Catena 120 (2014) 122–133

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Catena
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/catena

Spatial variability in soil compaction properties associated with field

traffic operations
Kenan Barik a, Ekrem Lutfi Aksakal a,⁎, Khandakar Rafiq Islam b, Serdar Sari a, Ilker Angin c
a
Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey
b
Soil Water and Bioenergy Resources, Ohio State University South Centers, Piketon, OH, USA
c
Department of Agricultural Structures and Irrigation, Faculty of Agriculture, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Current agricultural practices using heavy machinery are associated with soil compaction.
Received 11 October 2013 This study was carried out to determine the effects of field traffic operations on the changes in spatial variability
Received in revised form 11 April 2014 of soil aggregate stability (AS), bulk density (BD), total porosity (TP), penetration resistance (PR) and volumetric
Accepted 14 April 2014
moisture content (VMC) in the various soil depths as indicators of soil compaction. Soil samples to determine AS,
Available online 9 May 2014
BD and VMC were collected and field measurements of PR at 0–10, 10–20 and 20–30 cm depths were taken,
Keywords:
respectively from geo-referenced intersections with 25 × 20 m intervals before and after traffic operations.
Soil compaction Total porosity was calculated using bulk and particle density values. Both disturbed and undisturbed soil samples
Aggregate stability were taken from each depth (0–10, 10–20 and 20–30 cm) of the intersection points of the grid system, before and
Bulk density after traffic operations. As a total 360 soil samples were taken. Kriging analysis was performed to create spatial
Penetration resistance variability distribution maps of AS, BD, TP, PR and VMC with 1 × 1 m intervals within the field. Results showed
Moisture content that the AS, BD, TP, PR and VMC were significantly influenced by traffic operation and depth. More significant
Kriging effects on the AS, BD, TP, PR and VMC were produced at the 0–10 cm depth than at the 10–20 and 20–30 cm
depths. For 0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm depths, while BD increased in the rates of 14.5, 5.3 and 6.7% it caused a
decrease in TP at the rates of 12.1, 5.5 and 6.6%, respectively. Averaged across depth, while the initial AS was
54.1% it decreased to 41.9% with traffic operation. Averaged across depth, the BD (8.6%), PR (43.3%) and VMC
(12.7%) increased, with an associated decrease in AS (22.6%) and TP (8.9%) after traffic operation, as compared
to their initial values measured before traffic operation. Spatial distribution patterns of AS, BD, TP, PR and VMC
values following traffic operation showed significant differences compared to those values of before traffic oper-
ation. Among the indicators of compaction, the AS and PR was greatly affected by the traffic operations as com-
pared to BD, TP and VMC. Knowledge on the spatial distribution can be used for development management
options that minimize production risks and the harmful impact of traffic.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Soil management practices are closely associated with ecosystem
services. However, traditional high-intensive agricultural practices
which use heavy machineries for tillage, planting and harvesting are
often associated with soil structural degradation, increased compaction
and reduced soil productivity (Soane and van Ouwerkerk, 1994). In
addition, more energy is needed for tilling the compacted soil, which
is responsible for higher farming costs (Horn et al., 1995; Whalley
et al., 1995). The increasing use of heavy machines causes stress
penetration to deeper soil depths and, consequently, results in deeper
⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Faculty of
Agriculture, Atatürk University, Erzurum 25240, Turkey. Tel.: + 90 442 231 1610;
fax: +90 442 236 0958.
E-mail address: elaksakal@atauni.edu.tr (E.L. Aksakal).
soil compaction than reported previously (Keller et al., 2007; Zink
et al., 2010).
Several studies have been reported on the transitional and long-term
effects of wheel traffic of agricultural machinery on soil compaction and
crop yields (Liepiec et al., 1991; Ohu and Folorunso, 1989). It is reported
that agricultural machines responsible for soil compaction reduce
macroporosity and restrict aeration and the gaseous movement system
in soil–plant–air continuum (Aksakal and Oztas, 2010; Botta et al.,
2010; Hamza and Anderson, 2005). This preferential loss of larger pores
can potentially change important soil hydrological functions related to
water infiltration and water holding capacity and drainage (Botta et al.,
2010; Brais, 2001; Horn et al., 1995; Soane et al., 1981). Soil compaction
also reduces saturated hydraulic conductivity and may trigger accelerated
surface runoff and water erosion (Horn et al., 1995). The increased
mechanical resistance by compaction affects plant root growth and distri-
bution, restricts water and nutrient uptake and decreases crop growth
and yields (Dorner et al., 2010; Unger and Kaspar, 1994).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2014.04.013
0341-8162/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 K. Barik et al. / Catena 120 (2014) 122–133
Soil compaction characteristics are dependent on the relationship
between applied stress and the response of volumetric parameters
such as strain, void ratio or porosity (Chaplain et al., 2011; Dorner
et al., 2010). The degree of soil compaction also depends on the texture,
antecedent moisture content, load and tire dimension, inflation
pressure and slip, forward speed and the number of repeated machin-
ery passes (Dauda and Samari, 2002; Oni and Adeoti, 1986). Among
the soil physical properties that are considered sensitive indicators to
evaluate compaction are aggregate stability (AS), bulk density (BD),
total porosity (TP), strength or penetration resistance (PR) and mois-
ture content (VMC) (Barik et al., 2011; Hamza and Anderson, 2003;
Panayiotopoulos et al., 1994; Soane and van Ouwerkerk, 1994).
Spatial variability in soil properties that are associated with compac-
tion within an agricultural field can be used as tools to define relation-
ships among soil properties, evaluate disruptive factors affecting these
properties and recommend appropriate management practices to
sustain soil productivity.
To study soil variability, two main statistical approaches can be used,
which are different in the way that data is analyzed. Classical statistics
requires the validity of some basic hypotheses, such as the indepen-
dence between observations, due to the randomness of variations
from one place to another. In contrast, geostatistics, based on the theory
of regionalized variables, enables the interpretation of results based on
the structure of their natural variability, taking into consideration spa-
tial dependence within the sample space. The analysis of dependence
is based on the structure of the semivariogram, which demonstrates
the existence of spatial dependence (Goovaerts, 1997; Junior et al.,
2006). Geostatistics is increasingly used in the assessment of spatial
variability in soil science.
Geostatistics is concerned with detecting, estimating and mapping
the spatial patterns of regional variables and is centered on the modeling
and interpretation of the semivariogram. This instrument distinguishes
variation in measurements separated by given distances (Goovaerts,
1997; Isaaks and Srivastava, 1989; Rossi et al., 1992). Semivariogram
models provide the necessary information for kriging, which is a method
for interpolating data at unsampled points. Semivariograms have proven
to be an excellent method of exploring the structure of spatial variation
in agricultural soils.
Soil properties have often been reported to show a strong spatial de-
pendence (Lophaven et al., 2006; Shouse et al., 1995). Spatial depen-
dence is commonly characterized and quantified by geostatistical
methods such as autocorrelation and variogram analysis. Such spatial
analysis is necessary to perform sound interpolation when producing
contour maps and to simultaneously provide an estimate of the variance
of the interpolated values (Goovaerts, 1998). Kriging, which is an inter-
polation procedure, which provides best linear and unbiased estimation,
has been universally applied in the environmental sciences to analyze
spatial variability and to resolve site specific problems (Buttafuocoa
et al., 2005; Cassel and Nelson, 1985; Famiglietti et al., 1998; Gerke
et al., 2001; Goovaerts and Sonnet, 1993; Junior et al., 2006; Western
et al., 1998).
Geostatistical techniques are commonly used tools for determining
spatial variability distribution in soil properties. Aksakal and Oztas
(2010) used geostatistical techniques to measure changes in spatial
distribution patterns of PR within a silage-corn field following the use
of harvesting equipment. Imhoff et al. (2000) used PR to determine
the spatial variability in soil properties induced by plants and animal
trampling in grazing systems. Other studies reported that spatial vari-
ability of BD and PR is affected by agricultural management practices
(Gomez et al., 2005; Warrick and Nielsen, 1980). However, limited
studies were conducted to evaluate the agricultural machinery effects
on spatial distribution of soil aggregate stability.
Although compaction is regarded as one of the management
problems caused by traditional agriculture, it is the most difficult type
of soil degradation to locate and rationalize, because as it is invisible,
cumulative and persistent (Horn et al., 1995). However, the changes
123
in AS, BD, TP, PR and VMC resulting from traffic operations are dynamic
and often show a wide range of spatial variability in response to man-
agement practices (Gomez et al., 2005; Mielke and Wilhelm, 1998;
Warrick and Nielsen, 1980). Therefore, measuring the horizontal and
vertical spatial distribution of these properties may help to identify
field areas where soil compaction is a problem to sustain for crop
productivity.
The current research focuses on the spatial dependence of soil
compaction indicators before and after field traffic. Although many
investigations have dealt with soil ecosystems, conclusions aiming at
the development of sustainable management strategies are difficult to
derive from those studies. It is reasoned that spatial autocorrelation/
variation of soil compaction related parameters is usually ignored. This
paper serves to close this gap by performing a combined analysis of
soil compaction indicators (aggregate stability, bulk density, total
porosity, penetration resistance and moisture content) as well as their
spatial variation. Therefore, our objective is to investigate the effect of
field traffic operations on the changes in spatial variability of soil aggre-
gate stability, bulk density, total porosity, penetration resistance and
volumetric moisture content in the various soil depths as indicators of
soil compaction.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
This study was conducted at the Ataturk University Research Farm
(~7 ha) in the Erzurum Plain (39° 10′ to 40° 57′ N latitude and 41° 15′
to 42° 30′ E longitude at 1850 m above mean sea level) located north
of the Palandoken Mountains, Erzurum, Turkey. The study area covers
one ha of land (125 × 80 m) under conventionally-tilled corn silage.
The territory of the experiment has only a slight slope (b2%), so no run-
off was noticed during the study. The area is dominated by a continental
climate, the winter is long and harsh and the summer is short and hot.
The coldest month average temperature is − 8.6 °C, the warmest
month temperature is 19.6 °C, with the lowest temperature of −35 °C
and the highest temperature of 35 °C. Average annual rainfall is approx-
imately 450 ± 30 mm. Highest rainfall occurs in the spring and winter
months. According to soil taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff., 2006), soil in
the study area formed on alluvial parent material and classified as
Typic Fluvaquent great soil group.
2.2. Experiment
The study area was transected with 25 × 20 m intervals (Fig. 1). A
New Holland TD 65D marked 2650 kg tractor, a TURKAY T-MSM marked
450 kg slag machine and a trailer with an empty weight of 1500 kg and
with a capacity of 4000 kg were used in slagging. The trailer was loaded
with 2350 to 2550 kg cut corn depending on moisture contents during
80
60
West (m)
40
20
0
0 25 50 75 100 125
North (m)
Fig. 1. Layout of soil sampling locations.
124 K. Barik et al. / Catena 120 (2014) 122–133

