Soil& Tillage Research, 23 ( 1 9 9 2 ) 6 1 - 7 2 61

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., A m s t e r d a m

Changes in soil structure induced by wheel traffic

and growth of perennial grass

J.T. Douglas a, A.J. Koppi b't and C.J. Moran c

aScottish Centre of Agricultural Engineering, Bush Estate, Penicuik, EH26 OPH, UK
OSoil Science, School of Crop Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, N.S. W. 2006, Australia
cCSIRO, Division of Soils, P.O. Box 639, Canberra, A.C.T. 2601, Australia
(Accepted 16 August 1991 )

ABSTRACT

Douglas, J.T., Koppi, A.J. and Moran, C.J., 1992. Changes in soil structure induced by wheel traffic
and growth of perennial grass. Soil Tillage Res., 23:61-72.

Soil structure was characterised in a grassland soil that had been compacted in the first, second and
fourth years after establishment by a range of tyre-soil contact stresses. The largest of the stresses
consistently reduced the annual yields of herbage during the 4 year period. Topsoil properties were
assessed by bulk density (from the layer 0-120 m m deep), vane shear strength measurements and
quantitative image analysis of macroporosity in soil blocks (from the layer 0-100 mm deep). Each
method showed generally better soil structure in the relatively uncompacted treatments; dry bulk
density at the 30 m m depth had decreased in each treatment between the first and fourth years after
sward establishment. In the fourth year, core sample density and pore structure attributes from the
image analysis procedure showed that the soil close to the soil surface was similar in all treatments.
This similarity could be attributed to an increase in pore space in initially heavily compacted soil and
could be attributed, at least in part, to the presence of pore space associated with the crownal area of
the living sward.

INTRODUCTION

Soil under grass forage crops is compacted and its pore structure damaged
by vehicle and machinery traffic during harvesting and a number of other
field operations (Gaheen and Nj~s, 1977; Rasmussen and M~ller, 1981;
Douglas et al., 1991 ). However, perennial grass crops are known to improve
aspects of soil structure (Low, 1955; Russell, 1976), particularly after a pe-
riod of annual arable cropping. For example, Bui (1968) showed that grass
roots could promote changes in soil porosity by aggregating fine soil, and by
breaking down coarse structures in shrinking soil. The axial and radial exten-
sions of growing roots exert stresses (Hettiaratchi and Ferguson, 1973 ) which

~Work carried out as a visiting worker at the Scottish Centre of Agricultural Engineering.

© 1992 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved 0 1 6 7 - 1 9 8 7 / 9 2 / $ 0 5 . 0 0

62 J.T. DOUGLASET AL.

may form or enlarge cylindrical macropores. Reid and Goss (1980) sug-
gested that ryegrass roots release organic materials which stabilise the sur-
rounding soil. Troughton ( 1957 ) and D e i n u m ( 1985 ) reported that the ma-
jor portion (up to 85%) of grass root systems develop in the top 100 m m of
the soil. Additional contributions to structural changes in untilled soil will be
made by freezing and by faunal activity. In view of the conflict between dam-
aging and restorative activities in grassland, and in order that the greatest
possible benefits of any ameliorative processes may be gained, it is important
to know something of the morphology of soil structure under grass.
The objectives of the work reported here were to describe the degree of
compaction in the upper 120 m m and the structural features in the upper 100
m m of the profile of a soil, compacted to three different levels, after 4 years
of growing grass. The indistinct soil surface boundary under crops can inter-
fere with the depth resolution of coring and gauge intrusion methods (Camp-
bell and Henshall, 1991 ). Therefore, we employed an additional technique of
image analysis on intact minimally disturbed soil block samples, in which the
soil surface formed one side of the block.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Site, location, soil and crop

