IJARIT 13 (2) December 2023 - Full

ISSN: 2224-0616
International Journal of Agricultural Research,

Innovation and Technology (IJARIT)
Volume 13, Issue 2, December 2023
An International Online Journal
IJARIT Research Foundation

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ISSN: 2224-0616
An International Online Journal
Volume 13 Issue 2 December 2023
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Prof. Dr. Md. Shahjahan
Executive Editor
Dr. M.S.A. Mamun
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Dr. Dunsin Oluwagbenga, Landmark University, Kwara State, Nigeria
Dr. Kaveh Ostad-Ali-Askari, Isfahan University of Technology, Iran
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© International Journal of Agricultural Research, Innovation and Technology

International Journal of Agricultural Research, Innovation and
Technology (IJARIT)
Volume 13 Issue 2 December 2023
Contents
Sl. No Title Page
Development of banana chips: Analysis of nutritional and sensory characteristics of
banana chips as influenced by frying conditions
01 1-5
Mesfin Wolde Deboch and Abadi Gebre Mezgebe
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v13i2.70847
Gum and resin bearing dryland forests of Somali region, Southeastern Ethiopia:
Diversity, structure and spatial distribution
02 Nesibu Yahya, Abdu Abdelkadir, Busha Teshome, Mister Abebe and Habtemariam 6-13
Kassa
Impact of Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) on rural households’ livelihood: The case
of Sodo FLR, South Central Ethiopia
03 Mister Abebe, Mehari Alebachew, Abdu Abdelkadir , Degenet Abebaw, Agena Anjulo, 14-21
Teshome Tesema and Habtemariam Kassa
Spice production and marketing in Kaffa Biosphere Reserve, Ethiopia
04 Amanuel Afeto, Kefyalew Kassa, Tesfaye Belay and Abiy Gebremchael 22-30
Prospects and problems of YouTube and virtual video channels in agricultural content
dissemination
05 31-40
Tasnim Farabi, Md. Matiul Islam and Mohammad Bashir Ahmed
Profitability analysis of cut flower cultivation in Bangladesh: Constraints and
opportunities
06 Md. Imrul Kaysar, Md. Shofiqul Islam, Mohammad Shamsul Hoq, Sultana Parvin 41-48
Mukta and A K M Golam Kausar
Evaluation of the efficacy of hydro-alcoholic products for hand skin disinfection: Case
study Bactigel® used in the Livulu district of Lemba, Kinshasa City (Democratic
Republic of Congo)
07 49-54
Odette N. Kabena, Jean Jacques D. Amogu, Anicet I. Kuabayina, Lyz N. Makwela and
Didier L. Dianzuangani
New infestation records of two-spotted spider mites on potato tubers under storage
conditions and response of genotypes at Kulumsa, Ethiopia
08 55-63
Gizaw Wegayehu Tilahun and Tamirat Negash Gure
Phytochemical and mineral profiling of anti-fertilizer plants used by pygmy women in
the town of Mbandaka in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: Case of Ipomoea
involucrata P.Beauv. and Piptadeniastrum africanum (Hook.f.) Brenan
09 64-69
Ruth Katunda, Jean Jacques Amogu, Jean-Paul Nzundu, Florent Mukeba, Didier
Dianzuangani, Paulin Mutwale, Odette Kabena and Félicien Lukoki
Economics of maize cultivation at selected intensive areas of Bangladesh
10 Pradip Hajong, Shimul Mondal, Md. Ariful Islam and Anup Ghosh 70-78
https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v13i2.70859
ISSN: 2224-0616
Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 1-5, Dec 2023 Available online at https://ijarit.online
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v13i2.70847 https://www.banglajol.info/index.php/IJARIT
Development of banana chips: Analysis of nutritional and sensory characteristics of

banana chips as influenced by frying conditions
Mesfin Wolde Deboch1* and Abadi Gebre Mezgebe2
Received 15 July 2023, Revised 10 November 2023, Accepted 25 December 2023, Published online 31 December 2023
ABSTRACT
Banana (Musa sapientum L) is a widely grown and consumed fruit due to its distinct aroma
and taste. In Ethiopia, there is a lack of knowledge and trends on the processing and
consumption of processed and shelf-stable banana products. The aim of this study was to
evaluate the effects of frying time and layering of Moringa stenopetala leaf powder on the
proximate composition, oxidative stability and sensory properties of green banana chips. In
this study, prepared chips from green bananas using two levels of Moringa stenopetala leaf
powder layers (3% & 6%) and three levels of frying time (1.5, 2.0, & 2.5 minutes) following
standard methods. Proximate Composition, Oxidative Stability and Sensory Properties of
the chips were analyzed. The results showed that the banana chips had moisture (3.35–
7.34%), total ash (5.67–13.65%), crude ﬁber (4.43–12.43%), crude fat (3.34–11.70%), crude
protein (3.56-13.80%), carbohydrate (57.78–67.29%). Descriptive sensory analysis (DSA)
showed that banana chips prepared with layering of M. stenopetala leaf powder was bitter,
darker, rougher, and more astringent than chips fried from only banana. Banana chips fried
without Moringa leaf powder for 2.5 minutes were crispier. M. stenopetala leaf powder
layered banana chips were lower in quality and had weak acceptability compared with
banana chips fried without M. stenopetala leaf powder. This study suggested that layering
M. stenopetala leaf powder during prolonged frying to banana chips improves nutritional
value and oxidative stabilities without compromising the sensory properties of banana
chips.
Keywords: Frying time, Proximate composition, Moringa leaf powder, Green banana, Sensory
properties
1
Associate Researcher, Food Science and Nutrition at Southern Agricultural Research Institute, Bonga
Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia
2
Assistant Professor, Food Science and Technology, Hawaassa University, Ethiopia
*Corresponding author’s email: wcritical121@gmail.com (Mesfin Wolde Deboch)
Cite this article as: Deboch, M.W. and Mezgebe, A.G. 2023. Development of banana chips: Analysis of
nutritional and sensory characteristics of banana chips as influenced by frying conditions. Int. J. Agril. Res.
Innov. Tech. 13(2): 1-5. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v13i2.70847
Introduction
In Ethiopia, dessert banana is the major fruit Processing of banana to chips may add value to
crop most widely grown and consumed. It grows this fruit and reduce the wasted banana
in several parts where the growing conditions are (Elkhalifa et al., 2014).
conducive. In Ethiopia, the Southern Nations
Nationalities and Peoples’ Regional State is one Frying is one of the most common processing
of the major production areas for bananas (CSA, techniques to make banana chips (Wani et al.,
2014). Gamo-Gofa, Bench-Maji and Sheka zones 2017). Deep-frying is an established process of
are among the major banana-producing zones of banana chips preparation. In a study reported by
the SNNPRS, of which Gamo-Gofa zone alone Wani et al. (2017) chips thickness, frying time
covers over 70% of the total banana marketed and frying temperature affected the quality of
across the major market outlets in Ethiopia (CFC, banana chips in deep fat frying. Banana chips
2004). Currently, there is minimal commercial have been found to be inferior in protein quality
processing of bananas. Banana has medicinal and and oxidative stability. It was reported that the
nutritional importance; most people consume addition of moringa leaves could improve protein
fresh, steamed or boiled bananas (Kothawade, levels and anti-oxidative properties of smoothies
2019). Farmers sell bananas at giveaway prices (in moringa powder-based banana beverages)
during bumper harvests, and many go to waste. (Aderinola, 2018). However, there is limited
study on the influences of the addition of
International Journal of Agricultural Research Innovation & Technology An open access article under
Deboch and Mezgebe (2023) Analysis of nutritional and sensory characteristics of banana chips
Moringa stenopetala leaf powder and frying Descriptive sensory analysis