the field operations. The space between rows was 50 cm. The front and Table 1
rear tire widths of the tractor and the tire width of trailer were 16, 36, Selected chemical and physical properties at different depths of soil before traffic
operation experiment (Mean ± SD).
and 15 cm, respectively. With a single pass, approximately 32% of the
area between the rows was loaded by the front tire, 72% by the rear Soil properties Depth (cm)
tire, and 30% by the trailer tires. The load on soil with a single pass in 0–10 10–20 20–30
one direction was 4.6 kg cm−2 by the front tires, 3.2 kg cm−2 by the
Clay (g/kg) 171.0 ± 10.5 191.9 ± 10.3 198.6 ± 0.4
rear tires, and 17.7 kg cm−2 by the trailer tires. Total load was equal Silt (g/kg) 407.9 ± 6.9 352.7 ± 10.9 326.2 ± 17.7
to 25.5 kg cm−2 (Fig. 2). Sand (g/kg) 421.1 ± 9.7 455.4 ± 0.8 475.2 ± 17.8
Particle density (g cm−3) 2.62 ± 0.03 2.62 ± 0.02 2.62 ± 0.02
2.3. Soil sampling and analysis Soil pH (1:2.5) 7.2 ± 0.08 7.2 ± 0.09 7.3 ± 0.14
EC£ (dS/cm) 441 ± 6.9 412 ± 4.6 329 ± 11.8
Organic carbon (g/kg) 7.4 ± 1.5 6.1 ± 0.7 3.0 ± 1.1
Selected properties of the soil are presented in Table 1. Composite CaCO3 (g/kg) 4.7 ± 1.4 4.6 ± 1.7 5.1 ± 2.1
soil samples were collected from geo-referenced sites at 0 to 30 cm Total carbon (g/kg) 8.0 ± 1.2 6.7 ± 1.0 3.6 ± 1.1
depth with a 10 cm interval in the month of September. Field-moist CEC£ (cmol/kg) 29.9 ± 1.5 30.7 ± 1.5 28.7 ± 1.3
soil samples were sieved at a 2-mm threshold to remove stones, roots, £
EC = Electrical conductivity and CEC = Cation exchange capacity.
and large organic residues. After sieving, a portion of the soil was spread
on a polyethylene sheet and air-dried at room temperature (~25 °C) for
15 days and analyzed for selected chemical and physical properties.
Both disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were taken from each
depth (0–10, 10–20 and 20–30 cm) of the intersection points of the 2.4. Selected moisture content for standardization, (0.1 kg kg−1)
grid system, before and after traffic operations. For each operation 180
samples (90 disturbed, and 90 undisturbed) were collected. As a total General soil properties were determined using the standard
360 soil samples were taken. hydrometer method for particle size analysis (Gee and Or, 2002), pyc-
Undisturbed soil cores at each intersection from 0 to 30 cm depth nometer method for particle density (Flint and Flint, 2002b), glass elec-
with an interval of 10 cm were collected from the geo-referenced sites trode pH meter for soil reaction (Thomas, 1996), Scheibler calcimeter
for determining BD 1 day before and after traffic operations following for CaCO3 (Loeppert and Suarez, 1996), Smith-Weldon method for soil
standard core method (Grossman and Reinsch, 2002). organic carbon (Nelson and Sommers, 1996), ammonium acetate meth-
Antecedent soil moisture content was measured gravimetrically od for cation exchange capacity (Sumner and Miller, 1996) and electri-
after oven-drying the soil at 105 °C for 24 h until a constant weight cal conductivity (EC) by using standard EC electrode (Rhoades, 1996).
was obtained. Standard Yoder wet sieving method was used for soil
aggregate stability analysis (Nimmo and Perkins, 2002). Total porosity 2.5. Statistical analysis
was calculated using bulk and particle density values (Flint and Flint,
2002a). Penetration resistance measurements were taken in the field Data were statistically analyzed in a factorial combination of 2
(from 0 to 30 cm depth with an interval of 10 cm) on inter-rows traffic operations × 3 soil depths in a completely randomized design
1 day before and day after traffic operations using an Eijkelkamp® using SAS (2008). Analysis of variance procedure was performed to
Penetrologger (Lowery and Morrison, 2002). Penetration resistance determine significant variations in AS, BD, TP, PR and VMC attributed
measurements were standardized for soil moisture changes using the to the effects of traffic operations, soil depth and traffic and depth in-
following relationship developed by Aksakal et al. (2011): teraction. For all statistical analyses, treatment means were separat-
ed by the least significant difference (LSD) test with a value of p
PRa ¼ PRx expððX–0:1Þ=0:716Þ ð1Þ ≤ 0.05, unless otherwise mentioned (Table 2). Regression and corre-
lation analyses among AS, BD, PR and VMC were performed to eval-
where, uate the effects of traffic operations on soil compaction, aggregate
properties and moisture contents.
PRa Adjusted penetration resistance, (MPa) Semivariogram and punctual Kriging analyses were performed
PRx Measured penetration resistance at X moisture content, for measuring the distribution of the spatial variability in AS, BD, TP,
(MPa) PR and VMC within the field using the GS+ geostatistical software
X Moisture content at measurement taken, (kg kg−1) (Gamma Design Software, 2005). The experimental semivariograms