The experiment was situated at Glencorse Mains Farm, 10 km south of

Edinburgh, where the average rainfall is 866 mm. The site altitude is 200 m
and the topography is gently undulating; the soil is an imperfectly drained
clay loam soil of the Winton series (Ragg and Futty, 1967 ), with 22% clay in
the topsoil.
A perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L., var. Talbot) sward was estab-
lished in 1986 by drilling after ploughing out a similar 1 year grass crop. Til-
lage and seeding were completed using a tractor and equipment modified to
operate with a 2.8 m wheel track between plots. The plots in three-fold repli-
cation were 14 m X 2.4 m and comprised part of a randomised experiment on
compaction and fertiliser-nitrogen effects on grass production (Douglas and
Crawford, 1988, 1991 ). Three levels of topsoil compaction, nominally zero
(Z), small (S) and large (L) were created by subjecting the entire area of
plots to either Z, S (40 kPa m a x i m u m ) or L ( 100 kPa m a x i m u m ) tyre-soil
contact stresses from tractor traffic prior to spring fertiliser application in
1987 (twice), 1988 and 1990. On each occasion, the soil water content was
above the plastic limit of 30% w/w, and was at 35% w/w, 32% w / w and 34%
w / w in 1987, 1988 and 1990, respectively.
WHEEL AND GRASS EFFECTS ON SOIL STRUCTURE 63

Grass yield

The yield of grass was measured three times each year when silage was cut
(usually in June, August and October). Three 0.1 m X 1 m samples were cut
from each plot using hand held battery-operated clippers. Dry matter produc-
tion was calculated after oven-drying the samples at 103 ° C.

Soil structure assessment

Soil dry bulk density was measured in a u t u m n 1990 at two positions per
plot at 30 m m intervals to a depth of 120 m m using a high resolution gamma-
ray system (Henshall and Campbell, 1983 ). At the same time, duplicate in-
tact cores in steel cylinders (73 m m in diameter) were collected from soil
depths of 0-50 and 50-100 mm. Bulk density and water content were calcu-
lated after drying at 105 °C. Vane shear strength was measured at six positions
per plot using a hand held tester fitted with a cruciform vane ( 30 m m high by
19 m m in diameter) centred at a depth of 50 mm.
For photography of pore structure and image analysis thereof, five samples
were collected in May 1990 from plots of each of the three compaction treat-
ments (Z, S and L) in close proximity to core sampling and vane shear test
positions. Soil blocks, of side length approximately 150 m m , were cut intact
from the topsoil with a sharpened thin-bladed stout trowel. The soil blocks,
at about field capacity water content, were secured in tape to impart strength,
and in plastic film to prevent drying.Without drying the soil, an epoxy resin
mixture (Ciba-Geigy, Melbourne, Vic.) comprising resin LC 191 (170 g),
diluent DY 026 (170 g), hardener LC 249 (160 g), Oracet Yellow 8GF flu-
orescent dye (0.5 g) and opacifier DW 0131 ( 5 g) was poured onto an hori-
zontal exposed vertical face of soil that had been previously prepared by shal-
low picking with a knife to remove the cut smeared layer. The resin permeated
a few centimetres into the soil and set hard in about 48 h. The surface was cut
back with a disc grinder to expose a fresh, fiat, resin-impregnated surface.
Care was taken to grind below the depth of picking. This surface was cleaned
and the resin mixture was applied to fill any empty macropores. Excess resin
on the surface was removed by grinding. The time taken from sampling to
having a block ready for image production could take 5 days with the exact
time depending on the ambient temperature during the resin curing phases.
The central 100 m m × 100 m m area of the prepared surface of each block,
including what was the soil surface in the field, was photographed under UV
light ( 2 x 175 W) using Ilford FP4 film at f 5 . 6 and 12 s exposure. The pho-
tographs were printed on high contrast paper. The pore space was highly con-
spicuous because of the fluorescent dye. Digital binary (black and white ) im-
ages as described by Moran et al. ( 1989 ) were obtained from the photographs.
The pore structure attributes of the soil macropore structure were obtained
64 J.T. DOUGLAS ET AL.

from each image of 512 X 512 pixels as described in detail by McBratney and
Moran (1990). Briefly, these are: porosity (proportion of pore pixels for each
horizontal raster in cubic millimetres per cubic millimetre ), pore or solid sur-
face area (area of intercepts of pore and solid (i.e. interfacial area ) along hor-
izontal raster lines in square millimetres per cubic millimetre), pore star length
(expected continuous length of pore in a horizontal direction in millimetres)
and solid star length (expected continuous length of solid in a horizontal di-
rection in millimetres). The imaging system used was that described by Moran
et al. (1990). The smallest macropores that were resolved had a diameter of
0.195 mm.