times on nutritional quality, oxidative stability
and sensory properties of banana chips, with a The sensory profiling of the products was
particular focus on banana from Ethiopia. Thus, performed using the generic descriptive analysis
this study aims to evaluate the analysis of method described by Einstein (1991).
nutritional and sensory characteristics of banana Statistical analysis
chips as influenced by frying conditions.
Data analyzed using factorial ANOVA with traits
Materials and Methods as an independent variable. The means were
separated using Tukey's HSD test at p<0.05.
Green mature banana (Musa sapientum) was Principal Component Analysis (PCA) for all
collected from Southern Agricultural Research numerical results was performed using XLSTAT
Institute (SARI) and M. stenopetala leaf was version 2016.03.30882 (Addinsoft, New York).
received from Arbaminch Agricultural Research
Center (AARC). Oil (Amaresa: Mixture of Results and Discussion
groundnut, palm and niger seed oil) was
Effect of frying time and layering of
purchased from the local market, Hawassa,
Moringa stenopetala leaf powder on
Ethiopia. Mature green unripe banana (Musa
proximate compositions of banana chips
sapientum) samples with similar mass, maturity,
and ripening stages were selected and used for The moisture content of fried banana chips
the experiment. varied considerably from 3.35 to 7.34 g/100g
(Table 1). The chips of banana without MLP fried
Sample preparations for 1.5 min were higher (p<0.05) in moisture
M. stenopetala leaf powder was prepared in content than all other treatments. The banana
Hawsasa University's food and nutrition chips fried banana without MLP, banana with 3%
laboratory. The green banana was peeled, washed MLP, banana with 6% MLP fried for 2.5 min and
with soft water at room temperature and then cut the REF had similar (p≥0.05) moisture content.
into slices 2 mm thick, each weighing In general, banana chips fried with and without
approximately 1 gram. The slice was immersed MLP for 2.5 min had lower moisture content than
into 2% salt solution to prevent enzymatic those fried with and without MLP for 1.5 min.
browning. All slices were reshaped into the same The finding of this study is consistent with
circular pieces with a diameter of 4 cm and Therdthai et al. (2007) who reported low
moringa powder was layered on the banana slice. moisture levels in banana chips with longer
The technique was carried out by measuring the frying time. The fat contents of the banana chips
ranged from 3.34 to 11.70 g/100 g (Table 1).
weight of slices and 3 and 6% of M. stenopetala
Banana chips fried for 2.5 minutes without MLP
leaf powder. The half of M. stenopetala leaf
had the highest fat level. While banana chips
powder was uniformly distributed on the circular fried with 6% of MLP for 1.5 min had the lowest
pieces and the layer was on both sides of the slice; fat content. This could be due to the continuous
then the slices were dried in an oven dryer at frying time, which disrupted the solid matrix
65°C for 30 minutes. The prepared and dried thickened the crust and developed more porosity,
banana slices were deep-fried at 180ºC in allowing the oil to penetrate after chips were
vegetable oil; according to (Wanakamol and removed from the fryer (Lumanlan et al., 2020).
Poonlarp, 2018) all fried chips were drained for The result of protein content varied from 3.56 to
15 seconds to remove excess oil. 13.80 g/100g (Table 1). The highest protein level
Treatments and experimental design was recorded in banana chips with 6% of MLP
layered banana fried for 1.5 min. The lowest
The experiment was designed as a complete protein level was recorded in banana chips fried
factorial experiment in which the treatments without MLP for 2.5 min. The protein content of
consider all possible combinations of the selected banana chips fried for (1.5 and 2.5) without MLP
levels. had no significant difference (p<0.05).
Furthermore, 6% of MLP layered banana chips
Proximate analysis fried for 1.5 min had higher (p<0.05) protein
The proximate contents (moisture, ash, crude fat, compared to banana fried without MLP and 3%
fiber, protein and CHO) of the banana chips were of MLP layered banana fried for (1.5 and 2.5) min
determined according to AOAC (2000) using the and 6% of MLP layered banana fried 2.5 min.
official method 934.06. This study supported by Oke et al. (2018) also
found that heat treatment reduces the amount of
Pro-Vitamin A protein and destroy some amino acids, then
changes the quality of protein composition of
The total carotenoid content extraction was fried banana chips. The ash content of fried
carried out according to Imungi and Wabule banana chips ranged from 5.67 to 13.65 g/100g
(1990). Beta-carotene content was determined (Table 1). The highest ash content was recorded
spectrophotometrically as described by Muchoki on banana chips fried with 6% MLP for 2.5 min.
et al. (2007). While the lowest ash content was recorded
banana chips fried without MLP for 1.5 min. The
Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 1-5, December 2023 2