Fig. 2. The studied farm site.

 K. Barik et al. / Catena 120 (2014) 122–133 125

Table 2
Effects of traffic operation on aggregate stability, bulk density, total porosity, penetration resistance and volumetric moisture content at different depths of soil before and after field traffic
operations.

Traffic operation Compaction (kg cm−2) Depth (cm) AS (%) BD (g cm−3) TP (%) PR (MPa) VMC (mm cm−1)

Before 0* 0 to 30 54.1 ± 3.1a 1.28 ± 0.06b§ 51.2 ± 4.1a 2.96 ± 1.5b 1.58 ± 0.27b
After 25.5 0 to 30 41.9 ± 1.4b 1.39 ± 0.03a 47.0 ± 2.7b 4.34 ± 1.4a 1.78 ± 0.34a

Compaction × depth
Before 0 0 to 10 60.3 ± 7.8 1.17 ± 0.07 55.4 ± 2.7 2.01 ± 1.4 1.41 ± 0.28
10 to 20 51.4 ± 9.0 1.33 ± 0.08 49.3 ± 2.9 3.41 ± 1.3 1.72 ± 0.29
20 to 30 50.4 ± 9.1 1.34 ± 0.07 48.8 ± 2.9 3.47 ± 1.4 1.62 ± 0.25
After 25.5 0 to 10 44.3 ± 8.0 1.34 ± 0.07 48.7 ± 2.7 3.51 ± 1.5 1.66 ± 0.39
10 to 20 39.6 ± 7.5 1.40 ± 0.06 46.6 ± 2.3 4.70 ± 1.2 1.89 ± 0.34
20 to 30 41.9 ± 5.9 1.43 ± 0.05 45.6 ± 2.0 4.82 ± 1.3 1.79 ± 0.29