RESULTS

Grassyield

In each year, total herbage yield from the L compaction treatment was sig-
nificantly less than that from the Z compaction treatment (Table 1 ), al-
though the difference declined with time (Fig. 1 ). There were similar, though
less pronounced, trends in the comparison between the Z and S compaction
treatments.

Bulk density, water content and vane shear strength

Soil dry bulk density profiles are shown in Fig. 2 together with those ob-
tained in 1987 and reported elsewhere (Douglas and Crawford, 1991 ).In 1987
density was significantly greater in L than in Z and S throughout the 0-120
m m layer, but in 1990 the difference was smaller, and statistical significance
was confined to the 120 m m depth. This convergence would have accounted,
at least in part, for the trend of decreasing differences in herbage yield ob-
served during the course of the experiment.
Bulk density calculated from the intact core samples confirmed the similar-

TABLE 1

A n n u a l total dry m a t t e r yields for 1 9 8 7 - 1 9 9 0

Compaction treatment Dry m a t t e r yield (t h a - ~)

1987 1988 1989 1990

Z 14.5 12.5 12.8 12.7

S 12.9 11.1 11.8 12.0
L 9.3 9.0 11.3 11.2
lsd ~ 1.28 1.05 1.22 1.10

lsd, least significant difference, P < 0.05.

Z, zero; S, small; L, large.
WHEELAND GRASSEFFECTSON SOILSTRUCTURE 65

100

90

80
;>
t~
g~ 70'

60 i i i

1987 1988 1989 1990

Year

Fig. 1. The herbage yield in the S and L compaction t r e a t m e n t s relative to that in the Z compac-
tion treatment.
Dry bulk density (Mg m -3)

1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

I I I I I I I I
0 I I

s.e.d.

50"

02
100"

150
Fig. 2. The bulk density profiles for each t r e a t m e n t for 1987 and 1990 (curves from left to right
at the top: Z, S and L for 1990; Z, S and L for 1987); s.e.d, is the standard error o f difference
between the means.

TABLE 2

Soil dry bulk density, water content and vane shear strength, October 1990

Compaction Dry bulk density Water content Vane shear

treatment (mg m -3) (% w / w ) strength (kPa)

0-50 m m 50-100 mm lsd ~ 0-50 mm 50-100 mm centre at 50 mm

Z 1.12 1.33 0.128 34 31 44
S 1.12 1.33 0.112 36 30 54
L 1.13 1.41 0.010 36 27 81
lsd ~ ns 0.047 ns ns 6.5
qsd, least significant difference, P < 0.05.
Z, zero; S, small; L, large.
 • .--..~ " ~ '~ .. .
v

~' " ~2 4 ~;~:.," ~ (

~...~ ~~ ,;.. "~.,~ ,~, . ' . ~ f ,~. , . '~..' ~,,~

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B~" .~.~
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,; h:~.;*i ' - .~ .
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X e • " , ~:,"~ ~ :I
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,~
~ •
..
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o • . ~ , .!." ~ :

•- ~ ,.'..- III ~ .~ ~.,,, ~., ;

~,', . ~
o.~.

~,- ,. ? . , ,~
•' • , " • "~',~ • '" ~ L 7" ~ 1".

A ,j~J,~t.e ~ , . • t "i'. ~% ~ ,' .l

.~ '"'. ~" ",J. ~ - ~It'~.~*~'.;,~l
• ~ .'~ k- ." '~. ~@.; ;;~I ',..:'.~', ' ~ ~ " .. °. "" , • ". ~ I
b - ) ., ~ , . , . , • ...:,~
,:J II;"i~ i
. , . . .~ ,;~

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•

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•'"- -'- :~i,3. •" "'.. ~. • ,,'" ~,,, ~. ~" " ~. ~ ."~ ~;'4.1
~..< ~-.:, .~--.;~ ~.:!.,,-~ ..., . ~ ..f~...:. : •. ~ ,. ,':" ~. ~,~
, " "~.""~ ~, ,'~,:'~Jl • ..,4. ~ ~.. ~ . *_ .~'~.~

