that liked it could be
conducted by asking questions like “Did you like the seminar?”

Qualitative research
Qualitative research is a type of social research which aims at gathering descriptive opinions (in
words) of people through open-ended questions in a survey or an interview. The data collected
from this research is vast and needs to be summarized to get to a conclusion. The data are non-
numerical such as sex, marital status, type of toilet, type of kitchen, employment status etc This
research type is mainly used to examine the research problem by an in-depth understanding of a
topic or a group of people
Example: Assuming there are perceptions or thinking about the Seminar, the research could be
to investigate why the perceptions or thinking and what changes are needed. This will allow
responders to briefly tell their views about the seminar.
Applied research
It is research that provides solutions for real-life problems. Researchers use applied research to
get to the solutions which they can implement immediately. The problems can be related to
health, diet, work-out, etc. the solutions to this research can be technological. Applied research is
used in everyday life problems as it can provide solutions in a short period and the solutions are
easy to implement as well.
Example: A software solution firm wants to provide a solution that will prompt a message every
time someone tries to take a print from the office printer. This will make them consider paper use
and can be an initiative towards paper reduction. Or street light design as a solution to a traffic
joint bottle neck

Pure Research
Pure or basic research, unlike applied research, does not concern about providing solutions. This
research can be explanatory, exploratory or descriptive. The main objective of this research is to
provide a total understanding of a topic. Just to be aware of a problem.
Example: A researcher conducts a study on how hypertension affects a person’s blood pressure.
Pure or basic research is conducted to understand a problem statement without getting into
providing any solution for it. This is the major difference between pure research and applied
research.
Exploratory Research
This research helps to get to solutions for the problems that are not clear. It provides a better
understanding of the existing problem but will not provide final solutions. It is conducted at a
preliminary stage of the problem and answers questions like “why”, “what” and “how”.
Exploratory research used to study the scope of the existing problem for its future focus.
Example: A company owner is not sure if he should expand the branch and hence decides to
conduct explanatory research. At the end of the research, he will know if it is a good move to
expand an extra branch or not.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is research that describes the characteristics of the variables. The
characteristics can be the answers to the questions like “what, why, how and when”
It is also called observational research as the variables are not changed during the research. To
conduct an observational study without touching the integrity of the variable, descriptive
research is the solution for you.
Example: A person wants to set up a café in a particular area, he wants to know what are the
preferences of the people from the area regarding similar cafes.

Analytical Research
Analytical research focuses on the cause-effect of the variables. While descriptive analysis tells
the facts, analytical research determines what the reason behind those facts is. Analytical
research is used to resolve the “what, when, how and why” of the existing researched topic.
Example: If a descriptive study shows that almost all elderly people have joint pain, Analytical
research finds out the reason behind the illness by telling how old age affects the bone structure
that result in them weakening.
Explanatory Research
This research deals with researchers revisiting phenomenon that were not studied in-depth
before. It doesn’t mean that the research has to provide solutions now. It can be done for the sole
purpose of understanding the topic. Explanatory research aims towards finding out why the
phenomenon occurred and what are chances of it occurring in the future are.
Example: A researcher wants to study a literature topic. It may include reading through existing
researches, magazines, articles. Or a study on flooding occurrence.
Conceptual Research
It includes observing and analyzing the already existing topic. It doesn’t involve any practical
research. Researchers state their concepts and ideas regarding the topic. It is a theoretical
ideology of the topic. Conceptual research is used more in philosophical research to establish
new concepts and enhance the existing ones.
Example: Stephan Hawkins had a conceptualization of the black hole on his observation of the
universe. Years later the first image of a black hole was known. Or Alonso observed variations
of land values in a city and concluded that these values increase with distance near central
business districts(CBD), which later becomes the Bid Rent theory or concept.
Empirical Research
Empirical research involves concluding only from verifiable shreds of evidence. This research
can be conducted using a qualitative method or quantitative method. The results have a strong
background and can be trusted. Empirical research is useful in proofing a hypothesis based on
strong proof.
Example: A researcher wants to know if listening to motivational speech cause more
productivity. He tests this by exposing one group to listen to the motivational speech while the
other group doesn’t. Or a study on location and non-location determinants of housing values.