ash content of the fried banana chips increased incorporates moringa powder in the enhanced
with the increased duration of the frying time fiber content of smoothies. Though the
from 1.5 min to 2.5 min due to the application of carbohydrate level of the banana chips was
heat. Likewise, the ash content of the fried determined by difference, considerable slight
banana chips increased with increased variations were observed (Abioye and Aka, 2015).
concentration of MLP from 3% to 6%. The The carbohydrate content ranged from 57.78 -
finding of this study is consistent with (Pragati et 67.29 g/100 g (Table 1). Banana chips fried for 1.5
al., 2014; Aida et al., 2016). The result of fiber minutes without MLP were highest in
content ranged from 4.43 g to 12.43 g/100g carbohydrate content and banana chips fried for
(Table 1). The highest fiber content was recorded 2.5 min without MLP were lowest in
for banana chips fried without MLP for 2.5 carbohydrate level. This might be due to the
minutes. The lowest fiber content was recorded higher frying time increasing the breakdown of
for banana chips fried with 6% MLP fried for 1.5 all the components in the banana chips during
minutes and 2.5 minutes. The finding of this frying (Oke et al., 2018).
study is supported by Aderinola (2018), who
Table 1. Effect of frying time and layering of moringa leaf powder on chemical compositions of banana
chips (g/100 g on a dry basis).
Frying time (min) MLP MC Fat Protein Ash Fiber CHO
(%) (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g) (g/100g)
1.5 0 7.34±0.26 d 7.39±0.14 a 4.76± 0.73a 5.67±0.126 a 7.63±0.15 d 67.29± 0.82c
3 6.26±0.29 c 6.34±0.16 d 11.1±0.92 d 6.46± 0.078b 5.61± 0.13 b 64.28± 0.96 a
6 5.29±0.42 b 3.34±0.15 b 13.80± 0.30 e 8.07±0.074 d 4.43± 0.07 a 65.01±0.60 ab
2.5 0 3.75±0.41 a 11.70±0.69 f 3.56±0.34 a 10.73±0.260 f 12.43± 0.50 f 57.78d±0.83
3 3.63±0.17 a 7.17±0.36 a 6.34±0.20 b 9.21± 0.113 e 6.56± 0.16 c 67.07± 0.63 c
6 3.35± 0.14 a 4.98±0.13 c 8.26±0.37 c 13.65±0.390 g 4.84± 0.18 a 64.90± 0.60 ab
REF 3.64±0.15 a 8.60 ± 0.3 e 3.96±0.56 a 6.94±0.220 c 10.80±0.23e 66.07±0.77b
Green Banana * 70.69 0.48 1.03 2.5 10 22.1
MLP** 6 6.2 25.3 11.2 9.3 41.3
Values are mean ± SD of duplicate determinations. Mean values with different superscripts down the column
are significantly different (p < 0.05). Where, REF (local chips), LSD = Least Significant Difference.
(Khanvilkar et al., 2016)*; Melesse (2011); and (Raghavendra et al., 2016) **
Effect of frying time and layering of the antioxidative properties of moringa (Nadeem
Moringa stenopetala leaf powder on beta et al., 2013). Furthermore, banana chips with
carotene of banana chips different frying times had also a significant effect
on beta-carotene content. This study is supported
The β carotene level of fried banana chips ranged by Demasse et al. (2007). β-carotene and vitamin
between 29.42 and 93.49 µg/g (Table 2). The C losses during frying are linked to the behavior
beta-carotene content of banana chips fried for of physicochemical parameters during the
banana without MLP for 2.5 minutes and REF water/lipids exchange.
was not significantly different (p<0.05). An
increased concentration of MLP from 3 to 6%
increased beta-carotene content. This is due to
Table 2. Effect of frying time and layering of Moringa stenopetala leaf powder on beta-carotene of
banana chips.
Frying time (min) MLP (%) Beta carotene (µg /g)
1.5 0 46.13 ± 2.51d
3 72.68 ± 2.14e
6 93.49±3.76f
2.5 0 29.42 ± 0.71a
3 31.27 ± 1.69ab
6 39.18 ± 2.16c
REF 34.62 ± 2.09bc
Values are mean ± SD of duplicate determinations. Mean values with different superscripts down the column
are significantly different (p < 0.05). Where REF (local chips), LSD = Least Significant Difference.
Descriptive sensory analysis of banana chips (Table 3. The appearance attribute (green), taste
attribute (sour, astringent) and aroma (salty)
The sensory panels generated thirty banana chips properties of the banana chips were affected
quality descriptors and their definition, reference (p<0.05) by the combinations. All attributes of
standards and anchors are given (Table 3). The texture by hand texture mouth were significantly
appearance (golden brown), taste (sour, affected (p<0.05) by the combination (Table 3).
astringent), and after-taste (lingering) attributes Taste attributes (sour, astringent) and after-taste
were not affected (p<0.05) by the combinations

(lingering) of the banana chips were not BC4, BC5, and BC6 were crispier (p<0.05)
significantly affected (p<0.05) by the formulation compared to REF (locally processed chips). The
(Table 3). banana chips showed considerable variation in
sweetness (Table 3). Banana chips of BC2, BC3,
The banana chips showed considerable variation BC5 and BC6 were not sweeter (p<0.05)
in roughness (Table 3). Banana chips of BC3 and compared to reference samples REF (locally
BC6 were rougher (p<0.05) compared to processed chips) and banana chips of BC1 and
reference samples REF (locally processed chips) BC4 were sweeter (p<0.05) compared to REF.
and BC2, BC4 and BC5 had no significant Furthermore, BC2, BC3, BC5 and BC6 of banana
difference in roughness among them. Banana chips were lower (p<0.05) in sweetness than the
chips of BC4, BC5 and BC6 showed no significant sample without moringa combinations.
variation in crispness (Table 3). Banana chips of
Table 3. Descriptive sensory profile of chips prepared from unripe banana and moringa leaf powder at
different times and concentrations.
Sample Attribute Chips type
BC1 BC2 BC3 BC4 BC5 BC6 REF
Appearance Rough 1.375a 2.875ab 5.75bc 2.875ab 3.25ab 7.875c 4.85abc
Yellow 6.120b 2.500a 1.75a 8.120b 2.00a 1.870a 8.00b
Golden brown 4.250a 2.120a 2.12a 3.000a 5.75a 4.370a 3.28a
Greasy 1.120a 1.750ab 1.37a 2.620ab 3.12ab 5.000b 4.28ab
Brown 1.000a 2.750abc 6.50c 2.250ab 5.25bc 6.500c 6.50c
Green 0.875ab 4.000b 2.25ab 0.500a 1.12ab 2.000ab 1.42ab
Texture by Hard 1.620bc 4.750a 6.12a 0.870b 5.75a 6.620a 6.71a
hand Soft 6.250bc 2.120a 8.50c 1.500a 2.17a 3.000ab 4.14ab
Brittle 4.620ab 2.120a 4.87ab 7.500b 5.37ab 5.250ab 3.57a
Springy 4.620abc 2.370abc 1.75ab 4.250abc 5.62bc 1.25a 5.85c
Texture by Crispy 4.870ab 1.500b 1.25b 8.870a 6.87a 6.370a 5.42ab
Mouth Chewy 7.500bc 5.870b 1.75a 1.120a 3.12a 1.750a 8.42c
Breakability 7.120b 2.370a 5.87ac 8.370b 5.87bc 1.000a 2.28a
Dry mouth feel 0.750a 3.870bcd 1.75ab 5.000a 4.87bc 7.750e 2.42abc
fine particles 1.370a 3.500ab 7.00c 2.000a 5.37bc 7.250c 3.28ab
Aroma Oily 2.500a 4.370abc 6.50bcd 3.500ab 2.50a 8.00d
4.000abc
Fried banana 7.120b 4.000a 4.75ab 5.000a 5.75ab 6.620b 3.85a
Leafy 0.870a 3.250ab 4.62bc 1.250a 3.50ab 6.750c 3.14ab
Fruity 3.870abc 1.870ab 4.75bc 1.620a 2.87ab 6.370c 3.85abc
Salty 2.00ab 0.750a 3.12b 1.870ab 2.12ab 1.750ab 3.00ab
Taste Sour 3.00a 2.000a 2.12a 2.620a 3.00a 1.370a 3.00a
Starchy 7.500b 3.000a 3.50ab 4.370ab 4.00ab 4.870ab 3.85ab
Unripe banana 6.620c 0.750a 2.50ab 5.250c 2.37ab 4.750bc 2.28ab
Sweet 7.370de 2.370ab 3.50abc 8.370e 4.62bc 1.870a 5.85cd
Astringent 1.370a 1.750a 2.87a 1.000a 4.00a 4.000a 4.57a
Bitter 0.750a 1.120ab 3.75bc 0.750a 2.75abc 4.000c 1.00a
After taste Bitter 0.500a 1.500abc 5.12d 1.870abc 2.87bc 3.620cd 0.85ab
Astringent 1.370a 1.370a 5.00b 0.620a 4.00b 2.870ab 0.85a
Lingering 3.370a 2.620a 4.25a 3.120a 2.87a 2.870a 1.71a
Dry mouth feel 2.750ab 1.750a 6.50c 5.250abc 3.00abc 6.000bc 2.57ab
Values are Mean ± standard deviation (n=2). Values in a row with different letters in superscript are
significantly different (p<0.05.
Conclusion for 2.5 minutes and REF were similar.