• . .~ , . .....;,~..~ • ,~...~,,_ ~ ~-., ,..;;~

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• .~, . ~ ~ • . • .411, - , ~
O , ~,.~ ....... -~ .... .' .~ ": ~ ~¥~ I
. " ~,~ ,.:.~ .'c- I
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I .... .~, . :~, ,:. ,..
• ""~z7'I~""
~ '~" "' ' " ~ .... i~.~
.... , . • • ";" ~'~:~,~;..~.,:~'#,,-L~
'-:""k ? ~,: ' [Z~-~'r'.~ "~..~ 0

-,~ , (
t"

F'
WHEEL AND GRASS EFFECTS ON SOIL STR[TCTURE 67

Porosity (mm 3 mm -3)

0.0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

0
(a)
2O

E 4O
v

6O

80
i
100 L i

Surface area (mm ~ mm -3)

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

20 (b)

i
100 , i r""['"
t i t 4
F i g . 4. For the three compaction treatments: (a) the mean porosity (pores more than 0 . 1 9 5
m m ) ; ( b ) the mean pore or solid surface area. Significant differences (95%) between treat-
ments are shown by hatching.

ity between compaction treatments close to the soil surface (at depths of 0 -
50 mm) (Table 2), and the larger density in L than in Z and S at depths of
50-100 mm. According to both measurement techniques (gamma-ray trans-
mission and cores), bulk density increased between the first and second sam-
piing depths in all three treatments.
Soil water content at both depths was similar between treatments and was
close to field capacity (Table 2). Vane shear strength followed the trend
L>S>Z.
68 J.T. DOUGLAS ET AL.

Pore star length (mm)

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

0 ~-'(a)

20

4O

~o
D

80

100 L L k i I J t

Solid star length (mm)

o 10 20 30 40 50
i L ~ I J
0 \

(b)
20

g 40

C-, 60

80

100 I L I I I I

Fig. 5. For the three compaction treatments: (a) the mean pore star length (pores more than
O.195 mm); (b) the mean solid star length. Significant differences (95%) between treatments
are shown by hatching.

Image analysis

Binary images from two block samples representative of the five from each
treatment are shown in Fig. 3. Generally, the soil macroporosity (black) was
similar in the Z and S compaction treatments, and this was greater than in the
L compaction treatment. The larger macropores which are apparent in all the
images probably originated from earthworm activity. Thin and relatively small
pores appeared to be o f a size similar to that of grass roots. In treatment L,
these fine macropores were concentrated near the soil surface (at depths of
approximately 0 - 1 0 m m ).
WHEEL AND GRASS EFFECTS ON SOIL STRUCTURE 69

The pore structure attributes are shown graphically in Figs. 4 and 5. There
were no significant differences between treatments in the zone 10-15 m m
deep. At depths below approximately 15 ram, porosity, pore or solid surface
area and pore star length were generally greater, and solid star length less, in
the Z and S compaction treatments than in the L compaction treatment; at
some depths (20 and 90 m m ) the volume of macropores in Z and S was dou-
ble that in L. In the zone 15-35 m m deep, where the contrast between treat-
ments was apparently greatest, the surface area and the pore star length attri-
butes indicated, respectively, that the number and size of pores were greater
in Z and S than in L; the greater solid star length in L showed that the distance
between macropores was larger than in Z and S. At depths of about 60-75
m m , however, the occurrence of a few very large pores in L had the effect of
increasing the porosity, surface area and, especially, pore star length, and de-
creasing the solid star length in that treatment.

