Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is a type of oscillatory motion where the restoring force is

directly proportional to the displacement and acts in the direction opposite to that of
displacement.
SHM can be classified into two types:
1 Linear SHM
- Definition: Linear SHM occurs when a particle oscillates along a straight line about a fixed
point, known as the equilibrium position.
- Example: The motion of a simple pendulum for small angles of displacement is an example
of linear SHM.
2 Angular SHM
- Definition: Angular SHM is a type of SHM where the particle oscillates along a circular
path. It is the projection of Uniform Circular Motion (UCM) along any diameter of the circular
path.
- Example: The motion of a torsional pendulum, where the pendulum oscillates in a circular
path, is an example of angular SHM.

Periodic Motion: This is a type of motion that repeats itself after a fixed interval of time. The
interval is known as the period of motion.
Types of Periodic Motion:
- Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM):
- Definition: SHM is a special type of periodic motion where the restoring force is directly
proportional to the displacement and acts in the direction opposite to that of displacement.
- Example: The motion of a simple pendulum for small angles of displacement is an example
of SHM.
- Uniform Circular Motion (UCM):
- Definition: UCM is a type of periodic motion where an object moves in a circular path with a
constant speed.
- Example: The motion of the earth around the sun is an example of UCM.
Oscillatory Motion: This is a type of motion in which an object moves to and fro about a mean
position. All oscillatory motions are periodic, but the converse is not true.
Types of Oscillatory Motion:
- Free Oscillation:
- Definition: This occurs when a system oscillates under the action of forces inherent in the
system itself, after an initial disturbance.
- Example: The swinging of a simple pendulum in the absence of air resistance is an example
of free oscillation.
- Damped Oscillation:
- Definition: This occurs when the amplitude of oscillation decreases over time due to resistive
forces such as friction or air resistance.
- Example: The swinging of a simple pendulum in the presence of air resistance is an example
of damped oscillation.
- Forced Oscillation:
 - Definition: This occurs when an external periodic force is applied to keep the oscillatory
motion.
- Example: A child being pushed on a swing is an example of forced oscillation.

- Linear Oscillation:

Definition: Linear oscillation is a motion in a straight line back and forth about a central position.
The motion is governed by Hooke’s law, which states that the force required to extend or
compress a spring by some distance is proportional to that distance.
Example: A mass-spring system, where the mass is oscillating back and forth on a frictionless
surface, is an example of linear oscillation.

- Circular Oscillation:
Definition: Circular oscillation, also known as angular or rotational oscillation, involves an
object rotating back and forth about a central axis. The motion is similar to linear oscillation, but
it occurs in a circular path.
Example: A pendulum swinging back and forth is an example of circular oscillation. The
pendulum moves in an arc, which is a segment of a circle. Hence, the motion is circular or
angular.

Oscillatory System
An oscillatory system is an object or a mechanism that moves back and forth, repeatedly
returning to its initial state after a period of time. This repetitive or periodic variation typically
occurs in time, about a central value (often a point of equilibrium) or between two or more
different states. The system is in an equilibrium state when the spring is static. If the system is
displaced from the equilibrium, there is a net restoring force on the mass, tending to bring it back
to equilibrium.
Types of Oscillatory Systems
There are three main types of oscillatory systems:
1. Free Oscillation: This occurs when a system oscillates under the action of forces
inherent in the system itself, and the amplitude of oscillation decreases over time due to
damping.
2. Damped Oscillation: This is when the amplitude of oscillation decreases over time due
to resistive forces such as friction or drag.
3. Forced Oscillation: This occurs when an external force drives the system to oscillate at a
specific frequency.
Examples of Oscillatory Systems
1. Free Oscillation: A simple pendulum swinging back and forth is an example of
free oscillation.
 2. Damped Oscillation: A guitar string that has been plucked will vibrate at its
natural frequency, but the amplitude of the vibration will decrease over time due
to air resistance, which is an example of damped oscillation.
3. Forced Oscillation: A child being pushed on a swing is an example of forced
oscillation. The external force (the push) keeps the swing moving back and forth
at a specific frequency.

Mechanical Oscillatory Systems

Mechanical oscillatory systems are physical systems that exhibit periodic motion due to the
forces inherent in the system itself. The simplest mechanical oscillating system is a weight
attached to a linear spring subject to only weight and tension. When the system is displaced from
its equilibrium, there is a net restoring force on the mass, tending to bring it back to equilibrium.
Examples of mechanical oscillatory systems include a pendulum swinging back and forth and a
mass attached to a spring.