Descriptive sensory properties of banana were
The protein content of banana chips decreased affected by both frying time and concentration of
and the fat and ash content increased with moringa leaf powder. The 3% MLP banana chips
increased frying times from 1.5 to 2.5 minutes. were acceptable for all sensory attributes as
Frying banana chips for 1.5 minutes resulted in opposed to 6% MLP banana chips, thus, it was
higher protein content than banana chips fried analyzed for nutritional composition. The results
for 2.5 minutes. However, the protein and beta- showed that the 3% MLP banana chips had more
carotene contents of the banana chips increased protein, and less fat content than the control (0%
when the concentration of MLP increased from 3 MLP) banana chips. The sensory profiles of
to 6. The beta-carotene content of banana chips banana chips like hardness, roughness, and
is negatively affected by frying time. The crispiness, were affected by frying times, which
increased concentration of Moringa stenopetala increased from 1.5 minutes to 2.5 minutes.
leaf powder somehow reduces the losses of beta Finally, I conclude that layering of 6% MLP
carotene. While the beta carotene content of improved protein or decreased the sensory
banana chips fried for banana with 6% of MLP acceptability of banana chips.

Acknowledgement Khanvilkar, A.M., Kamble, A.B., Ranveer, R.C.,

Ghosh, J.S. and Sahoo, A.K. 2016. Effect of
The authors are grateful to Southern Agricultural frying media and primary packaging
Research Institute for providing the opportunity material on shelf life of banana chips. Int.
to work on the study and allowing financial Food Res. J. 23(1): 284-288.
support and their heartfelt gratitude goes to all Kothawade, C.V. 2019. Medicinal and nutritional
the technical staff of the food and nutrition importance of banana. Acta Scien. Agric.
laboratory of Hawassa University. 3.5: 29-33.
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Gum and resin bearing dryland forests of the Somali region,

Southeastern Ethiopia: Diversity, structure and spatial distribution
Nesibu Yahya1, Abdu Abdelkadir3* , Busha Teshome2, Mister Abebe2 and Habtemariam Kassa3
Received 15 July 2023, Revised 15 November 2023, Accepted 25 December 2023, Published online 31 December 2023
ABSTRACT
Despite their ecological and socio-economic contributions, the lowland dry forests of
Ethiopia have largely been neglected and hence experience severe deforestation and
degradation challenges. It is, therefore, crucial to assess the status of the dry forest resources
to formulate appropriate management strategies that facilitate their sustainable utilization.
This study was undertaken to determine spatial distribution, species composition, structure,
and regeneration of gum and resin-producing species in the dry forests of the Somali
Regional State of Ethiopia. The recent Sentinel-2A image was procured and used to classify
the area, using a supervised Random Forest Algorithm, into different land covers and
vegetation types. Inside the two key vegetation types (Acacia dominated woodland and
Mixed woodland), forest inventory was conducted by establishing 30 m x 30 m size
quadratic sample plots. The results revealed that the study area was divided into settlement
(0.2%), bare land (6.0%), undifferentiated forest (0.5%), acacia woodland (36.3%), mixed
woodland (54.1%) and scrubland (2.9%). Thirty-four woody species were identified and
recorded with a Shannon diversity of 3.03. The population structure showed a lack of
sufficient natural regeneration. This shows that the forest containing the gum and resin-
bearing species is not replacing itself as well as it should. On the other hand, if managed
properly, the forest has the potential to produce various types of oleo-gum resins. Thus,
implementing appropriate restoration measures is urgent to enhance natural regeneration.
Moreover, formulating sustainable utilization while creating a product market of gum and
resins are important consideration to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of dry
forests in the region.
Keywords: Somali, Horn of Africa, Gum and Resin
1
WeForest Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2
Ethiopian Forestry Development, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
3
Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
*Corresponding author’s email: aabdelkadir@yahoo.com (Abdu Abdelkadir)
Cite this article as: Yahya, N., Abdelkadir, A., Teshome, B., Abebe, M. and Kassa, H. 2023. Gum and resin
bearing dryland forests of the Somali region, Southeastern Ethiopia: Diversity, structure and spatial distribution.
Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 6-13. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v13i2.70848
Introduction
Dry forests in the tropics are important forest they are endowed with numerous endemic plants
biomes that support the livelihood of millions of and animals (Bareke, 2018). The woodland is also
people around the globe (Djoudi et al., 2015). In a source of various gum and resin products such
addition, it provides multiple ecosystem services as frankincense, myrrh, opopanax, and gum. It
(Cortés-Calderón et al., 2021). The dry forest plays an important role economically, from
covers about 42% of tropical and subtropical enhancing household income (Berhanu et al.,
forests (Hasnat and Hossain, 2019). Compared 2021; Walle and Nayak, 2021; Worku et al., 2014)
with other biomes, it is much more prone to loss to improving the GDP of the country (Mekonnen
of biodiversity and habitat fragmentation due to et al., 2013).
the high rate of deforestation and forest
degradation (Maass, 2010; Rivas et al., 2020). Somali Regional State of Ethiopia is one of the
While it comprises extensive distribution, it regional states in Ethiopia where dry forests are
receives less research attention as compared to the dominant vegetation types. El – Weyni
the moist tropical forests (Sunderland et al., district of Somali, region is known to have much
2015). of its areas covered with dry forests comprising
large number of gum and resin-bearing species.
The Combreterm – Terminalia and the Acacia - However, this economically important resource
Commiphora are the two widely distributed has not properly managed and effectively utilized
forest ecosystems in the dry lowlands of Ethiopia. due to lack of adequate information on
The resources are significant in biodiversity as biodiversity aspects as well as on the distribution
Yahya et al. (2023) Gum and resin bearing dryland forests of the Somali region, Southeastern Ethiopia
and production potential of gums and resin the spatial distribution of gum and resin-bearing
producing species and under development of species in the El-Weyni district of the Somali
markets. Hence, evidence-based planning and Regional State of Ethiopia.
implementation of sustainable utilization is
constrained by lack of adequate information. Materials and Methods
Forest inventory, which can reveal the existing
The study area
diversity and structure of the forest, is an
important phase in forest management. The study was conducted in the El-Weyni district
Understanding the regeneration status of woody in the Somali Regional State of Ethiopia. It is
species in general, and gum and resin-bearing located between 42° 45' to 43° 25' East and 6° 20'
species in particular, is fundamental in to 6° 45' north. El–Weyni was selected for the
formulating appropriate policy and strategy both study because its resource endowment in terms
at a national and regional level. In addition, of gum and resin bearing species in the region.
knowledge and information in these areas are The total area of the district is estimated at
crucial for the sustainable utilization of the 242,030 hectares. The altitude ranges from 331
resources. to 1035 m.a.s.l through an average value of 482
m.a.sl. The landform of the study area is mainly
Previous studies on gum and resin-bearing dry
characterized by a smooth plain with some
forests in Ethiopia have emphasized on the
rugged topography in the northeastern section of
western and northwestern dry lowlands,
the district. The climatic condition of the district
providing critical information on their proper
is described as dryland affected by recurrent
utilization and ecological sustainability
drought. The site has an annual average
(Addisalem et al., 2016; Bekele, 2016; Mokria et
precipitation of 200 mm, and the mean
al., 2017; Yilma et al., 2016), and socio-economic
maximum and minimum temperature is 28°C
aspects (Eshete et al., 2005; Tilahun et al., 2015).
and 40°C, respectively (Hussein et al., 2021).
On the other hand, there is scarce information on
the forest resources of the Somali region of the The vegetation types of the study area are the dry
southeastern lowlands. Limited work has been woodland ecosystem types of Acacia-
conducted in Somali Region on the current forest Commiphora woodland and scrubland (Friis et
composition structure and the spatial al., 2010). In this ecosystem, gum and resin-
distribution of the dry woodlands in general and bearing tree species are widely distributed. The
gum and resin-bearing species in particular. The woodland usually coexists with grasslands and
objective of this study was, therefore, to fill in the pastureland. The pastoral system is the common
gap of information and determine the species livelihood means of the community in the area.
composition, structure, and regeneration of gum
and resin species. At the same time, it quantifies
Figure 1. Location map of the study area and forest inventory plots.
Vegetation data collection and analysis height were measured using standard diameter
tape and a True-pulse height meter, respectively.
A reconnaissance survey was conducted before The total number of seedlings and saplings was
undertaking the forest inventory. A systematic counted and recorded within each plot.
random sampling technique was employed to lay Environmental data such as location (latitude
sampling plots. Thirty quadratic plots of 30 x 30 and longitude), altitude, slope and aspect were
meters were established to record the seedlings, recorded from the center of each sample plot. For
saplings, and adults of all woody species. For the the present study, different growth stages were
adult, the diameter at breast height (DBH) and