Deductive Research
Deductive research is based on an already existing theory. It creates a hypothesis on the theory
and then research is done to test if the hypothesis is true. The theories are tested against
observations. Deductive research focus is to formulate a hypothesis on a theory, test that
hypothesis and examine the results.
Example: Consider the Logic Statement/Premises: All animals drink water. Dog drinks water.
Then the conclusion is that dog is an animal, because it is assumed that “all animals drink water”
and “dog is an animal”. Deduction from universal to particular.
Inductive Research
Unlike deductive research, inductive research works with a focus on developing a theory. It goes
from observation to generalizations of the topic. Commonly, researchers prefer to combine both
pieces of research in case of a huge study. Inductive research is used to understand a topic that
does not have enough existing literature.
Example: Consider the Logic Statement/Premises: Dog is an animal. Dogs drink water. The
conclusion is that All animals drink water. Induction from particular to universal.
Predictive Research
As the name suggests, this research predicts the outcomes, consequences, costs, and other such
factors. These factors are calculated for the existing theories. The predictions are mostly about
the things that are not tested or tried yet. Predictive analysis is an efficient method of research to
find the probability of a phenomenon occurring shortly, and is used in all types of research
problems and is a common practice.
Example: A company owner wants to study the employees’ performances, the projects
completed, client satisfaction, speed of project completion, and various other measures to predict
the company’s success and growth in the coming years. Or a study on assessment road
construction project performance.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Social Science Research Types
s/n Research Type Advantages Disadvantages
1 Quantitative Research 1 It allows for use of larger sample 1 It does not study the reason behind a
size. response.
2 Does not require observation. 2 It can be very expensive.
3 Research is anonymous and has
honest responses.
2 Qualitative Research 1 It gets to the reason behind the 1 It does not statistically represent the
attitude of the responders. data.
2 It gives a lot of data to work on. 2 There is a chance of data loss due to its
3 It is not very costly. large data nature.