LSDp ≤ 0.05
Soil depth 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.4 0.11
Traffic × depth 0.02 0.03 0.03 ns 0.16

AS = Aggregate stability, BD = Soil bulk density, TP = Total porosity, PR = Penetration resistance, and VMC = Volumetric moisture content. *Control.
§
Means separated by same lower case letter within each column did not vary significantly between traffic operations at p ≤ 0.05.

were produced using the following equation (Isaaks and Srivastava, The punctual Kriging procedure was applied for estimating AS, BD,
1989): TP, PR and VMC values at unsampled points with intervals of 1 m,
using 6 to 10 measured values of AS, BD, TP, PR and VMC with Eq. (7).
2
1 X
N ðhÞ The kriged values were mapped to produce a distribution of the
γ ðhÞ ¼ NðhÞ ½Zðxi Þ−Zðxi þ hÞ ð2Þ measured variables.
2 i¼1

where, γ (h) is the semivariance for internal distance class h, h is the lag 
X
N
Z ðx0 Þ ¼ λi Zðxi Þ ð7Þ
interval, N(h) is the total number of sample pairs for the lag interval h, i¼1
Z(xi) is the measured sample value at point i, and Z(xi + h) is the
measured sample value at point i + h.
where, Z⁎(x0) is the PR at unknown location, x0; Z (xi) is the measured
The experimental semivariograms were developed for different
values from N sampled locations and xi, λi are the weights.
directions at the angles of 0°, 45°, 90° and 135° for AS, BD, TP, PR and
VMC values to determine directional variability's within the research
3. Results and discussion
site. The best fit model was chosen by considering the minimum resid-
ual sum of squares (RSS) and maximum r2 (Tables 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7). The
3.1. Characterization of soil properties
exponential, spherical and Gaussian semivariogram models were the
best-fitted models to explain spatial variability.
Some physical and chemical properties of the field studied are given
in Table 1. The average textural classification of soil was loam for all soil
γ ðhÞ ¼ C0 þ C½1− expð−h=A0 Þ Exponential model ð3Þ depths. Clay and sand content increased slightly with the increasing
depths. Particle density was determined as 2.62 g cm− 3 for all soil
depths. The total and organic carbon content decreased with depth.
  3  The total and organic carbon content was higher in 0–10 cm depth, as
h h
γ ðhÞ ¼ C0 þ C 1:5 −0:5 if h ≤ A0 Spherical model ð4Þ compared with 10–20 and 20–30 cm depths. The pH of the soil is
A0 A0
neutral and EC varied between 329–441 dS cm−1.

3.2. Field traffic effects on soil aggregate stability

γ ðhÞ ¼ C0 þ C if h N A0 ð5Þ

Traffic operation and soil depth significantly influenced the aggre-

h  i gate stability (AS) with a traffic × depth interaction (Table 2). Averaged
2 2
γ ðhÞ ¼ C0 þ C 1− exp −3h =A0 Gaussian model ð6Þ across depth, while the initial AS was 54.1% it decreased to 41.9% with
traffic operation. The rate of decrease was 22.6% after traffic operation
where, γ(h) is the semivariance for internal distance class h, h is the lag compared to values measured before traffic operation. Irrespective of
interval, C0 is the nugget variance, C is the structural variance and A0 is traffic operations, the AS decreased with depth. Occurred decrease
the range of influence. with depth, 60.3, 51.4 and 50.4% before traffic operation and 44.3, 39.6

Table 3
Some descriptive statistics, semivariogram model and model parameters for aggregate stability at different depths of soil before and after field traffic operations.

Traffic operation Depth Min. Max. Range Mean Std. CV Best-fit model Nugget Sill C/(Co + C) Range of influence (A0) r2
(cm) (%) (Co) (Co + C)

Before 0–10 42.9 78.1 35.2 60.3 7.8 13.0 Exponential 0.10 47.5 0.99 25.8 0.96
10–20 34.7 74.7 40.0 51.4 9.0 17.5 Gaussian 41.9 124.8 0.66 86.2 0.97
20–30 34.9 69.9 35.0 50.4 9.1 18.1 Gaussian 36.0 84.9 0.58 92.8 0.99
After 0–10 23.1 56.0 32.9 44.3 8.0 18.0 Spherical 5.4 61.9 0.91 53.2 0.99
10–20 21.4 54.4 33.0 39.6 7.5 18.8 Spherical 3.8 49.8 0.92 48.9 0.61
20–30 30.2 54.7 24.5 41.9 5.9 14.1 Spherical 1.7 27.8 0.94 43.2 0.59

Std. = Standard deviation, CV = Coefficient of variance.

126 K. Barik et al. / Catena 120 (2014) 122–133

Table 4
Some descriptive statistics, semivariogram model and model parameters for bulk density at different depths of soil before and after field traffic operations.

Traffic Operation Depth (cm) Min. Max. Range Mean Std. CV Best-fit model Nugget (Co) Sill C/(Co + C) Range of influence (A0) r2
(%) (Co + C)

Before 0–10 1.07 1.38 0.31 1.17 0.07 5.98 Spherical 0.005 0.05 0.91 26.8 0.97
10–20 1.17 1.49 0.32 1.33 0.08 6.02 Gaussian 0.002 0.06 0.97 34.6 0.99
20–30 1.18 1.46 0.28 1.34 0.07 5.22 Exponential 0.005 0.06 0.91 55.5 0.97
After 0–10 1.16 1.45 0.29 1.34 0.07 5.22 Exponential 0.007 0.06 0.87 70.2 0.57
10–20 1.31 1.54 0.23 1.40 0.06 5.00 Exponential 0.003 0.04 0.92 66.3 0.99
20–30 1.30 1.53 0.23 1.43 0.05 3.50 Spherical 0.002 0.03 0.93 50.1 0.82

Std. = Standard deviation, CV = Coefficient of variance.