pre-defined as an adult (height greater than 1.5 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑅𝐹)

meters), sapling (height between 0.5 and 1.5 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
meters), and seedling (height less than 0.5 = 𝑥 100
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
meters).
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑅𝐷𝑂)
In order to describe the woody species diversity, 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
the Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (H) and = 𝑥 100
Evenness (E) were employed using the following 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
equations: 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 = 𝑹𝑫 + 𝑹𝑭 + 𝑹𝑫𝑶
𝑠
𝐻 = − ∑ 𝑝𝑖 ln 𝑝𝑖 With the purpose of understanding the

community and population structure, a
𝑖=1
population frequency diagram was generated
Where: H = Shannon–Wiener diversity index and based on different diameter sizes. The vegetation
Pi = the proportion of individuals found in the i th analysis was conducted on the R software
species. program using the “vegan” and the
𝐻 𝐻 “BiodiversityR” packages (Dixon, 2003; Kindt,
𝐸= = 2018; Team, 2021).
𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 ln 𝑆 ′
Where: E = Evenness, Hmax= the maximum level Spatial data collection and analysis
of diversity possible within a given population,
which equals ln (number of species). Several spatial databases were collected to
quantify the current distribution of different
The absolute density (number of stems per forest communities in the study area. The freely
hectare), frequency (number of plots with a available Sentinel 2A satellite images with 10 -
species presence) and dominance (basal area of a meter spatial resolution was downloaded. A
species in m2 per hectare) were calculated for all better cloud-free image was selected from the
woody species in the study area using the available list of images. Two tiles (T38 NKN and
standard methods. Then, relative density, relative T38 NLN) encompassed the entire study area.
frequency, and relative dominance were The selected satellite image was acquired in the
calculated using the following equations: late dry season (January – February 2022) to
allow for clear separation of the different
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑅𝐷) vegetation types. Only the spectral bands of the
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 satellite images (Sentinel L2A) covering the Blue
= 𝑥 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 (Band - 2), Green (Band - 3), Red (Band - 4) and
Near Infrared (Band - 8) were selected for the
study.
Table 1. Description of different types of land cover classes.
No. land cover classes Description
1 Bare land Areas with no vegetation cover consisting of exposed soil and/or
bedrock
2 Settlement Land covered by residences, road networks, buildings and small
industrial areas in both rural and urban areas.
3 Acacia dominated Land covered by Acacia-Commiphora woodland but Acacia is a
woodland dominant species than Boswellia and Commiphora
4 Commiphora Land covered by Acacia-Commiphora woodland but Boswellia and
dominated woodland Commiphora species are dominant than Acacia species
5 Scrubland Land covered by small trees, shrubs and herbs, which may be
succulent, geophytic or annual.
6 Undifferentiated Areas that were inaccessible for the team to differentiate physically
forest and hence categorized as undifferentiated forest
The images were geometrically and radio- classification technique was implemented to
metrically (i.e., top of the atmosphere) corrected. classify the image into the aforementioned
Image pre-processing techniques such as sub- classes (Table 1). The spatial analysis was
setting, layer stacking and image enhancement conducted on R software and ArcGIS software
were conducted for the downloaded images. The programs.
Random Forest algorithm of the supervised
Results and Discussion
Woody species distribution, diversity and composition
The vegetation distribution map of the study area and settlement (0.2%) (510.2 ha). The
(Figure 2) shows that the Acacia woodland undifferentiated forest was found in remote and
(36.3%) and mixed woodland (54.1%) are the two inaccessible areas where the altitude is relatively
dominant vegetation types. The proportion of the higher. This result gives clues to the need to
other land cover categories was bare land (5.9%), reassess of the previously reported national
(14416.9 ha), scrubland (2.9%) (7193.7 ha), spatial coverage of Gum arabic (399,700 ha) and
(2.9%), undifferentiated forest (0.5%) (1165.1 ha) Gum Commiphora (171,300 ha) (Fitwi, 2000).

Figure 2. Spatial distribution map of vegetation types of the study area.

