BSN1 Y1-1 Anatomy and Physiology

CELL TYPES OF CELL

● Smallest or basic unit of life.
PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
● Basic structural, functional and
biological unif of all known organisms. No-membrane bound Membrane bound
● Contains many biomolecules such as nucleus. nucleus.
proteins and nucleic acids.
● Composed of “organelles” which are Cell wall is made of Cell wall (if present)
small organs. peptidoglycan is made of cellulose
(bacteria). or chitin (in fungi).
4 FUNCTIONS OF THE CELLS Have pili & fimbriae Have cilia and flagella
1. Cell Metabolism and Energy Use - (for adhesion) and for movement.
chemical reactions that occur within the flagella (for
cells collectively (ATP - major source of propulsion).
energy of cells; oxygen and glucose).
unicellular multicellular
2. Synthesis of Molecules - cells
synthesize various types of molecules Smaller in size Larger in size
including proteins, carbohydrates,
nucleic acids, and lipids (production of Bacteria, archaea, Fungi, plant, protest,
molecules). and blue-green algae and animal cells are
★ Nucleic acids - DNA; are prokaryotic cells. eukaryotic cells.
★ Carbohydrates - energy;
Nucleolus is absent Nucleolus is present
★ Lipid - they store energy from
carbohydrates in the form of
fats; 2 TYPES OF ANIMAL CELLS
★ Protein - involved in the creation (HUMAN CELLS)
of hormones and regulating cell 1. Somatic Cell - body cells (ex. blood
growth. cell, bone cell, neuron).
★ A cell's structural and functional 2. Germ Cell (Gametes) - sex cells (ex.
characteristics are determined egg cells and sperm cells).
by the types of molecules the
cell produces. 3 MAJOR PARTS OF A CELL
3. Communication - cells produce and ● Cell Membrane
receive chemical and electrical signals ● Nucleus
that allow them to communicate with ● Cytoplasm
one another.
★ Neuromuscular Junction - ★ Water - most abundant substance in the
communication (junction) of cell. (either in and out).
nerve and muscle. Nerve will
release a lot of chemicals to CELL / PLASMA MEMBRANE
signal muscles to contract and ● The outer boundary of the cell is the
produce a certain action. plasma membrane.
4. Reproduction and Inheritance - each ● Encloses the cytoplasm and forms the
cell contains a copy of the genetic boundary between material inside the
information of the individual. cell and the material outside it.
★ Specified cells (sperm cells & ★ Composed of a double layer or (bilayer)
oocytes) transmit that genetic of phospholipid (polar, hydrophilic
information to the next “water loving” head made up of
generation. phosphate and glycerol, and a nonpolar,
hydrophobic “water fearing” tail made up