and 41.9% after traffic operation. For the 0–10 cm depth, while the initial
AS was 60.3% it decreased to 44.3% after traffic operation. These values
were found as 51.4 to 39.6% and 50.4 to 41.9% for 10–20 and
20–30 cm depths, respectively. While the rate of decrease in AS at the
0–10 depth was 26.5%, it was found as 22.9% for 10–20 and 16.9% for
20-30 cm depths. Significant interaction of traffic × depth indicated
that the depth distribution of AS influenced by traffic operations. Results
also suggested that the traffic operation exerted more pronounced
effects on the surface (0–10 cm) as compared to the deeper depths
(10–20 and 20–30 cm).
Spatial distribution in the AS at different depths before and after field
traffic operations with the semivariogram model and model parameters
are presented in Fig. 3 and Table 3. For the 0–10 cm depth, the AS ranged
between 42.9 to 78.1% before traffic operation and between 23.1 to
56.0% following traffic operation (Fig. 3a). For the 10–20 cm depth,
the AS ranged between 34.7 and 74.7% before traffic operation and be-
tween 21.4 to 54.4% after traffic operation (Fig. 3b). For the 20–30 cm
depth, these values were 34.9 and 69.9% before traffic and between
30.2 to 54.7% after traffic operations (Fig. 3c). The spatial distribution
of the AS before and after traffic operations showed a significantly
higher variability for all soil depths.
Significantly lower AS after traffic operation is possibly due to the
weight and stress effects of heavy traffic vehicles and machinery,
which resulted in soil structural deterioration. Since the traffic wheels
are in close contact with the near-surface of the soil, the effects on the
AS were more produced at the 0–10 cm depth than at the 10–20 and
20–30 cm depths. This may be primarily due to dynamic forces, caused
by vibration of the engine and the attached implements, which was
also reported by Horn et al (1995). Furthermore, compaction causes
rearrangement of the primary soil particles and dispersed micro-
aggregates to form clods and decreases the AS in response to traffic
operations (Materechera, 2009).
A significant variability in the spatial distribution of the AS, both
horizontally and vertically, suggested that soil compaction levels in
response to traffic operations were not equal all over the field. The in-
tensity and distribution of the field traffic may actually cause a high
3D variability of soil structure, even in soils characterized by spatial ho-
mogeneity of physical properties (Castrignano et al., 2001; Mouazen
et al., 2001). Spatial variability of soil compaction properties (e.g. aggre-
gate stability, bulk density, total porosity, penetration resistance and
moisture content) are significantly affected by machine traffic, which
generates compacted soil volumes located under the wheel tracks
(Richard et al., 1999) and, therefore, generally causes heterogeneity of
soil physical properties (Castrignano et al., 2002, 2003). Variability of
AS values may be due to changes in VMC. The drier the soil, the lower
its deformability, the better it transmits stresses to depth, and the small-
er the contact area (Richard et al., 1999). It may also be implied that the
effects of traffic operations on the AS were much lower at deeper depths
as compared to the surface. Lebert et al. (1989) found that vertical
stresses could be reduced in the topsoil by using larger wheels, although
in the subsoil the reduction was less significant.
3.3. Field traffic effects on soil bulk density
Results show that soil bulk density (BD) significantly influenced
by traffic operation, depth and traffic × depth interaction (Table 2).
Averaged across depth, the BD has increased by 8.6% from 1.28 g cm−3
before traffic operation to 1.39 g cm−3 after traffic operation. Irrespective
of traffic operations, the BD increased with increased depth. Significant
interaction between traffic × depth indicated that traffic operations
influenced the depth distribution of the BD. After traffic operations,
the lowest BD (1.34 g cm−3) was obtained for the 0–10 cm depth
which was equal to the highest BD (1.34 g cm−3) obtained for the deeper
depths before any traffic operations were conducted.
Spatial distribution in the BD at different depths before and after
traffic operations with semivariogram model and model parameters
are presented in Fig. 4 and Table 4. For the 0–10 cm depth, the BD varied
between 1.07 and 1.38 g cm−3 before traffic operation and between
1.16 to 1.45 g cm−3 following traffic operation (Fig. 4a). Results showed
that prior to traffic operation the BD values higher than 1.21 g cm−3
covered ~ 18% of the field; whereas after traffic operation ~ 98% of the
field had BD values higher than 1.21 g cm−3. For the 10–20 cm depth,
the BD ranged between 1.17 and 1.49 g cm−3 before traffic operation
and between 1.31 to 1.54 g cm−3 after traffic operation (Fig. 4b). The
BD values lower than 1.29 g cm−3 completely disappeared after traffic
operation; however, the areas with higher BD values were almost sim-
ilar. A significant variability in the spatial distribution of the BD was
also found for the 20–30 cm depth before and after traffic operations
(Fig. 4c). When ranges of influences were compared, it can be concluded
that larger ranges in 0–10 and 10–20 cm soil depths were found after
traffic operations. While the initial range of influence was 26.8 m in
the 0–10 cm depth, it increased to 70.2 m after traffic operation. These
values were found as 34.6 to 66.3 m and 55.5 to 50.1 m for 10–20 and
20–30 cm depths, respectively.

Table 5
Some descriptive statistics, semivariogram model and model parameters for total porosity at different depths of soil before and after field traffic operations.

Traffic operation Depth Min. Max. Range Mean Std. CV Best-fit Nugget (Co) Sill C/(Co + C) Range of influence r2
(cm) (%) model (Co + C) (A0)

Before 0–10 47.3 59.2 11.9 55.4 2.7 4.9 Spherical 0.72 7.82 0.91 26.8 0.99
10–20 43.1 55.3 12.2 49.3 2.9 5.9 Gaussian 0.24 8.40 0.97 34.5 0.99
20–30 44.3 55.0 10.7 48.8 2.9 5.9 Exponential 0.83 8.87 0.91 56.4 0.97
After 0–10 44.6 55.7 11.1 48.7 2.7 5.5 Spherical 0.85 8.31 0.89 66.8 0.56
10–20 41.2 50.0 8.88 46.6 2.3 4.9 Exponential 0.46 5.91 0.92 65.1 0.99
20–30 41.6 50.4 8.8 45.6 2.0 4.4 Spherical 0.31 3.75 0.92 50.4 0.83

Std. = Standard deviation, CV = Coefficient of variance.