3 Applied Research 1 It helps find solutions for a specific
business or other settings.
2 Solutions can be implemented right
away.
4 Pure Research 1 It expands our knowledge about
everyday life.
2 It covers a large part of the topic.
5 Exploratory Research 1 The researcher can adapt to the
changes during the research.
2 It costs very low.
3 It can give solutions for the future
of the problems.
6 Descriptive Research 1 As it uses primary data collection,
the data is rich in information.
2 The survey method can be
qualitative and quantitative providing
flexibility.
7 Analytical Research 1 Provides more control over the
data.
2 Determines the reason behind the
fact.
3 It is inexpensive and simple to
implement.
8 Explanatory Research 1 Allows the researcher to know
more about the topic.
2 Gives a scope to have new
solutions.
9 Conceptual Research 1 It requires few resources which
saves time and resources.
2 It uses existing literature hence
making it convenient.
10 Empirical Research 1 This makes the conducted research
more authentic.
2 Strengthens the internal validity.
11 Deductive Research 1 It explains the cause-effect
relationship between variables.
2 The results can be generalized to a
certain extent.
12 Inductive research 1 It can be used to predict what can
happen in the future.
2 It gives deep knowledge about the
research topic.
13 Predictive Research 1 It has a competitive advantage.
2 It also helps reduce risks and the
costs behind solving them.
3 Deal with problems before they
occur.
3 The results acquired from this
approach can be influenced by the
researcher’s personal opinions.
1 Solutions established from applied
research cannot be generalized for other
similar problems
1 It does not provide the deep learning
of how to tackle the problem.
1 This research may lead to wrong
decisions.
1 Information collected can be
misleading.
2 The researcher’s biases can affect the
result.
3 The size of the sample can have
representative issues.
1 Can include measurement errors.
2 Bias in the sample population can
affect the results.
1 Results can have the researcher’s
biases affected.
1 The results may not be considered
reliable and factual.
2 It is likely to face errors overtime after
new concepts are discovered.
1 It can be very time-consuming.
2 Data collection can be challenging as
it is supposed to be from an authorized
source.
1 They may not understand the rules.
2 It can be misrepresenting.
1 The reasoning can be incorrect.
2 The research is limited to how much
you can make a result generalization.
1 Data cannot be relied upon totally
because people don’t always give honest
answers in surveys.
2 Data collected can be different
concerning quality measures.
Ethics of Social Science Research
The Ethics here refer to the principles, rules and regulations governing research process in
choosing of research topic, selection of the appropriate research design, development of research
protocol/methodology, writing, analysis and interpretation of the research results and finally
communicating the research; including its publication.
Ethics in Choosing research topic.
In relation to Urban and Regional Planning, a topic can be defined as ‘a Urban or Regional
planning-related idea or issue’, which could be broad or specific in nature. The rule says that the
topic should always be specific for clear understanding. Example of broad topic might be:
‘Social Infrastructure Provision in Urban Development’, which is too wide and not clear or
specific but refining this subject into a specific topic may read: ‘Assessment of Housing
Provision in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria’.
Also, the criteria for the choice of the topic are that the research topic must be FINER: feasible
(F), interesting (I), novel (N), ethical (E) and relevant, (R).
The feasibility of research topic means that it can be done and completed according to the: time
frame of the planned research; available equipment, supplies and other requirements; required
expertise or knowledge; the financial resources (Cost) available; number of research objectives
(should not be too many); accessibility of data; sensitivity of the subject matter (limitations in
published information, concepts and ideas, contemporary nature of the topic); and type of degree
study (undergraduate or postgraduate)
The research topic must be of interest to investigator and to scientific community or the
industry. The key word here is motivation, which could be influenced by the reputation of a
project supervisor.
Research topic is considered novel if familiar with the up – to –date literatures or contemporary
issues and not obsolete ideas. Research such as “Impact of COVID 19 on Livelihoods/Housing
Market” is a recent issue and very novel.
Research topic is good if due process or ethics is followed, like in the criteria for choosing topic,
selection of research design, research methodology, analysis and interpretation etc.
Research topic is considered relevant, if it has the potential to advance scientific knowledge,
policy, or guide further research. The research must be able to contribute to knowledge.
Ethics in Selection of appropriate Research Design.
These are some of the core ethical principles (informed consent, confidentiality/anonymity,
voluntary participation, deception, risk of harm, accuracy in analysis and reporting) that must be
considered and planned for when designing and carrying out studies. This means that these
principles must be considered in in the selection of research design, which should clearly define
who or what the research will focus on, and how to go about choosing the participants or
subjects. In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about,
while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you'll actually collect data from.
It is ethical to use active consent strategies to explain and obtain information concerning the
study and what is involved, so as to establish trust, and respect. Also, it is ethical for voluntary
participation and not to pressure anyone or ask people to participate in the study. It should be
confidentiality and anonymity to keep responses and consent forms double-locked by using
numbers to identify participants rather than names. It is ethical and important to consider the risk
of harm the study may have, by considering any potential psychological, emotional, physical,
and social reactions participants might experience, to ensure that the purpose of the study has
strong potential benefits. The study should not be deceptive by demonstrating how the potential
benefits of the study outweigh the potential harm that could come from deceiving participants.
Finally, it is ethical that the analysis and reporting should be accurate which could be achieved
by double checking everything, use unbiased language and do not plagiarize.
Ethics in development of Research Methodology
Research methodology ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to
research activities which include the design and implementation of research, respect towards
society and others, the use of resources and research outputs, scientific misconduct and the
regulation of research.
The key ethical research methodology principles are: respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-
maleficence, and justice. Therefore, following the ethical guidelines will ensure that the research
is authentic and error-free, and will allow it to gain credibility and support from the public. These
principles are universal, which means they apply everywhere in the world, without national,
cultural, legal, or economic boundaries.
Ethics in Analysis and Interpretation of the research results
The ethics are to avoid bias in data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions,
grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or
required as well as avoid or minimize bias or self-deception.
Ethical data analysis involves considering the potential harm or unfairness to individuals or
groups and taking necessary steps to mitigate these issues. Privacy and confidentiality are
fundamental concerns in data analysis, as it is crucial to protect sensitive information about
individuals, which can be achieved by obtaining informed consent from participants and
adhering to data protection regulations. Informed consent plays a vital role in ensuring the ethical
handling of data. Participants should be made aware of the research's purpose, methodology and
any potential risks before their data is collected and analyzed. Ethical data analysis requires a
commitment to data accuracy and integrity in ensuring that data is of high quality and reflects the
phenomena being studied to prevent incorrect conclusions. Also it is ethical that data analysts
must recognize and address potential biases in their data, which may arise from unrepresentative
samples or biased data collection methods. Furthermore, transparency and reproducibility are
essential components of ethical data analysis by openly sharing data, methodologies and code, to
enable others verify the findings and build upon the work but however, this must not amount to
plagiarism.
Ethics in Communicating Research Publications
One ethical issue in communicating research is that researchers should comply with the legal and
institutional guidelines covering their work and do not use the work of others as their own,
plagiarizing others' ideas or language or appropriating the work of others for which one serves as
a reviewer. Ethical communication principles include observing transparency and honesty,
understanding the audience, observing privacy and confidentiality, and selecting the right time
and place for relaying information. Like in other ethics, communicating research publication is
guided by voluntary participation, no harm, concept of informed consent, anonymity and
confidentiality, and deception.