Table 2. The area coverage and density of predominant woody species in the study area.
No. Land cover types Area (ha) Proportion Botanical name Density of dominant
(%) tree species (stem/ha)
1 Settlement 510.24 0.21 -
2 Undifferentiated forest 1165.11 0.48 -
3 Scrubland 7193.71 2.97 -
4 Bare land 14416.89 5.96 -
5 Acacia dominated 87864.94 36.30 Acacia senegal 49.6
woodland Commlphora gowlello 13.3
(n = 15) Commiphora myrrha 12.6
Commiphora truncata 6.7
Commiphora erythraea 5.9
Boswellia neglecta 5.2
Boswellia rivae 5.2
6 Mixed woodland 130879.46 54.08 Boswellia neglecta 18.5
(n = 15) Commlphora gowlello 14.8
Acacia senegal 13.3
Commiphora truncata 13.3
Commipbora hodai 11.9
Commiphora erythraea 11.1
Commipbora samharensis 10.4
Total 242,030.35 100.00
A total of 34 woody species were recorded from erythraea, Commlphora gowlello, Acacia asak
the study area of which Acacia, Boswellia, and and Commiphora myrrha, are the five most
Commiphora are the three genera producing frequently found species in the study area. The
gums and resins. The mean pooled diversity of most dominant gum and resin bearing species in
the study area is 3.03 and 0.93 for the Shannon the study area include Commiphora guidotii,
and Simpson diversity indices, respectively Commiphora erythraea, Commiphora myrrha,
(Table 3). Acacia senegal, Commiphora Boswellia rivae and Acacia senegal.
Table 3. Woody species diversity of the study.
Diversity indices Pooled values
Richness 34.00
Shannon diversity 3.03
Simpson diversity 0.93
Evenness 0.61
The spatial distribution, together with A. senegal, frankincense from B. neglecta and B.
composition and density of the gum and resin rivae, myrrh from C. myrrha and C. truncate,
species (Table 3) indicate that there is a huge opopanax from C. guidotii, Hager from C.
potential in the study area to produce several africana.
types of oleo-gum resins such as gum arabic from

Table 4. Estimated gum and resin production potential of the study area.
Product name Density (stems/ha) Mean Estimated production
production gum/resins in kg/ha/yr
Acacia Mixed kg/tree/yr* Acacia Mixed
woodland woodland woodland woodland
Gum arabic 49.6 13.3 2.0630a 102.32 27.44
Myrrh 34.1 48.9 0.5000b 17.05 24.45
Frankincense 10.4 24.4 0.2610c 2.71 6.37
a: (Zeleke et al., 2021); b: (Lemeneh and Kassa., 2011); c: (Eshete et al., 2012)
The estimated production (Table 4) shows internationally demanded commodities for
variation between the two types of vegetation. In various applications such as food, beverages,
the Acacia woodland, higher production potential pharmacology, adhesives and cosmetics
of gum Arabic is expected as compared to the industries and can be sources of much needed
mixed woodland. Myrrh and frankincense are hard currencies (Başer et al., 2003; Lemenih and
expected to be produced more from the mixed Teketay, 2005; Sambawa et al., 2016; Hamad et
woodland vegetation type. Thus, the resource al., 2017; Efferth and Oesch, 2022).
potential of the study area is huge and is an
indication of the need for a better utilization of Structure and regeneration status
the resource. With this estimation, the study area The diameter class distribution of the entire
has an area-wise extrapolated total production community showed “reverse J-shaped” which is
potential of 18351.5 tons (58.5% from Acacia regarded as a higher density of individuals found
woodland and 41.5% from mixed woodland). at the lower diameter classes and gradually
Indeed, actual production may vary from the decreasing their density with increasing diameter
potential by several factors such as species, class (Figure 3). The first diameter class (< 5 cm
growth stage, weather conditions, implemented DBH) shows a slight decrease that indicates
harvesting techniques and tools and many other insufficient regeneration of woody species at the
related factors. community level. The regeneration status also
indicates a “J-shape” which shows the unhealthy
The results are also consistent with a study that
status of the regeneration of woody species
claims the underutilization of gum and resin
(Figure 3).
resources in Ethiopia (Tadesse et al., 2007). It
should be noted that these products are
Figure 3. Diameter class distribution (diameter class in cm: class 1.5 ≤ 5 cm, 2 =5 – 10 cm, 3 = 10 – 15
cm, 4 = 15 – 20 cm, 5 = 20 – 25 cm, 6 ≥ 25 cm) of adults (A) and density of regenerates and adults of
woody species (B) in the entire community.
The population structure of some of the species the density of individuals at the lower diameter
(most of them are gum and resin-bearing species) class (particularly in the first and second classes),
shows an irregular pattern and is bell-shaped which strongly suggests the problem of
(Figure 4). The bell-shaped pattern is described regeneration and recruitment. This pattern is
by the larger density of individuals in the middle consistent with previous studies in the lowland
diameter class (DBH = 5-20 cm). Except for dry forest of Ethiopia (Adem et al., 2014; Hido et
Acacia asak, the population structure of the al., 2020).
dominant and/or abundant woody species lacks

Figure 4. Diameter class distribution (diameter class in cm: class 1.5 < 5 cm, 2 =5 – 10 cm, 3 = 10 – 15
cm, 4 = 15 – 20 cm, 5 = 20 – 25 cm, 6 ≥ 25 cm) of dominant and/or abundant species.
The results also showed that the vegetation and Kassa, 2011). Climate variability and
resources of the study area are relatively less frequent drought could also be another factor for
affected by urbanization and agricultural the loss of regeneration of the woody plants in
expansion, unlike the western and Northwestern general and gum and resin-bearing species in
lowland forests of Ethiopia. Moreover, it was particular.
observed that there was relatively less charcoal
production and marketing in the study area. The findings of the study highlight the potential
However, the vegetation might be affected by contribution of dry forests to support livelihoods
over-grazing activities since the livelihood of the of local communities and to halt the decline of
community depends primarily on livestock biodiversity, which are the two most challenging
production. The free grazing practice in the dry global sustainability issues (Wei et al., 2018).
forests of Ethiopia’s lowlands has been reported However, little attention is given to research and
as a major factor that hampers the natural development of dry forests in the lowlands of
regeneration of gum and resin species (Lemeneh Ethiopia as compared to the montane forest. For