 K. Barik et al. / Catena 120 (2014) 122–133 127

Table 6
Some descriptive statistics, semivariogram model and model parameters for penetration resistance at different depths of soil before and after field traffic operations.

Traffic operation Depth (cm) Min. Max. Range Mean Std. CV (%) Best-fit model Nugget (Co) Sill (Co + C) C/(Co + C) Range of influence (A0) r2

Before 0–10 0.42 5.69 5.27 2.01 1.41 70.15 Gaussian 0.22 1.65 0.87 103.0 0.99
10–20 1.48 7.07 5.59 3.41 1.27 37.24 Gaussian 0.58 3.12 0.82 89.8 0.99
20–30 1.52 7.02 5.50 3.47 1.38 39.77 Gaussian 0.76 2.54 0.70 105.1 0.99
After 0–10 0.54 7.14 6.60 3.51 1.49 42.45 Exponential 0.05 0.61 0.92 50.1 0.88
10–20 2.57 7.81 5.24 4.70 1.18 25.11 Exponential 0.21 1.36 0.84 52.2 0.99
20–30 2.39 7.86 5.47 4.82 1.29 26.76 Spherical 0.23 1.68 0.86 70.2 0.88

Std. = Standard deviation, CV = Coefficient of variance.

Significant increase in BD after traffic operations may be due to the
effects of degradation of macro-aggregates into micro-aggregates, pref-
erential loss of larger pores, and rearrangement of the micro-aggregates
and primary soil particles (Dorner et al., 2010; Materechera, 2009;
Matthews et al., 2010). This affirmation is closely related to soil texture
and organic carbon content which is found low in the study site
(Table 1). Organic matter not only increases intra-aggregate cohesion,
but also increases aggregate hydrophobicity (Blanco-Moure et al.,
2012). The increase in BD observed here confirms the decrease in total
porosity associated with compaction. A significantly higher BD at the
0–10 cm depth is due to the preferential changes in the surface proper-
ties over deeper depths, resulting from the close contact effects of
repeated tillage and field traffic operations, which are largely confined
at the surface depth. While the rate of increase in BD after traffic opera-
tion was 14.5% for 0–10 cm, it was found as 5.3 and 6.7% for 10–20 and
20–30 cm depths, respectively. The change in BD of the surface soil was
more than double the other depths.
A significant horizontal spatial distribution in the BD suggested that
compaction effects by traffic operations were not equally the same all
over the field, which may be due to the effects of variations in other
properties of soil. However, a lack of consistent variations in the vertical
spatial distribution of the BD values in response to traffic operations is
an indication of persistent subsoil compaction. Subsoil compaction has
been found to have harmful effects on many soil properties relevant
to soil workability, drainage, crop growth and environment (Fullen,
1985). These findings confirm the results of earlier studies (Utset and
Cid, 2001; Warrick and Nielsen, 1980).
3.4. Field traffic effects on soil total porosity
Traffic operation and soil depth significantly influenced the total po-
rosity (TP) with a traffic × depth interaction (Table 2). Averaged across
depth, while the initial TP was 51.2% it decreased to 47.0% with traffic
operation. The rate of decrease was 8.9% after traffic operation com-
pared to values measured before traffic operation. Irrespective of traffic
operations, the TP decreased with depth. Occurred decrease with depth,
55.4, 49.3 and 48.8% before traffic operation and 48.7, 46.6 and 45.6%
after traffic operation. For the 0–10 cm depth, while the initial TP was
55.4% it decreased to 48.7% after traffic operation. These values were
found as 49.3 to 46.6% and 48.8 to 45.6% for 10–20 and 20–30 cm
depths, respectively. While the rate of decrease in TP at the 0–10
depth was 12.1%, it was found as 5.5% for 10–20 and 6.6% for
20–30 cm depths. Significant interaction of traffic × depth indicated
that the depth distribution of TP influenced by traffic operations. Results
also suggested that the traffic operation exerted more pronounced
effects on the surface (0–10 cm) as compared to the deeper depths
(10–20 and 20–30 cm).
Spatial distribution in the TP at different depths before and after traf-
fic operations with the semivariogram model and model parameters are
presented in Fig. 5 and Table 5. For 0–10 cm depth, the TP varied be-
tween 47.3 and 59.2% before traffic operation and between 44.7 and
55.7% following traffic operation (Fig. 5a). For the 10–20 cm depth,
the TP ranged between 43.1 and 55.3% before traffic operation and
between 41.2 to 50.0% after traffic operation (Fig. 5b). A significant var-
iability in the spatial distribution of the TP was also found for 20–30 cm
depth before and after traffic operations (Fig. 5c). When ranges of
influences were compared, it can be concluded that larger ranges in
0–10 and 10–20 cm soil depths were found after traffic operations.
While the initial range of influence was 26.8 m in 0–10 cm depth, it
increased to 66.8 m after traffic operation. These values were found as
34.5 to 65.1 m and 56.4 to 50.4 m for 10–20 and 20–30 cm depths,
respectively.
Significantly lower TP after traffic operation is possibly due to the
weight and stress effects of heavy traffic vehicles and machinery
which resulted in soil structural deterioration. Since the traffic wheels
are in close contact with the near-surface of the soil, the effects on the
TP were more produced at the 0–10 cm depth than at the 10–20 and
20–30 cm depths. The change in TP of the surface soil was approximate-
ly twice of other depths. Decrease in TP is closely related with increase
in BD. For 0–10 cm depth 14.5% increase in BD decreased TP in the
rate of 12.1%. A similar relationship was also found for 10–20 and
20–30 cm depths. Hamza and Anderson (2005) stated that soil compac-
tion by wheels is characterized by a decrease in soil porosity localized in
the zone beneath the wheel and rut formation at the soil surface. Seker
and Isildar (2000) and Bulinski and Niemczyk (2001) have reported
that field traffic increased soil bulk density and compaction and
decreased total porosity. Results obtained support the opinion that the
impact of traffic on compaction is greater under loose soil conditions.
3.5. Field traffic effects on soil penetration resistance
Result showed that penetration resistance (PR) was affected by the
traffic operation and soil depth without a significant traffic × depth
interaction (Table 2). The PR for the depth of 0 to 10, 10 to 20 and 20
to 30 cm were 2.01, 3.41 and 3.47 MPa before traffic operation as
compared with 3.51, 4.70 and 4.82 MPa, respectively following traffic
operation. Irrespective of the traffic operations, the PR values increased
with increased depth. Averaged across depth, the PR increased by 43.3%