Non-Mechanical Oscillatory Systems

Non-mechanical oscillatory systems, on the other hand, are not limited to physical or mechanical
systems. They can be found in virtually every area of science.
For example, the beating of the human heart (for circulation), business cycles in economics,
predator–prey population cycles in ecology, geothermal geysers in geology, vibration of strings
in guitar and other string instruments, periodic firing of nerve cells in the brain, and the periodic
swelling of Cepheid variable stars in astronomy. These systems also exhibit oscillatory behavior,
but the forces at play are not mechanical in nature.

Frequency
Frequency is the number of complete cycles or oscillations that occur in a unit of time. It is the
inverse of the period, meaning that the frequency (f) is equal to one divided by the period (T), or
f = 1/T2. The unit for frequency is the hertz (Hz), which is equivalent to one cycle per second2.
For example, if a guitar string vibrates 440 times per second, the frequency of the vibration is
440 Hz2.

Period
The period of an oscillatory system is the time it takes for the system to complete one full cycle
of motion.
Total time taken
P= .
Number of oscillation
For example, if you have a pendulum that swings back and forth, the period would be the time it
takes for the pendulum to return to its starting position. The period is usually denoted by the
symbol T and is measured in units of time, such as seconds.

Frequency
Frequency is the number of complete cycles or oscillations that occur in a unit of time. It is the
inverse of the period, meaning that the frequency (f) is equal to one divided by the period (T), or
f = 1/T2. The unit for frequency is the hertz (Hz), which is equivalent to one cycle per second.
Number of oscillation
F=
Time Taken

For example, if a guitar string vibrates 440 times per second, the frequency of the vibration is
440 Hz.

Amplitude
Amplitude refers to the maximum displacement of an oscillating object from its equilibrium
position. In simpler terms, it represents the furthest point the object reaches on either side of its
resting position during its back-and-forth motion.
For example, when a guitar string is plucked, the amplitude would be how far the string moves
from its resting position at the peak of its vibration. The amplitude of an oscillation can be
related to the energy involved in the oscillation, with larger amplitudes corresponding to larger
amounts of energy.

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) and Hooke’s Law

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is a type of periodic motion where the restoring force is
directly proportional to the displacement. It is characterized by its sinusoidal nature,
demonstrating a single resonant frequency.
Hooke’s Law states that the force (F) needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance
(x) scales linearly with respect to that distance. That is, F = -kx, where k is a constant factor
characteristic of the spring, its stiffness.
Example: Consider a mass attached to a spring. If the mass is displaced from its equilibrium
position, the spring exerts a restoring force that tries to bring the mass back to the equilibrium
position. This back-and-forth motion of the mass is an example of SHM 1. The force you need to
apply to stretch the spring is proportional to the amount of stretch. If you double the stretch, you
need to apply double the force. This is an example of Hooke’s Law in action.

Relationship between SHM and Hooke’s Law

The relationship between SHM and Hooke’s Law is quite direct. The simplest oscillations occur
when the restoring force is directly proportional to displacement. This situation is described by
Hooke’s law with the equation F = -kx. Therefore, Hooke’s law describes and applies to the
simplest case of oscillation, known as simple harmonic motion.
Example: A swing in a park is an example of simple harmonic motion. The back and forth,
repetitive movements of the swing against the restoring force is the simple harmonic motion. The
restoring force in this case is provided by gravity, and the force required to push the swing back
to its starting position is an example of Hooke’s Law in action.
Simple Harmonic Motion
-Is a special type of oscillatory motion caused by a restoring force which obeys Hooke’s law. In
simple harmonic motion acceleration is always directly proportional in size but opposite in
direction to its displacement.
Restoring Force- is a force that returns a displaced body to its original position.
Due to Hooke’s law; F = -Kx
Newton’s second law; F = ma
K
F = ma = -kx → a=−( )x → a=− w2 x ; K= spring constant, w = angular frequency
M
Not all periodic motions over the same path can be classified as simple harmonic motion.
Characteristics of Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

1. The Amplitude A is constant

2. The frequency and period are independent of the Amplitude.
3. The fluctuating quantity can be expressed in terms of Sinusoidal Function or Singular
Frequency.
4. Periodic Motion: SHM is a type of periodic motion that repeats itself after an equal
interval of time.
5. Restoring Force: In SHM, the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement
of the body from its mean position. The direction of this restoring force is always towards
the mean position
6. Acceleration: The acceleration of a particle executing SHM is given by a(t) = -ω^2 *
x(t), where ω is the angular velocity of the particle.
7. Equilibrium Position: The motion is back and forth through an equilibrium, or central,
position. The maximum displacement on one side of this position is equal to the
maximum displacement on the other side
8. Period and Frequency: In the absence of friction, the time to complete one oscillation
remains constant and is called the period (T). Its units are usually seconds. Frequency (f)
is defined to be the number of events per unit time. For periodic motion, frequency is the
number of oscillations per unit time. The relationship between frequency and period is f =
1/T.
 9. Phase Shift: Phase shift refers to the displacement of two waves along the axis of the
direction of propagation. In SHM, phase shift can occur depending on the initial
conditions of the motion.
10. Energy Conservation: In SHM, the total energy (sum of kinetic and potential energy)
remains constant if there is no damping.
11. Sinusoidal Nature: The displacement, velocity, and acceleration in SHM vary with time
in a sinusoidal manner.
For Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) to occur, the following conditions must be met:

1. Restoring Force: There must be an elastic restoring force acting on the system. This
force is directly proportional to the displacement of the body from its mean position. The
direction of this restoring force is always towards the mean position.
2. Acceleration: The acceleration of the system should be directly proportional to its
displacement and is always directed towards the mean position. The acceleration of a
particle executing SHM is given by a(t) = -ω^2 * x(t), where ω is the angular velocity of
the particle.
3. Inertia: The system must have inertia. This means that the system must have the property
of resisting changes in its state of motion.
4. Equilibrium Position: The motion is back and forth through an equilibrium, or central,
position. The maximum displacement on one side of this position is equal to the
maximum displacement on the other side.
Examples of systems that can undergo SHM include a pendulum of a clock, a mass on a spring,
and guitar strings. These systems are always periodic, meaning they repeat their motion in
regular intervals according to their frequency or time period.
Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration in a SHM
1. Displacement: Displacement (x) is the distance of the particle from its equilibrium or
mean position at any given time. It is maximum at the extreme positions and zero at the
mean position. The general equation for displacement in SHM is given by x(t) = A cos(ωt
+ φ), where A is the amplitude, ω is the angular frequency, t is time, and φ is the phase
shift.
2. Velocity: Velocity (v) is the rate of change of displacement. It is maximum when the
particle passes through the mean position and is zero at the extreme positions 3. The
velocity of a particle in SHM can be calculated using the equation v(t) = -Aω sin(ωt + φ).
3. Acceleration: Acceleration (a) is the rate of change of velocity. It is always directed
towards the mean position and is maximum at the extreme positions. The acceleration of
a particle in SHM can be calculated using the equation a(t) = -ω²x = -ω²A cos(ωt + φ).
Examples:
A Simple Pendulum: When a pendulum swings, it exhibits SHM. The displacement is the
horizontal distance the pendulum bob moves. The velocity is the speed of the bob along its path,
and the acceleration is due to gravity pulling the bob back towards the equilibrium.
 A Spring-Mass System: When a mass attached to a spring is displaced from its equilibrium
position, it experiences a restoring force proportional to the displacement. The mass then
undergoes SHM where the displacement is the stretch or compression of the spring, the velocity
is the speed of the mass, and the acceleration is due to the restoring force.

Displacement: x= A sin (wt )

Velocity: v=W Acos (wt )

Acceleration: a=w 2 Asin ( wt ) = − w2 x

Vmax = WA
amax = w 2 A

The Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum is a basic physics apparatus consisting of a mass (known as the pendulum
bob) suspended from a fixed point by a string or rod. It is a classic example of periodic motion,
where the pendulum swings back and forth in a regular and repeating pattern.
The simple pendulum is defined to have an object that has a small mass, also known as the
pendulum bob, which is suspended from a light wire or string. When displaced to an initial angle
and released, the pendulum will swing back and forth with periodic motion.
The mean position in a simple pendulum is usually the point from where the vertical line passes.
The displacement is the arc length s, the length of the arc. The net force on the bob is tangent to
the arc and equals mgsinθ, where mg is the weight and θ is the angle.
Examples:
1. Clocks: Pendulums are used to regulate the movement of clocks because the interval of
time for each complete oscillation, called the period, is constant.
2. Swings: Some pendulums are for fun, such as a child’s swing.
3. Fishing Line: Some are just there, such as the sinker on a fishing line.
 A simple pendulum is another mechanical system that exhibits periodic motion.