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BSN1 Y1-1 Anatomy and Physiology
of two fatty acid chains) molecules
embedded with other molecules.
★ Cholesterol - limits the movement of
phospholipids, providing stability to the
plasma membrane.
★ Selective Permeable (Barrier) - allows
other substances but not others to pass
into or out of the cell.
★ Fluid Mosaic Model - highly flexible
and can change its shape and
composition through time.
FUNCTIONS
1. Barrier
2. Control
3. Signaling
★ Extracellular Substance - substance
outside the cell.
★ Cytoplasmic or Intercellular
Substance - substance inside the cell.
CYTOPLASM
- Viscous fluid containing organelles.
- It surrounds all the internal cell
structures on both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.
★ It is enclosed by the cell membrane or
plasma membrane.
COMPONENTS OF CYTOPLASM
● Interconnected filaments and fiber
● Fluid = cytosol (water substance inside
the cell which contains proteins =
nutrients)
● Organelles (not nucleus)
● Storage Substance
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NUCLEUS
- Large organelle within the cells;
command center of cell.
- Carries the genetic materials that
contain information for cell activities and
cell division.
- Cell’s control center.
3 DISTINCT PARTS:
1. Nuclear Envelope - consists of outer
and inner membrane (covering).
a. nuclear pores - for the
movement of different
substances inside and outside
of the nucleus (nutrients).
2. Nucleolus - diffuse bodies with no
surrounding membrane (manufactures
ribosome RNA).
3. Chromatin - consists of DNA and
proteins; chromosomes(protein) loosely
coiled.
ORGANELLES
● Parts of the cell (meaning “small
organs” that carry out specialized
function within the cell.
RIBOSOMES
- Organelles where proteins are
produced.
- Site of protein synthesis.
- Contains lysozyme and other digestive
enzymes.
- Breakdowns food, bacteria and worn out
cell parts.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
- Network of tubular and flat vesicular
structures in the cytoplasm.
- Series of membranes forming sacs and
tubules that extend from the outer
nuclear membrane (envelope)
throughout the cytoplasm.
● Fxn: Transport of PROTEIN
BSN1 Y1-1 Anatomy and Physiology
2 TYPES
● Rough ER - ER with attached
ribosomes (site of protein synthesis).
○ Ribosomes do protein
synthesis.
● Smooth ER - ER without ribosomes. It
is a site for lipid synthesis and
participates in detoxification of
chemicals within the cell.
MITOCHONDRIA
- Small organelle with inner and outer
membranes separated by space.
- Site of aerobic respiration and the major
site of ATP synthesis.
- Powerhouse of the cell.
★ Also called as Mitochondrion.
GOLGI APPARATUS
- Closely packed stacks of curved,
membrane-bound sacs.
- Responsible for transporting, modifying
and packaging protein structures and
lipids in (secretory vesicles; secreted by
exocytosis) sent by rough ER.
★ Also produces lysosomes.
★ Also called as Golgi Complex or traffic
director.
LYSOSOMES
- Membrane bound vesicles formed from
the golgi apparatus.
- Variety of enzymes (digests material
taken into the cell via endocytosis):
intracellular digestive system (cell
scavenger).
- Transport final products of digestion into
cytosol.
- Destroys bacteria > responsive for
detoxification.
● Autophagy - when lysosomes detect
that the organelle inside the cytoplasm
is worn out, it also digests it.
PEROXISOMES
- Small, membrane bound vesicles
containing enzymes that breakdown
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen
peroxide (lipid metabolism).
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- Detoxifies of free radical and harmful
substances.
CYTOSKELETON
- The internal framework of the cell.
- A structure that supports or helps cells
maintain their shape and internal
organization, and it also provides
mechanical support that enables cells to
carry out essential functions like division
and movement.
PROTEIN STRUCTURES:
1. Microtubules - hollow structures formed
from protein subunits.
a. Help support cytoplasm cells,
assist in cell division and form
essential components of certain
organelles (cilia and flagella).
2. Microfilaments - small fibrils formed
from protein subunits that structurally
support the cytoplasm, determining cell
shape.
3. Intermediate Filaments - provides
mechanical support to cells (eg. keratin).
MICROVILLI
- Function: Increase the surface area of
plasma membrane for absorption and
secretion of nutrients.
- Structure: Extensions of plasma
membrane containing microfilaments.
★ Mostly seen in the intestine (abundant)
★ Not all cells have it
CENTRIOLES
- Small cylindrical organelle composed of
microtubules.
- Only active during cell division.
- Facilitate the movement of
chromosomes during cell division.
★ Produce spindle fibers which attach to
chromosomes. The fibers pull a copy of
each chromosome to opposite sides of
the cell so that when it splits, each new
daughter cell has all the DNA it needs.
BSN1 Y1-1 Anatomy and Physiology
CENTROSOME
- Two centrioles at right angles to each
other (Composed of a set of triplets
fibers)
- A specialized area of cytoplasm close to
the nucleus where microtubule
formation occurs.
★ Acts us poles during cell division.
CILIA
- Project from the surface cells.
- Moves substances over the surface of
the cell.
★ Shorter and numerous.
FLAGELLA
- Much longer than cilia and propel sperm
cells.
- Hairlike structures that act primarily as
an organelle of locomotion in the cells of
many living organisms.
- Whip-like extensions found in sperm
cells.
- Flagellum - assists in locomotion.
CELL TRANSPORT
● Movement through cell membrane:
passive or active.
● Selectively permeable membrane.
★ Solute - substances being dissolved.
★ Solvent - fluid or gas in which solute is
being dissolved.
★ Concentration - the amount of solute
dissolved in a given volume of solvent.
★ Concentration Gradient - the
difference in concentration of a
substance between two areas.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- without the use of energy, molecules
move to equalize concentration.
- GREATER concentration to LESSER
concentration.
TYPES
1. Simple diffusion - Movement of solute
from an area of HIGH solute
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concentration to an area of LOW solute
concentration.
- Without gates, substances are
free to go in and out of the
plasma membrane.
2. Facilitated diffusion - Movement of
solute from an area of HIGH solute