Table 7
Some descriptive statistics, semivariogram model and model parameters for volumetric moisture content at different depths of soil before and after field traffic operations.

Traffic operation Depth (cm) Min. Max. Range Mean Std. CV (%) Best-fit model Nugget (Co) Sill (Co + C) C/(Co + C) Range of influence (A0) r2

Before 0–10 0.93 2.00 1.07 1.41 0.28 1.98 Gaussian 0.01 9.8 0.99 49.2 0.99
10–20 1.18 2.18 1.00 1.72 0.29 1.67 Gaussian 0.64 10.9 0.94 59.8 0.99
20–30 1.17 2.04 0.87 1.62 0.25 1.55 Gaussian 3.36 8.5 0.60 82.8 0.98
After 0–10 0.70 2.15 1.45 1.66 0.39 2.35 Spherical 1.40 16.6 0.92 41.8 0.56
10–20 0.94 2.24 1.30 1.89 0.34 1.78 Spherical 0.36 7.2 0.95 70.2 0.83
20–30 0.93 2.18 1.25 1.79 0.29 1.64 Spherical 0.18 3.9 0.95 78.2 0.87

Std. = Standard deviation, CV = Coefficient of variance.

128 K. Barik et al. / Catena 120 (2014) 122–133
Before
After

0 to10 cm (a) 10 to 20 cm (b) 20 to 30 cm (c)

Fig. 3. Two-dimensional spatial variability distribution in aggregate stability (AS) at different soil depths (0 to 30 cm) before and after field traffic operations.

after traffic operation compared to its initial values (Fig. 6). For the
0–10 cm depth, while the initial PR was 2.01 it increased to 3.51 MPa
after traffic operation. These values were found as 3.41 to 4.70 MPa
Before
After
and 3.47 to 4.82 MPa for 10–20 and 20–30 cm depths, respectively.
While increase in PR at the 0–10 cm depth was 74.6%, it was found as
37.8% for 10–20 and 38.9% for 20–30 cm depths. Increase in PR at the

0 to10 cm (a) 10 to 20 cm (b) 20 to 30 cm (c)

Fig. 4. Two-dimensional spatial variability distribution in bulk density (BD) at different soil depths (0 to 30 cm) before and after field traffic operation.
 K. Barik et al. / Catena 120 (2014) 122–133
Before
After
0 to10 cm (a)
Fig. 5. Two-dimensional spatial variability distribution in total porosity (TP) at different soil depths (0 to 30 cm) before and after field traffic operation.
0–10 cm depth was approximately double that of the 10–20 and
20–30 cm depths. Increase in PR can be due to increase in bulk density
which resulted in a decrease in total porosity. Several researchers
have reported that an increase in bulk density and decrease in porosity
cause high penetration resistance values (Alexandrou and Earl, 1998;
Paradelo and Barral, 2013). After traffic operation, the PR values at the
0 to 10 cm depth increased to be comparable with those at the deeper
depths prior to traffic operation.
Spatial distribution of the PR values at different depths before and
after traffic operations with the semivariogram model and model pa-
rameters are presented in Fig. 7 and Table 6. For the 0 to 10 cm depth,
the PR values ranged between 0.42 to 5.69 MPa before traffic operation
as compared with 0.54 to 7.14 MPa following traffic operation (Fig. 7a).
The spatial variability in the PR at the 0 to 10 cm depth was significantly
higher following traffic operation. Except for a single measurement
point, the PR values were less than 3.0 MPa across the site before traffic
operation. Subsequently, the percentage of the area with a PR value less
than 3.0 MPa was only 26% following traffic operation. For the 10 to
20 cm depth, the PR values ranged between 1.48 to 7.07 MPa before
traffic operation and between 2.57 to 7.81 MPa after traffic operation
Penetration resistance, MPa
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
Depth, cm
10
20
30
Fig. 6. Penetration resistance curves of the soil studied.
129
10 to 20 cm (b) 20 to 30 cm (c)
(Fig. 7b). The spatial variability in the PR values before and after traffic
operations was significant (p ≤ 0.05). For the 20 to 30 cm depth, the
PR ranged between 1.52 to 7.02 MPa before traffic operation and be-
tween 2.39 to 7.86 MPa after traffic operation (Fig. 7c). However, the
differences in spatial distribution of the PR values before and after traffic
operations were non-significant. This can be due to high range values,
standard deviation and coefficient of variance (Table 6).
Since compaction is a phenomenon based on degradation of macro-
aggregate stability and reduction in total porosity with an associated in-
crease in BD in a given mass of soil, the significantly higher values of PR
are obviously in response to repeated traffic operations. Our results on
PR in response to traffic operations were in close agreement with the
results of other studies, such as Gupta and Raper (1994). Several studies
have reported that if the PR values are more than 2 MPa, plant root
growth in soil is limited (Castrignano et al., 2002; Hakansson and
Lipiec, 2000; Hamza and Anderson, 2003, 2005).
A significant spatial variability in the PR values at the surface
indicated that traffic induced compaction levels were not uniformly dis-
tributed all over the field. These results suggested that compaction was
more obvious at the surface as compared to the deeper depths. Further-
more, surface spatial variability in the PR values is significantly affected
by traffic operations, which generates compacted soil volumes under
close contact with the wheel tracks and is responsible for heterogeneity
in surface soil properties (Castrignano et al., 2003; Richard et al., 1999).
However, a lack of significant variation in the BD values among soil
6 depths by traffic operations is an indication of inherited compaction.
Before 3.6. Field traffic effects on soil moisture content
After
Averaged across depth, the volumetric soil moisture (VMC) contents
of the soil have significantly increased by 12.7% after traffic operation
from that measured prior to traffic operation (Table 2). While it is
expected that with the increase in BD and PR occurs decrease in VMC
due to reduction in the total porosity, this is not always true for the
calculation of volumetric water content. An increase in bulk density, at
almost constant gravimetric water content, increases the volumetric
water content. Volumetric soil moisture increases when the stress
130 K. Barik et al. / Catena 120 (2014) 122–133
Before
After