Structure/Characteristics of Research
This is concerned with the activities or actions taken in the conduct of a research. These actions
cover the research design, research problem, aim and objectives as well as the hypothesis, review
of past studies, data sources and types, sample frame and sample size, sampling procedure, and
instrument of data collection.
Research Design
The research design refers to the overall strategy that specifies the sources and types of
information relevant to the research problem, and the collection, measurement, and analysis of
data. Therefore, it is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for the different
components of the study under investigation. This approach could be quantitative, qualitative or
mixed method.
Quantitative approach stems from academic tradition with emphasis on numbers or facts to
represent opinions. It is associated with deductive approach to testing of theory and it views
research objectively. The strength of quantitative approach includes interdependence of the
observer, allowance of comparison and replication, objective measurement of subject under
investigation, need of hypothesis, objective determination of reliability and validity, large scale
of data collection and finally it helps to search for causal explanations. The weakness of
quantitative research is that it fails to look deeper into underlying meanings and assumptions
about a subject.
Qualitative approaches are rooted in interpretive paradigm. It is mostly associated with
inductive approach to generate theory and belief in constructing knowledge rather than seeking
reality. It focuses on natural state of occurrence which gives a view of a real life. The fact that
data are collected over sustained period of time makes it a powerful approach to studying
processes. Qualitative data is important for validating, explaining, illuminating or reinterpreting
quantitative data gathered from the same setting. The weakness includes large volume of data,
complexity of analysis and flexibility and momentum of analysis.
Due to the weakness of both quantitative and qualitative methods, the mixed method also
known as triangulation helps to counteract the weakness in both methods. It is based on the
premise that the two research methods will compensate each other by counterbalancing the
strengths of one another. It is a combination of both inductive and deductive research methods.
This implies that the mixed method is more appropriate approach in survey research in social
science because it comprises quantitative and qualitative approaches after addressing the
weakness of these approaches.
Research Problem and Research Questions
At very heart of every research project is the problem, so no problem, no research. Because, the
problem is the axial center around which the whole research effort turns. Always state the
problem in a complete grammatical sentence in as few words as possible, so that anyone
anywhere in the world may read it, understand it and react to it without help. Research problem
is an issue contested in the literature and therefore is the gap in knowledge between what is
known and unknown. The nature of the problem could be theoretical, empirical or
methodological Any good statement of research problem must contain quantitative and
qualitative variables of investigation. The relevance of research problem is that it helps to
establish research aim. It is important to note that a research topic is not the same as a research
problem.
An example of theoretical/empirical problem of investigation is:
Consider a research entitled: “Determinants of Housing Values in Metropolitan Lagos,
Nigeria”. Theoretically, the research problem is considered based on the fact that the Bid rent
theory states that distances from the CBD (ie distance/location factor) are the major
determinants of housing values, ignoring non-location factors like environmental and housing
facilities as well as housing types. Therefore, contesting this theory, the gap or statement of
research problem in such study could be “to examine the extent to which housing values are
determined by the non-location factors and not by location factor alone”.
Following the research problem are the research questions which are asked in order to solve the
problem. Research questions are the tools that help to address the research problem. To develop
research questions, define/state the expected output, reasons for the nature of research, and the
gap to fill. The research questions should not be complex (too long/big) nor easy (too
short/small), but should be suitable for analysis and allow generation of data. The relevant of
research questions is to formulate research objectives, as well as guide literature review,
methodology, analysis and results, and conclusion and recommendations.
Examples of research questions from the research title above could be:
1. What are the socio-economic characteristics of the house owners/households?
2. Are the variations in the prices of houses paid in the metropolis, due to location and non-
location factors?
3. Is there a relationship between the housing values and residential housing types?