F=mg sin θ ……. Restoring Force

nd
F=ma ……. Newton’s 2 Law

x
ma=− mg sinθ ; a=g sin θ…..sin θ=
L
x
∴ a=− g
L
2 g
w= …….. a=− x w 2
L

√
2
2π g 2π L
→( ) = ….. w= ; ∴ T =2 π ………. Period of Simple Pendulum
T L T g

T =2 π
√ I ……. Period of Compound Pendulum.
MgL

Energy Of the Simple Harmonic Oscillator

The energy of a simple harmonic oscillator, a system that performs simple harmonic motion,
continuously interchanges between potential and kinetic energy1. The total energy of the
oscillator remains constant in the absence of friction2.
The potential energy in a simple harmonic oscillator is given by the energy stored in the
deformation of the system, which can be represented as:
1 2
P Eel = k x
2

where k is the spring constant and x is the displacement 3. The kinetic energy of the oscillator is
given by:
1 2
KE= m v
2

where m is the mass of the oscillator and v is its velocity 3. The conservation of energy for these
two forms is:
KE + P Eel =¿ constant
 1 2 1 2
E=PE+ KE ….. KE= m v , PE= K x
2 2
1 2
Total Energy of Simple Harmonic Oscillator → E= K A
2
The energy of SHM is constant and proportional to the square of amplitude.

5.3 Wave and its characteristics

- All waves carry energy and momentum.
- The amount of energy transmitted through a medium and the mechanism responsible for the
transport of energy differ from case to case.

Wave is a disturbance from normal or equal equilibrium condition that travels or propagates,
carrying energy and momentum through space without the transport of matter.
Pulse – is a single disturbance travelling into a medium.
Types of Waves
1) Mechanical Waves- are waves that requires material to be produced and traveled
through.
2) Electromagnetic waves= are produced by accelerated charged particles and can
propagate through both material and vacuum.
Types of Wave Motion
1) Longitudinal Wave- is a wave where the direction of the disturbance is parallel to the
direction of the wave motion.
2) Transverse Wave- is where the direction of disturbance is perpendicular to the direction
of the wave motion.
5.4. Resonance
- is a phenomenon in which an external force or a vibrating system forces another system
around it to vibrate with greater amplitude at a specified frequency of operation.
-The resonant frequency of the body - the frequency at which the second body starts
oscillating or vibrating at higher amplitude.
- Resonance increases the Amplitude of vibrating body.
5.5 The Doppler Effect
 - It refers to the change in frequency of a wave in relation to an observer who is moving
relative to the wave source.
The Doppler Effect causes a shift in the pitch or frequency of sound based on the relative
motion between the source of the sound and the observer.
V ±Vo
F o=F s ( ) ; F o=¿¿Frequency heard by the observer
V ∓V s
F s=¿¿ Frequency emitted by source

Characteristics of Wave
1) Reflection of Wave- Reflection occurs when a wave bounces back from a surface, like a
pulse on a fixed string reaching a wall.
2) Refraction of Wave - Wave direction is the alteration in speed of a wave as it moves
from one medium to another.
3) Diffraction of Wave - Diffraction is the spreading of waves around obstacles, involving
sound, electromagnetic radiation, and small particles. It results in the absence of sharp
shadows due to interference and is most pronounced when radiation wavelengths match
obstacles' dimensions.
4) Interference of Wave - Wave interference occurs when two or more wave trains move
on intersecting paths, resulting in a complex wave with amplitudes affected by multiple
waves. This can cause a pulsating frequency called a beat.
5.6 Image Formation by Thin Lenses and Mirrors
If the reflecting surface of mirrors is flat then it’s called a plane mirror. Light always has
regular reflection on plane mirrors. If the light first hits the mirror, and then reflects with the
same angle, the extensions of the reflecting rays are focused at one point behind the mirror.
The distance of the image to the mirror is equal to the distance of the object to the mirror.
5.6.1 Image Formed by Lenses
Lens is an optical system with 2 refracting surfaces. The two type of lenses are convex and
concave lenses. A lens is a part of transparent thick glass which is bounded by 2 spherical
surfaces; it is an optical device through which rays of light convey or diverge before
transmitting.
- Convex Lenses: Converging Lenses thickest at their center and converge a beam of
parallel light to real focus.
- Concave Lenses: diverging Lenses thinnest at their center and diverge a beam of parallel
light from a virtual focus.
 The equation that relates object and image distances for a lens is identical to the mirror
1 1 1
equation. + = .
s o si F

Magnification is defined as the ratio of image height (ℎ¿ ¿i)¿ to object height ℎ o or ratio of
ℎi si
image distances (si ) to object distance (so ). m= =
ℎo so

Concave lenses include Plano-concave lenses (which are flat on one side and curled inward
on the other), concave meniscus (these lenses are curved inward on one side and on the outer
side it’s curved less strongly).
Concave lens is the lens which always produce erect, diminished and virtual image. Concave
lens forms these types of images because of the following reasons:
 It always forms a virtual image (at the same side of the object).
 It cannot be obtained on a screen i.e., not real.
The enlarged, real and inverted image can be obtained by the concave mirror.
Virtual images never be obtained on a screen and formed at the same side but in real image it is
formed at the screen which is at the opposite side of the object.