DISCUSSION

Density and vane shear strength measurements revealed differences in top-

soil bulk properties between compaction treatments after 4 years of grass
cropping. However, comparison of the dry bulk density profiles of the first
year (1987) with those of the fourth year (1990) suggested that the differ-
ences between treatments had declined, primarily as a result of a significant
temporal reduction in density in the L compaction treatment. The analyses
of the binary images of macroporosity in the fourth year suggested that soil
physical properties were particularly similar in the layer up to 15 m m deep,
i.e. close to the soil surface; below this, porosity characteristics were generally
superior in the two relatively uncompacted treatments (Z and S). In L, sev-
eral relatively large pores, the size and shape of which suggested that they
were earthworm passages, occurred at depths of 60-75 m m (Fig. 3 ) which is
below the zone of the longest solid star length (Fig. 5 ) and in the soil with
greatest strength (Table 2 ). Perhaps this zone of poor structure above 60 m m
deep restricts earthworm activity.
In the majority of blocks in which the crownal area of individual plants, or
clumps of plants, was sectioned, a concentration of pores in that area was
clearly visible (Fig. 6 ); most of these pores were relatively fine, but ranged in
diameter from the smallest resolvable ( 195/tm) to diameters similar to those
of large grass roots (about 1000/tm) or small earthworms (about 2000 #m ).
It seems probable, therefore, that the grass makes an important contribution
to the formation of soil pores close to the soil surface. The plant may contrib-
ute either directly through the deforming pressures of the adventitious roots
developed from the lowest stem nodes, or indirectly through promotion of
faunal activity close to the plant; the latter feature has been observed in cereal
crops (Douglas et al., 1986).
70 J.T. DOUGLAS ET AL.

Fig. 6. A high-contrast photograph of a vertical section of the soil in a root crownal area from
the L treatment (pores are white; width of view is 152 mm).

Any potential benefits of the soil pore space associated with a growing sward
m a y not accrue if tyre-soil contact stresses or frequency of traffic are greater
than was the case here. Koppi et al. (1992) reported that the repeated wheel
traffic in a conventional grassland-for-silage system resulted in a relatively
smooth soil surface overlying a surface layer, rarely exceeding 10 m m in
thickness, containing a concentration of roots and small macropores. Clearly,
the rougher soil surface developed by the growing sward in the zero or infre-
quent traffic regime described above could not resist the stresses imparted by
conventional machinery. Prediction of the resistance of crownal porosity to
wheel traffic during the utilisation and life o f a grass sward is complicated by
the u n k n o w n extent o f protection against damage offered by the live crop or
its stubble. It is well-established that soil and plants are both much more sus-
ceptible to livestock damage in the season immediately following sward es-
tablishment than in subsequent seasons; the pronounced effect o f both small
and large stresses in the first spring ( 1987 ) in this experiment indicated that
this also applies to traffic damage.
In order to sustain soil structure for optimal grass growth it is probably
WHEEL AND GRASS EFFECTS ON SOIL STRUCTURE 71

essential, particularly in climatic or management situations where potential

for compaction is high, to minimise tyre-soil contact stresses by any practic-
able m e t h o d throughout the productive life of the sward.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Soil properties, as indicated by density, strength and porosity assess-

ments, were more favourable for herbage production in soil which had re-
ceived either no or small compactive forces by wheel traffic than in soil which
had been subjected to relatively large stresses.
2. Four years after the establishment of a perennial grass crop, the bulk
density of the underlying soil close to the soil surface tended to be smaller
than in the first year. The reduction was greatest in relatively heavily com-
pacted soil and may have accounted, in part, for the relative improvement in
herbage yield from that soil.
3. Description and analysis of photographs of soil macroporosity illustrated
similarity in structural attributes between compaction treatments after 4 years
in the upper 15 m m of the soil profile; this similarity could be attributed to
the formation and subsequent persistence in each treatment of pore space
associated with the crownal area of the growing crop. The benefit to swards
of that pore space in compact soil may be evident only when tyre-soil contact
stresses or traffic frequency are strictly minimised. On land where compac-
tion is avoided or minimised throughout, the value of crop-initiated pore space
will be of lesser significance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to J. Elder and G. Finnie of the Publications and
Audiovisual Aids Units, Scottish Agricultural College (Edinburgh), for pho-
tography and printing services. A.J. Koppi wishes to thank both the Univer-
sity of Sydney for financial support and the Scottish Centre of Agricultural
Engineering for the experimental facilities which enabled him to undertake
the study as a visiting research scientist.

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