238 n grow two rice hey flood the rice fields with water in order to protect the young plants. Joining clauses We always use linking words (e.g. because, since) to join a subordinate clause to the main clause in a sentence. The subordinate clause gives us more information about the main clause: main clause linking word subordinate clause t 1 T Farmers can grow two crops a year \Beéause there is plenty of sunshine and rain, We can put the subordinate clause (+ comma) at the beginning of the sentence for emphasis: Because there is plenty of sunshine and rain, farmers can grow two crops a year. or we can use it to talk about something we've already mentioned (> Unit 103) They always ask to see a membership card. Since we don’t have one, we can’t get into the club. Introducing a reason We use because to introduce the reason for something: I don’t use trains because they are too expensive. The show was cancelled because it rained. If we use a noun for the reason, we use because of I don’t use trains because of the cost. The show was cancelled because of the rain. We use as or since to introduce a reason we already know: As we're late, we'd better get a taxi. (We know we are late.) We can't get into this club since we don't have a membership card. (We know we don't have it.) Other meanings of as > Units 22.2/3 and 82.1 and since > Unit 37.3 Introducing a purpose We use in order to, so as to, in order that and so that to say why we do something. ‘MAIN CLAUSE LINKING WORDS + SUB CLAUSE + INFINITIVE They flood the rice fields to /in order to / protect the with water 50a5 t0 young plants. They've changed the law in order that /so that the police can listen to calls. © We often use modal verbs (e.g. can, could, will, would) after so that and in order that: I’m buying a magazine so that I'll have something to read on the flight. © We can use all these expressions to introduce a negative result: I caught the earlier train so as not to be late for my interview. We took plenty of dollars so that we wouldn't run out of cash while we were in the US. Infinitive of purpose (e.g. / went to the shop to get some milk.) > Unit 76.379 240 Causes and results Hurricane Katrina passed just east of New Orleans with winds of over 200 km per hour. As a result, local canals were damaged in fifty places. The damage was so bad that ‘more than 80 percent of the city was flooded. therefore, as a result In formal English we can use Therefore or As a result (+ comma) to introduce a result in a new sentence: ‘cause/reason. result 1 There was a major hurricane. As a result, local canals were damaged in fifty places. Trains have become very expensive. Therefore, more people are travelling by bus. so, such a (lot of) We often use so to introduce a result: There was a lot of rain so the city was flooded. | slept late so I was late for work. ‘We can also use so and such +a that clause to give more information about the cause and link it to the result. In spoken English we often leave out that. © so + adjective/adverb: The damage was so bad (that) the city was flooded. © such + a/an (+ adjective) + noun: It was such a strong hurricane (that) the city was flooded. * so much/little + uncountable noun: He ate so much food (that) he felt sick. * so many/few + plural noun: There were so many people (that) we couldn't get in. © such a lot of + noun: There was such a lot of noise (that) I just couldn't slep. too, enough We use £00 and enough + infinitive with to to say why a result is/isn’t possible: not too + adjective ''m not too old to dance! adjective + enough ‘My new laptop is light enough to carry anywhere. adverb + enough worked just hard enough to pass the course. enough + noun There's enough food to feed everybody at the party. too + adjective The lake is too cold to swim in. too + adverb Caroline types too slowly to be a secretary. 00 much/many + noun hiss too much work to do in one day. not + adjective + enough The lake isn’t warm enough to swim in. not + adverb + enough Kevin doesn’t exercise often enough to get fit. not enough + noun There isn’t enough money to pay for it To introduce a different subject before the infinitive we can use for + subject + infinitive: There isn’t enough work for us to do today. It’s too far for him to come. Adjectives and adverbs always go BEFORE enough: x Ent-not enough strons-to-carry-that-bag. J I'm not strong enough to carry that bag.1 N w 4 242 Id, but the sun 0: and, both, not only To add extra information we use and: Dave turned the key and opened the door To connect two similar actions, things or people we can use both ... and: Clint Eastwood