instance, the quasi absence of nurseries that University, Wageningen, The Netherland.
propagate and raise lowland tree species is one of https://edepot.wur.nl/382024.
the justifications to substantiate the low level of Berhanu, Y., Vedeld, P., Angassa, A. and Aune,
attention being paid to the lowland dry forests. J.B. 2021. The contribution of frankincense
Moreover, the soil is highly susceptible to erosion to the agro-pastoral household economy and
and degradation and hence forest restoration is its potential for commercialization - A case
crucial and cost-effective (Crouzeilles et al., from Borana, southern Ethiopia. J. Arid
2020). With a slight reduction in human Environ. 186: 104423.
pressures, the restoration of such areas may https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JARIDENV.2020.104423
require little effort to achieve results that are Cortés-Calderón, S., Mora, F., Arreola-Villa, F.
more significant before the degradation reaches and Balvanera, P. 2021. Ecosystem services
the stage of no return. supply and interactions along secondary
Finally, it is suggested that research and tropical dry forests succession. Forest Ecol.
development in these ecologically and Manage. 482: 118858.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118858
economically useful lowland dry forests would be
very helpful to effectively restore the landscapes Crouzeilles, R., Beyer, H.L., Monteiro, L.M.,
by selecting appropriate restoration techniques Feltran-Barbieri, R., Pessôa, A.C.M., Barros,
and available propagation mechanisms. F.S.M., Lindenmayer, D.B., Lino, E.D.S.M.,
Implementing appropriate restoration is urgent Grelle, C.E.V., Chazdon, R.L., Matsumoto,
to enhance and aid natural regeneration while M., Rosa, M., Latawiec, A.E. and Strassburg,
formulating sustainable utilization and marketing B.B.N. 2020. Achieving cost-effective
of gum and resin species, which would be crucial landscape-scale forest restoration through
to the well-being of the surrounding community targeted natural regeneration. Conserv. Lett.
and the country at large. 13(3): e12709.
https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12709
Acknowledgements Dixon, P. 2003. VEGAN, a package of R functions
The authors sincerely thank the Ethiopian for community ecology. J. Vege. Sci. 14(6):
Forestry Development, SIDA and UNDP as the 927-930. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-
costs of the study were covered by a Catalyzing 1103.2003.tb02228.x
Forest Sector Development Project of Ethiopian Djoudi, H., Vergles, E., Blackie, R.R., Koame,
Forestry Development, funded by the Swedish C.K. and Gautier, D. 2015. Dry forests,
International Development Agency (SIDA) and livelihoods and poverty alleviation:
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Regional and district levels, as well as to Rev. 17(2): 54-69.
community members who were involved in the https://doi.org/10.1505/146554815815834868
data collection process. The Kebele, district, Efferth, T. and Oesch, F. 2022. Anti-
zonal, and regional administrative bodies were inflammatory and anti-cancer activities of
highly acknowledged for their permission and frankincense: Targets, treatments and
support of the research. Our thanks also go to toxicities. Seminar Cancer Biol. 80: 39-57.
community members who shared their time and https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semcancer.2020.01.015
kindly agreed to respond to the questions of the Eshete, A., Sterck, F.J. and Bongers, F. 2012.
research team. The authors also thank field Frankincense production is determined by
assistants and drivers for their support. tree size and tapping frequency and
intensity. For. Ecol. Manage. 274: 136-142.
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Impact of Forest Landscape Restoration on livelihoods of rural households:

A case study from Sodo District, Central Ethiopia
Mister Abebe1, Mehari Alebachew1, Abdu Abdelkadir 2* , Degenet Abebaw2, Agena Anjulo1,
Teshome Tesema1 and Habtemariam Kassa2
Received 17 July 2023, Revised 6 December 2023, Accepted 25 December 2023, Published online 31 December 2023
ABSTRACT
Ethiopia has pledged to restore 22 million ha of degraded and deforested lands by 2030. To
this end, Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) efforts are underway. But empirical studies
that critically evaluated the effectiveness of FLR in the country are scanty. This study was
conducted to evaluate the impact of FLR initiatives on rural households’ livelihoods in Sodo
district, Southern Central Ethiopia. A two-stage random sampling technique was used to
draw 260 sample households (120 households from FLR participating and 140 households
from non-FLR participating). Using a structured questionnaire, data on socio-demographic
characteristics such as on household heads, household assets, access to credit, land size,
household income and related expenditures were gathered. Besides formal survey, key
informant interviews, focus group discussions, direct field observations, and review project
documents and official reports were used to gather data. The data was analyzed using
descriptive statistics and Propensity Score Matching (PSM) technique. The results showed
that FLR participants are likely to gain higher total and crop income than non-FLR
participants. The average off-farm income of FLR participants also increased by 10,252.4
ETB (200 USD). The number of beehives and the amount of honey produced was higher
with FLR participants. FLR participants received more training and had better access to
credit and engaged more in rearing sheep and poultry. In conclusion, to maximize impact on
livelihoods, FLR initiatives should be combined with agricultural intensification and
diversification as well as with business-oriented forest development activities.
Keywords: Forest landscape restoration, Impact, Livelihoods, Perception
1
Ethiopian Forest Development (EFD), P.O. Box 24536 Code 1000, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2
Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), P.O. Box 5689 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
*Corresponding author’s email: aabdelkadir@yahoo.com (Abdu Abdelkadir)
Cite this article as: Abebe, M., Alebachew, M., Abdelkadir, A., Abebaw, D., Anjulo, A., Tesema, T. and Kassa,
H. 2023. Impact of Forest Landscape Restoration on livelihoods of rural households: A case study from Sodo
District, Central Ethiopia. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 14-21. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v13i2.70849
Introduction
Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) is a planned The GOE has adopted several forest sector
process that aims to regain ecological integrity initiatives and devolved a considerable array of
and enhance human well-being in deforested or forest use and management rights to local
degraded forest landscapes (Mansourian, 2005; communities. Accordingly, the National Forest
Maginnis and Jackson, 2007). It is an important Sector Development Program (NFSDP) of
strategy to restore land resources and improve Ethiopia was issued in 2018 that envisages to
the resilience of local communities globally, and a promote development, conservation, and
means of implementing The Bonn Challenge sustainable use of natural and planted forests in
targets to restore 150 million ha of degraded collaboration with development partners. Forest
lands by 2020 (Pistorius et al., 2017). To reverse development and FLR are expected to contribute
deforestation and land degradation and generate to mitigating climate change, reducing poverty,
economic benefits from timber, non-timber forest hunger and other human deprivations. NFSDP
products, and fodder while achieving was initially launched in nine districts but
environmental services, the Government of expanded to more districts across Ethiopia.
Ethiopia (GOE) pledged to restore 22 million
Sodo district of Gurage zone is one of the nine
hectares by 2030 (MEFCC, 2016; MEFCC, 2017).
initial intervention areas targeted by the
Abebe et al. (2023) Impact of Forest Landscape Restoration on rural households’ livelihood in Ethiopia
Institutional Strengthening of the Forest Sector Methodology