Aim and Objectives

Articulated aim that relates to the problem and objectives that answer the questions are attributes
of good research. Sometimes the words ‘aims’ and ‘objectives’ are used interchangeably, yet
there is a distinct difference. An aim is a general statement of what the research sets out to
achieve, while an objective is a specific statement relating to the defined aim of the research.
Hence, aim is the broad statement of the research intention, that is deduced from the research
problem while objectives are specific statements of the research intention, that provide answers
to the research questions. Therefore, it is necessary that the specific objectives should link or
relate with the research questions.
Examples of research aim and objectives
Arising from the research problem, the aim could be “to examine the relative importance of
location and non-location factors in the determination housing values”
While the objectives from the research questions are to:
1. Examine the socio-economic characteristics of housing owners in the Metropolis
2. Evaluate the location and non-location factors responsible for the variations in housing
prices paid in the Metropolis.
3. Examine whether there is a significant relationship between the housing values and
residential housing types.
Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon that could be rejected or accepted after
testing. Therefore, hypothesis testing is a procedure used to determine whether the hypothesis is
a reasonable statement and should be accepted, or is unreasonable statement and should be
rejected, based on sample evidence. In hypothesis testing, two types of hypotheses are stated,
namely, null hypothesis (Ho) and alternative hypothesis (H1).
A null hypothesis is a type of hypothesis used in statistics that proposes that no statistical
significance exists in a set of given observations. Example: “There is no significance
relationship between the housing values and the non- location factors”.
Alternative hypothesis is opposite of null hypothesis in the sense that it proposes that there is
significant difference in a set of given data. Example: “There is significance relationship
between the housing values and the non- location factors”.
Literature Review or Review of Past Studies
Literature review is a review of past works in the area of research being conducted. It does not
only concern the review of past works in the research area but also on-going works related to the
research under consideration. The objectives of study are used as a guide of the relevant studies
or works to consult for a research. In review of literature, every discussion on what has been
done, said or is being done must be backed with sources or citations.
Data Sources and Types
Data types and nature are components of research methodology and the major sources of data in
any research are the primary and secondary sources. The primary data sources are the field data
from the respondents in a sample survey. The secondary data sources are the reviews of already
documented facts from relevant literatures, recorded events or transaction, documented
population census. Data are also called variables because they vary from place to place. A
variable is a symbol like X, Y, Z and values assigned to it determines its form. When it assumes
only one value (1), it is called a constant. Therefore, the nature or type of data or variables could
be continuous or discrete variables. Continuous variable can assume any value between two
given values, example, age of an individual can be 64years, 63.8yrs or 63.83yrs. It is continuous
because it has fractions of values. Discrete variables are enumerations or counting which consist
of whole numbers. The values can only take whole numbers and not fractions. Example,
numbers of human beings, houses, sheep, which can assume any of the values: 0, 1, 2, 3 but not
1.5 or 2.853.
Sample Frame and Sample Size
Sample frame or the population in research method specifies the total number of a class or all
the possible observations of the same type. Also, sample frame is the set of all objects (units) or
observations about which conclusions are to be drawn. Thus, a sample frame involves
observations of the entire group, especially if it is large. In the research title under consideration,
sample frame of the study becomes all the residential housing units because our concern is the
housing value in the Metropolis. In other words, the total number of the residential units, say
60,000, is the sample frame.
On the other hand, sample size is the part of the total population or sample frame. It is the
examination of a small part of the group, whereby some members are selected. The number of
the selected members constitutes the sample size. A sample size must not be too large or too
small but the choice depends wholly on the researchers. The general rule guiding sample size
selection is that the larger the population the smaller the sample size and vice versa. However,
sample size is determined by the following factors:
 1. Money and time that is available.

2. Aim and size of the survey (small or large)

3. Degree of precision aimed at or acceptable margin of error to take. This is the margin of
error or degree of precision at which a result is accepted or rejected. In statistics, the
margin of error often taken is 0.05 (5%). This means that the result is accepted or rejected
at 95% confidence level. The formula for determining sample size based on margin of
error is given by:

no = (t)2 x s2/(d)2
where no = sample size
t = t – value for the acceptable margin of error
s2 = estimate of variance of the population
d = acceptable margin of error to take
This formula is known as Cochran (1997) formula for sample size determination
Illustration, a population of 60,000 units is observed for the study and t – value of 1.65 for the
acceptable margin of error (d) of 0.05 is considered. The estimated variance (s 2) in the population
distribution of the housing units is 1.61. Then applying the formula, we have
no = 1.652 x 1.61/0.052 = 1,753 which represents 2.93% of the population.
Sampling Procedure
Sampling procedure is the method used to collect data from the respondents. There are different
types of sampling procedures but we shall be limited to the ones commonly used in social
science research.

1. Simple Random sampling. This is a method of selecting n units of samples out of the N
total population in such a way that every member has an equal chance of being drawn.
This can be done by firstly numbering for example all housing units in a local
government and then employ the random number table or lucky dip method to select.