concentration to an area of LOW solute
concentration with a CARRIER.
- Must go through a gate (binding
site) to enter or exit the cell.
specific cells can only enter the
gate (molecules move across
the membrane).
3. Osmosis - Movement of fluid from an
area of LOW solute concentration to an
area of HIGH solute concentration.
- Often involves movement of
water - into cell of cell.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
● Movement of solute from an area of
LOW solute concentration to an area of
HIGH solute concentration.
- Molecular movement
★ Requires energy; in the form of an
energy-storing chemical called
ATP(against gradient).
★ Example is sodium-potassium pump
(ATP opens the pump (PISO -
potassium(2K) in, sodium(3Na) out.
SOLUTIONS
● Isotonic - normal entrance and exit of
water.
● Hypotonic - water continuously enters
the cell = swelling eventually (lower
concentration).
★ lysis = bursting
● Hypertonic = when water moves out
and barely enters the cell, the cell
shrinks (higher concentration).
BSN1 Y1-1 Anatomy and Physiology
BULK TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
1. Endocytosis
- Plasma membrane surrounds
molecules into the cell
membrane.
- Edges of the membrane meet.
- Membranes fuse to form
vesicles. Entry of particles
towards the cell (solute).
a. Phagocytosis - cell eating (engulfs)
solid material (larger).
b. Pinocytosis - cell drinking (fluids).
2. Exocytosis
- Releasing, exit, extrusion or
expulsion of substance within
the cell.
SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
● Utilizes energy from the primary active
transport.
○ Cotransport - nakikisabay
pagpasok or paglabas.
○ Countertransport - when one
goes in, the other goes out.
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CELL DIVISION
● Mitosis - cell division of somatic cells
(body cells). 2 daughter cells (diploid).
● Meiosis - sex cells. 4 daughter cells
(haploid).
★ Chromosome - thread-like structures
made of protein and a single molecule
of DNA located in the nucleus. (passed
from parents to offspring).
○ 23 pairs (46 chromosomes)
Cell Theory:
● All living organisms are made up of
cells.
● All cells came from preexisting cells.
● The cell is the basic unit of life.
CELL CYCLE
- Majority of cells go through the cell cycle
where they are created, carry out their
specific functions, grow, and then divide
to produce more cells (happens
constantly).
- Most body cells spend most of their time
in the interphase, carrying out their
specific functions. However, they also
prepare for mitosis (cell division) during
interphase.
PHASES
1. G1 (Gap Phase 1) -
a. The cell is quite active at the
biochemical level.
b. The cell increases in physical
size, copies organelles, and
makes the molecular building
blocks that make up the cell.
(undergo majority of growth).
2. S (Synthesis Phase) -
a. A complete copy of DNA is
synthesized by the cell, to
produce sister chromatids.
b. A cell must undergo this phase,
as it doubles its genetic material
prior to undergoing mitosis or
meiosis. As a result, the DNA is
BSN1 Y1-1 Anatomy and Physiology
sufficient enough to allow it to
be divided into daughter cells.
3. G2 (Gap Phase 2) -
a. The cell replenishes its energy
stores and synthesizes proteins
necessary for chromosome
manipulation.
b. In preparation for mitosis, some
cells multiply, duplicate proteins
and organelles, and reorganize
their contents.
4. G0 Phase -
a. The cells exist in a resting or
inactive state.
b. The cells are not actively
participating in the division of
cells.
c. Some cells enter this phase
temporarily until an external
signal triggers the onset of G1,
while other cells that rarely or
never divide permanently
remain in the G0 phase.
d. Some cells that might enter this
phase are neurons and red
blood cells. These cells are
permanent cells and remain in
the G0 phase as they
regenerate from stem cells but
cannot undergo division
themselves.
5. Mitotic (M) Phase & Cytokinesis -
a. During mitosis, the two sister
chromatids that comprise each
chromosome are divided into
two equal sets and move to
opposite poles of the cell.
b. During cytokinesis, a cell's
cytoplasm splits into two and the
cell divides, resulting in the
formation of two new cells.
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MITOSIS
- Two daughter cells with exactly the
same genetic material.
- Cellular division for growth
maintenance, and repair.
PHASES
- Prophase
● Chromosomes condense and
become visible (begins to pair).
● Spindle fibers emerge from the
chromosomes.
● Nuclear envelope will begin to
break down.
● Centrosomes move toward
opposite poles.
- Prometaphase
● Chromosomes continue to
condense.
● Kinetochores appear at the
centromeres.
● Mitotic spindle microtubules
(fibers) attach to kinetochores.
- Metaphase
● Chromosomes are lined up at
the midline or in the middle.
● Microtubules will attach to the
chromosomes.
● Each sister chromatid is
attached to a spindle fiber
originating from opposite poles
(chromosomes or centrioles).
- Anaphase
● Centromeres split in two
● Sister chromatids (now called
chromosomes) are pulled
toward opposite poles.
● Certain spindle fibers begin to
elongate the cell.
- Telophase
● Chromosomes arrive at
opposite poles and begin to
decondense.
● Nuclear envelope material
surrounds each set of
chromosomes.
● The mitotic spindle breaks
down.
BSN1 Y1-1 Anatomy and Physiology

● Spindle fibers continue to push

poles apart.
★ Cleavage Furrow - indentation of the
cell’s surface that begins the
progression of cleavage, the final
splitting of the membrane
(chromosomes are at the piles, and are
becoming more diffuse, the nuclear
envelope is reforming, the cytoplasm
may be dividing).
- 2 Nuclei and nuclear envelope
starts to form a cleavage shape.

MEIOSIS
- Four daughter cells with half the genetic
material.
- Cellular division for reproduction.
- Ensures that all living organisms will
maintain both genetic diversity and
genetic integrity.
★ During Meiosis, gametes (sex cells)
undergo a “double division,” maintaining
the DNA, but reducing the chromosomal
count to 23 (spem(23) + egg(23) =
fertilized cell(46)).
★ Start with 46 double stranded
chromosomes.
★ After 1 division - 23 double stranded
chromosomes.
★ After 2nd division - 23 single stranded
chromosomes.
★ Occurs in our germ cells that produce
gametes.

PHASES
● Meiosis I
○ Prophase I
○ Metaphase I
○ Anaphase I
○ Telophase I
○ Cytokinesis I
● Meiosis II
○ Prophase II
○ Anaphase II
○ Metaphase II
○ Telophase II
○ Cytokinesis II