both acted in the film and directed it We stock both gas and electric cookers. Both Melanie and her sister are doctors, To emphasise two pieces of information we can use not only ... (but/but also): It’s not only expensive, it’s badly made. Not only is it very cold, but the sun only shines for two hours a day. Not only does the machine wash your clothes, but it also dries them. If there is a subject and verb after not only we put be or an auxiliary/modal verb (c.g. do, does, did, can) BEFORE the subject (> Unit 102.2): It is very cold. + X Notonly-ttis-very-eold / Not only is it very cold .. He gave me flowers. X Net-only-hegaveme J Not only did he. give me flowers, ... as we addition to We also use the expressions as well as and (in formal English) in addition (to): She has a car as well as a bicycle. As well as a bicycle, she has a car You must supply proof of your current address in addition to proof of identity. We offer a range of phone services. In addition, we can supply Internet access. If we use a verb after as well as and in addition fo, we use the -ing form: A Harry-sings-as-well-as-plays-the-violin. / Harry sings as well as playing the violin. or, either ... or, neither ... nor We use or to introduce a choice between two or more things: Which do you prefer — tea or coffee? I'd like a holiday in Spain, Portugal or Morocco. When there are only two choices we can use either... or You can either come with me or stay here. We can go either by bus or by train. For two negatives, we can use neither ... nor te has no talent ~ she can neither sing nor dance! (= She can't sing and she can't dance.) Neither the chairman nor his assistant usually attends the conference. If there is a subject and verb after neither or nor we put be or an auxiliary/modal verb (€.g. do, did, have, should) BEFORE the subject (> Unit 107.1): Sandy hasn’t got any children and neither/nor have I. They don’t watch TV and nor/neither do we. We don’t repeat the verb after neither/nor: x Fhey-dont-watehFV-and nor de-we-watch,81 244 Showing differences Although it often rains in the summer, Britain 'as many popular holiday resorts. People usually njoy themselves despite [ the bad weather. Simple differences but, while, whereas We use but to show a simple difference between two pieces of information. The weather was cold but it didn’t rain. The latest Batman movie is exciting but very violent My mobile phone has a camera but it doesn’t play music. ‘We can use whereas or while in more formal Ei Flight BA101 leaves from Heathrow, whereas/while flight BA206 leaves from Gatwick Clauses with while and whereas can come at the start or end of the sentence. We don't start a sentence with but unless but refers to information in the previous sentence: ¥ While the food there is very good, it isn’t expensive, X But-the food there-1s-very-good-it isn't expensive, ¥ The food in that new restaurant is very good. But it isn’t as expensive as you might expect. Surprising differences although, even though, despite, in spite of We use although, though and even though to introduce a surprising difference: Although it often rains in the summer, Britain has many popular holiday resorts We enjoyed our holiday even though it rained. They're great jeans, though they're expensive. We don't use a noun phrase after these expressions: X Wetiked-our-walk-ever-though-bad-weather. J We liked our walk even though it rained. We use despite and in spite of before a noun phrase ot an -ing verb: People usually enjoy themselves despite the bad weather, Despite its huge success, the website is quite difficult to use, I passed the exam in spite of not answering all the questions. If we want to include a subject and verb after despite or in spite of we add the fact that: X te-spite-itrained-we-tiked-our-walk, / In spite of the fact that it rained, we liked our walk, (EMA In spoken and informal English we often use though at the end of a sentence to express a difference: We had a great holiday. It rained most of the time though! Formal differences however, nevertheless In more formal English we can use however or nevertheless to emphasise a difference We usually put the two pieces of information in separate sentences and use however or nevertheless (+ comma) to introduce the second sentence: Credit cards are very useful for travellers. However, the interest rates can be very high. Esypt has very little rainfall. Nevertheless, farmers grow many crops using water from the River Nile. Using linking words in writing > Unit 10182 246 Ordering events , ‘We saw the hurricane warning when we turned on the TV. As soon as we | knew the storm was coming, we closed the shutters on the windows. Then we went to the basement and stayed there unttl it had passed over us. a series of events We closed the shutters before we went to the basement. We went to the basement after we closed the shutters. one event as soon as ‘As soon as we knew the storm was coming, we closed immediately after the shutters. another when We saw the warming when we tured on the TV. event(s) ina period when ‘Mandy saw her cousin when she was in New York of time while J sent a lot of emails while | was on holiday. during (+ noun) I sent a lot of emails during my holiday. U dare twas on hoviday) until We stayed in the basement until the storm had passed. atthe same time while Luisa fed the baby while Daniel made the supper We can use after/before + -ing verb to show the order of events: We went to the basement after closing the shutters. After closing the shutters, we went to the basement. We closed the shutters before going to the basement. When, before, after and while/during can mean ‘whenever’, or ‘every time that’ always get headaches when the weather's hot. (every time that the weather is hot) Jackie used to feel nervous during exams. (every time she took an exam) After linking words which refer to the future we use the present tense, not will or going to: Fil phone-yow as soon-as-Hwilt arrive, / I'll phone you as soon as L arrive, Describing a series of events When we describe a series of events in the past, we can use the linking words first, then, after that, afterwards, later, in the end and eventually (meaning ‘after a long time’): First, we closed the window shutters. Then we went to the basement and waited there. Eventually, we were able to go back upstairs. Later, we went outside to look at the damage. We put these linking words at the beginning or end of the sentence, not in the middle: xs fel the bi A ¥ Steve paid the bill. After that, we left the restaurant. ¥ Steve paid the bill. We left the restaurant after that. We can use first, next, then, after that and finally in a series of instructions: Put the DVD into the machine. Then press ‘select channel’. After that, you can choose .. First, put the potatoes in a pan of boiling water. Then slice the tomatoes. Next, take an onion ... ‘We don't usually use more than two or three of these linking expressions ina paragraph. More on linking words in written English > Unit 101Test MODULE 15 Linking words Choose the correct answer, A, B or C. 1 ......... we know the owner of the shop, we always get a good price. A Because of B Because that (C] Because 2 .. the house is old, it can get very cold in winter. ‘AJ As B Because that C So that 3 We got up early be on time for the flight. A so that B soas (Cin order to 4 We took an umbrella we wouldn’t get wet if it rained. A in order to [B) so that C since 5. There was a bus strike yesterday. most of my colleagues walked to work. A Sothat B As result, (C) Asa result, 6 twas I recorded it onto a DVD. [A] such a good programme that B so good programme that so good programme to 7 It’s too cold........ to the park today. A for go [B] to go. C that we go 8 The weather wasn’t her to sunbathe. ‘A enough warm for B warm enough (C) warm enough for 9 and her g 1g in the local choir. A Melanie also [B)Both Melanie C Melanie both 10 Not only a new sports car, but he also bought a speedboat. A} did he buy B he bought C he did buy 11 Alan goes jogging every morning as well as to the gym regularly. A he goes [B]going C goes he 12_1 don’t wear glasses and neither ‘A) do my brothers B my brothers do C wear my brothers 13 the hotel was comfortable, it was rather a long way from the beach. A But B In spite of (C) While 14. We got home in time even though A a traffic jam [B) there was a traffic jam C being a traffic jam 15. The singer performed well despite a sore throat. A that she had [B) having C to have 16 The garden is rather small. , they manage to grow quite a lot of vegetables. (A) Nevertheless B Despite C Whereas 17. Isaw my old school teacher I was in Rome. A during B until @)when 18, I got into bed, I turned off the light and fell asleep. (A) As soon as B While C During 19 After the back door, I went upstairs to my bedroom. A that [locked B to lock (Q locking 20 In the morning we went down to the beach. at the beach café. A We had later an ice cream (B) Later, we had an ice cream C Later that we had an ice cream > Unit 78 > Unit 78 > Unit 78 > Unit 78 > Unit 79 > Unit 79 > Unit 79 > Unit 79 > Unit 80 > Unit 80 > Unit 80 > Unit 80 > Unit 81 > Unit 81 > Unit 81 > Unit 81 > Unit 82 > Unit 82 > Unit 82 > Unit 82