2. Systematic sampling. This means selecting sample at regular intervals. It involves firstly
selecting a random start point after which a sample item would be selected every nth
item. The systematic sampling method is often adopted by planners especially in urban
studies where it may be decided that every 5 th or 10th house on a selected street will be
sampled. For example, if it was decided to sample every 5 th house and a start point of
house no 3 was chosen, the sample would be the following houses: 3 rd, 8th, 13th, 18th, 23rd,
28th etc, until the number of houses selected in the street is sampled.
 3. Stratified sampling. In this case, if the population is heterogeneous in terms of
occupation, religion, income or class of residents, then it becomes important to stratify or
subdivide the population into homogeneous strata and then select a sample from each
stratum. For example, if it was required to sample 100 staffs at the ministry of works and
housing, the staff could be first stratified as follows: Architects, Builders, Estate
surveyors, Urban planners. The following numbers could then be selected from a sample
of 100: Architects (10), Builders(30), Estate surveyors(40), Urban planners(20). In most
samples of urban studies, it is necessary to stratify the population into homogeneous units
such as occupational, religious, educational and income groups as well as into spatially
homogeneous units such as low, medium and high residential zones.

4. The Multi – Stage Cluster sampling . This is a combined method involving stratified,
systematic or random techniques. According to Bryman and Cramer (1997), a multi –
stage cluster sample is a probability sampling procedure that allows geographically
dispersed or heterogeneous population to be adequately covered while simultaneously
saving interviewer time and travel cost.

An illustration of the application of the multi – stage cluster sampling in the research title
under consideration could be as follows:

In the first stage, the neighbourhoods in the Metropolis are identified and classified based on
their housing developments such as low, medium and high developments. In the second
stage, major wards in each of these neighbourhoods are randomly selected. In the third
stage, all the streets in the selected wards are identified and randomly selected based on
their grade or type. Finally, in the last stage houses are systematically selected at every third
house in each chosen street for the administration of the estimated number of questionnaire.

Instruments of Data Collection

In social science survey research, instruments or methods of data collection include interview,
questionnaire and recognisance or direct observations.

Interview Method

This is one to one interaction between the interviewer and the respondents during which
questions are asked. This method is most expensive but has advantage of completeness and
accuracy. This method sometimes involves that interviewers need to be trained and the
interviews or questions need to be arranged. The two attributes of interview method are the
interview technique and the location of the interview. The interview technique can be
standardized, which means that the same questions are asked from each respondent, or non –
standardized, which means that the questions can be varied from one respondent to another. The
location of interview implies who or what is interviewed, which could be household based or
user based. Household based interview may involve only one individual in each household or all
members of the household or selected members only. The user based interview relates to either
the users of facilities or to suppliers or both.

The problem with interview method lies with how to identify the respondents and determine the
sample size which must be true representation of the larger population.

Structured Questionnaire Method

A structured questionnaire is a formulated series of questions designed to obtain relevant

information about a specific research problem of study. There are two types namely, self-
administered questionnaire – whereby we employ people to administer the questionnaire to the
respondents to record their responses in the spaces provided in the questionnaire according to the
instructions. The other, the mailed questionnaire, the questions are posted to respondents who fill
the questionnaire and post back to the owners.

The questions asked in the questionnaire are divided into two: open questions and pre – coded
questions. Open questions are the types in which you allow the respondents to give you as many
information as you like. Pre – coded question is a situation in which all possible answers are
written so that the respondents can chose one or possible ones.

The following are the guides in the preparation of the questionnaire:

1. The specific information that is relevant to the problem of study must be identified.

2. The content of the questionnaire must be guided by the specific objective of study.

3. The wording of the questionnaire must be carefully chosen.

4. The questions must be as short as possible, précised, simple and unambiguous.

5. Questions must not be too technical.

6. Questions should not involve calculations or test of memory.

7. Questions must not be personal or offensive.

8. Questions must be asked in logical order.

9. The statistical techniques envisage to be used must be reflected in the type of information
sought by the questionnaire.

The problem with questionnaire method lies with the response rate, which has the possibility of
introducing bias in the findings. Other problems include its bias in favour of literate, lack of
intermediary between the interviewer and respondents, which could introduce little ambiguity in
the meaning or interpretation of questions. However, this method of survey is very popular in
planning and social science studies.
Recognisance Method or Direct Observation

This method can be defined as the purposeful and selective watching and recording of events as
they take place or occur. This method is carried out through direct experience, observation of
physical evidence, the use of mechanical and electronic devices, amongst others. It is good in
traffic surveys and urban renewal studies. It is particularly useful as a complementary technique
to interview surveys, especially in the case of the respondent’s non – verbal responses. It is
normally considered to be the most accurate form of data collection but could be labour
intensive.