0 to10 cm (a) 10 to 20 cm (b) 20 to 30 cm (c)

Fig. 7. Two-dimensional spatial distribution variability in penetration resistance (PR) at different soil depths (0 to 30 cm) before and after field traffic operations.

applied increases or soil porosity decreases (Richard et al., 1999). Traffic
operations significantly increased the VMC. For the 0–10 cm depth,
while the initial VMC was 1.41 it increased to 1.66 after traffic operation.
Before
After
These values were found as 1.72 to 1.89 and 1.62 to 1.79 for 10–20 and
20–30 cm depths, respectively (Table 2). No significant interaction of
traffic × depth was obtained for VMC content.

0 to10 cm (a) 10 to 20 cm (b) 20 to 30 cm (c)

Fig. 8. Two-dimensional spatial variability distribution in volumetric moisture content (VMC) at different soil depths (0 to 30 cm) before and after field traffic operations.
 K. Barik et al. / Catena 120 (2014) 122–133 131

Spatial distribution in the VMC contents at different depths before
and after traffic operations with semivariogram model and model
parameters are presented in Fig. 8 and Table 7. For the 0 to 10 cm
depth, the VMC ranged between 0.93 to 2.00 mm before traffic opera-
tion and between 0.70 to 2.15 mm following traffic operation (Fig. 8a).
However, both the minimum and maximum values of the VMC before
and after traffic operations did not vary significantly. For the 10 to
20 cm depth, the VMC ranged between 1.18 and 2.18 mm before traffic
operation and between 0.94 and 2.24 mm following traffic operation
(Fig. 8b). Similarly, both the minimum and maximum VMC values be-
fore and after traffic operations did not vary significantly. For the 20 to
30 cm depth, the VMC varied between 1.17 and 2.04 mm before traffic
operation and between 0.93 and 2.18 mm after traffic operation
(Fig. 8c). However, the spatial distribution of the VMC contents before
and after field traffic operations did not show any significant variations.
Moreover, both the minimum and maximum VMC contents before and
after traffic operations did not vary significantly.
A significant variation in the VMC content between pre- and post-
traffic operations is due to the effects on the changes in the AS, BD, TP
and PR. The preferential loss of macroporosity and rearrangement of
the micro-aggregates and primary soil particles from degradation of
AS in response to field traffic operations may have increased moisture
retention. These results agree with those obtained by Ohu et al.
(1994), Mamman and Ohu (1997) and Dauda and Samari (2002). How-
ever, a lack of consistent variations in the vertical distribution of the
VMC values is an indication of inherited and persistent compaction.

Fig. 9. Relationship among bulk density (BD), penetration resistance (PR), aggregate stability (AS) and volumetric moisture content (VMC) of soil.
132 K. Barik et al. / Catena 120 (2014) 122–133
3.7. Relationship among soil compaction properties
Regression analyses have shown that the BD had a moderate and
positive linear relationship with the PR before (r = 0.42) and after
(r = 0.38) traffic operations (Fig. 9a). However, the positive linear rela-
tionship between the BD and VMC was very weak (Fig. 9b) both before
and after traffic operations. In contrast, the AS has shown a weak linear
and inverse relationship (r = 0.29) with the BD before traffic operation
(Fig. 9c). However, the AS did not show any relationships (r = 0.08)
with the BD after traffic operation. In other words, the AS was adversely
affected by traffic operations. The PR has shown a variable linear rela-
tionship with the AS before and after traffic operations (Fig. 9d). The
AS did not show any relationships (r = 0.04) with the PR before traffic
operation; however, the AS has shown a weak linear and negative rela-
tionship (r = 0.25) with the PR after traffic operation. Likewise, the PR
has shown a variable response with the VMC (Fig. 9e). The PR and VMC
were weakly and negatively related (r = 0.17) before traffic and weakly
and positively related (r = 0.14) in a linear manner after traffic opera-
tion. The AS and VMC did not show any relationships before and after
traffic operations (Fig. 9f).
Among the indicators of compaction, the AS and PR was greatly
affected by the traffic operations as compared to BD, TP and VMC. This
affirmation can be explained by the spatial distribution of AS and PR,
which showed a highly significant variability before and after traffic
operations for all soil depths (Table 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7).
4. Conclusions
Results suggested that repeated field traffic operations spatially and
significantly influenced the aggregate stability and increased bulk den-
sity, penetration resistance, volumetric moisture content and decreased
total porosity as indicators of soil compaction.
- The effects on the AS, BD, TP, PR and VMC were more produced at
the 0–10 cm depth than at the 10–20 and 20–30 cm depths due to the
preferential changes in the surface properties over deeper depths,
resulting from the close contact effects of field traffic operations,
which are largely confined at the surface depth. The change in BD and
TP of the surface soil was approximately double other depths.
- Among the indicators of compaction, the AS and PR was greatly
affected by the traffic operations as compared to BD, TP and VMC.
- The results of this experiment illustrated the possibility of using
kriging in soil compaction studies. Knowledge on the spatial distribu-
tion can be used for development management options that minimize
production risks and the harmful impact of traffic.
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