Development Project (IS-FSDP) as part of the
NFSDP. In 2016, the project demarcated and Study area
enclosed about 16500 ha of degraded land for This study was conducted in Sodo district,
assisted natural regeneration, and in 2017, the Central Ethiopia Regional State, Ethiopia.
project afforested/reforested 1700 ha of degraded Geographically, the district lies between 8˚26
land. A total of 31 rural kebeles participated in 5.6''76'N and 38˚36''43.56'E and borders in the
the project. south with Meskane district, and in the west,
However, after six years of FLR implementation north and east with the Oromia Regional State.
in the area, there is a need for systematic Sodo district comprises 59 kebeles (54 rural and
evaluation and empirical data to reach a 5 urban) and Buee is the district’s capital and
consensus on the effectiveness of the FLR project Kela is another major town of the district. Sodo
implemented in the area. This would shed light district has a total land area of 93,800 ha. The
on FLR impacts elsewhere in Ethiopia so as to rain is bimodal with the main rainy season
draw lessons that would improve future planning. spanning from June to September and the small
To this end, an FLR evaluation team was set to rainy season lasting from February to April.
evaluate the impacts of FLR project Most of the soils in the Sodo district are sandy
implementation on rural households’ livelihoods loam (60%), followed by black cotton soil (22%)
in Sodo district, Southern Central Ethiopia. The and red soils (12%), which are susceptible to soil
research team attempted to examine two key erosion. The dominant vegetation types of the
aspects: i) the community’s perception of FLR in district are dry Afromontane forests and Acacia-
response to FLR programs implementation and Commiphora woodlands. Enset (Ensete
ii) the impact of the FLR project on the ventricosum), barley, wheat, legumes, and
livelihoods of rural households. potatoes are the principal food crops.
Figure 1. Study area map (Source: Nesibu Yahya, 2022).

According to CSA (2007), the total population of 85% of the rural income. Nearly 25% of farmers
Sodo district is 206,816. The district is one of the live along the Meki River and produce vegetables,
most densely inhabited districts in the nation, mostly for local markets, through small-scale
with a density of 326 persons per km2. The irrigation. In addition, eucalyptus tree sales,
majority of people in the district reside are rural livestock trade (from animal fattening), and off-
and the average family size is 5. The major farm activities generate extra income. The youth
sources of income for households are crop sales, from rural areas frequently move to Addis Ababa
migratory urban jobs, local employment (mostly and nearby towns for employment.
casual agricultural work), and animal sales. The
crop–livestock mixed farming accounts for about

FLR Project Background interviewed and 3 focus group discussions (with

6 to 10 people) were conducted to generate more
The FLR project in Sodo district carried out data.
afforestation/ reforestation (A/R) activities on
1700 ha and Assisted Natural Regeneration A propensity score matching (PSM) Model for
(ANR) (in the form of exclosure) on 16,500 ha in estimating outcomes of FLR and non-FLR was
2016 and 2017, respectively. The rehabilitation employed (Khandker et al., 2010). The mean
work was conducted after series of consultations difference in outcomes between the two groups
and written agreements with the local was then used to calculate the average impact of
community. The major activities included area the FLR program on FLR participants, often
exclosure, constructing soil and water known as the average treatment effect on the
conservation structures, nursery establishment treated (ATT) in the evaluation literature. PSM
and seedling production, compost preparation, constructs a statistical comparison group based
pitting, and planting desho grass and bamboo. on a household’s predicted probability of FLR
The project purchased and provided to participation (the propensity score) conditional
community members tools and equipment used on observed characteristics X: P(X) = Pr (T =
for nursery and plantation activities. Supportive 1|X). The predicted values of FLR participation
activities were also initiated, including the are estimated using a logit model as the decision
introduction of fuel-efficient stoves with the to participate (T=1) or not to participate (T=0) in
establishment of women's cooperatives, seedling FLR, which is a binary dependent variable.
production, and engagement in poultry, sheep,
and modern beekeeping. Once the propensity scores were estimated, the
next step in implementing the PSM model was to
Household survey create matched samples of treatment and control
households and compute the mean difference in
The household survey was administered to 260 outcome variable of interest between the two
randomly selected sample households, 120 of groups. To this end, Yi represents the outcomes
which were FLR participants and 140 non-FLR to household i (Khandker et al., 2010). For
participants. A two-stage random sampling participants, Ti = 1, and therefore, the value of Yi
procedure was followed to draw sample under treatment was represented as Yi1. For non-
households. First, three FLR intervened localities participants, Ti = 0, and the value of Yi is
(Kebeles) viz., Dugda Goro, Gerino Enset-Tekil, represented as Yi0. Moreover, variables that are
and Amoute Gefitige, and three non-FLR likely to influence participation in FLR and its
localities viz., Amoute Morege, Genete Mariam impacts on outcome variables of interest were
and Adele Mirit-Meteja, were randomly chosen. selected and used. The explanatory and outcome
Then 40 households from each FLR intervened variables were selected based on empirical works
and 47 households from each non-intervened of literature on FLR initiatives implementation
Kebelles were randomly selected. Data were (Mansourian, 2005; Maginnis and Jackson,
collected using a structured household 2007; Pistorius et al., 2017; MEFCC, 2017; Kassa
questionnaire. The data collected covered et al., 2017; Kassa, 2018; Zeleke and Vidal, 2020;
individual and household socio-demographic Pedercini et al.,2021; Djenontin et al., 2021).
characteristics and annual revenue from forest
products, i.e., total annual income (expenses and Results and Discussion
costs). The questionnaire also included
household-level data such as agriculture and Descriptive results
livestock holding, livestock production, forest The majority of sample households were male-
income, petty trading, remittance and gifts. Net headed (83%) (Table 1). FLR participant
income is the gross value minus the expenditure households are remoter to the nearest market,
cost, including labor cost. Furthermore, the have larger family size and total land holding
livestock holding was converted to Tropical compared to non- FLR participants (Table 1). The
Livestock Unit (TLU) (Storck et al., 1991). FLR participants are also characterized by lower
In addition to the structured questionnaire, data age. Households that participated in the FLR
were gathered through key informants, focus program had significantly higher number of hives
group discussions, direct field observations, and and higher honey production (Table 2).
review of project documents and activity reports. Moreover, they were more likely to have higher
Key informants and focus group discussion total income and crop income with lower other
participants were identified by consulting local income than the non-FLR participants.
experts, village leaders, field workers, and project
staff. A total of 10 Key informants were

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of sampled households by FLR participation.

Categorical Variables Category Participation in FLR Total Chi2
FLR Non- FLR (Frequency square
(120) (140) and %) (Sig)
Household head sex (HhSEX) 1= Male 95 121 216(83.1) 0.120
0= Female 25 19 44(16.9)
Household head education 1 = Literate 92 93 185(71.2) 0.069
(HhEdu) 0 = Illiterate 28 47 75(28.8)
Household head marital status 1= Married 110 134 244(93.8) 0.176
(HhMTS) 0 = Otherwise 10 6 16(6.2)
Credit access before FLR 0= no 83 106 189(72.7) 0.237
(CABFLR) 1= yes 37 34 71(27.3)
Credit access 0= no 92 136 228(87.7) 0.000***
1= yes 28 4 32(12.3)
Cooperative formed 0= no 75 124 199(76.5) 0.000***
1= yes 45 16 61(23.5)
Continuous Variables Mean Mean (SD) Mean T-value
(SD) Difference
(SED)
Household head age (HhAge) 45(11.28) 49.27(12.93) -3.78(1.52) -2.489***
Family size (Familysize) in No. 6.06(2.26) 5.28(1.89) 0.77(0.26) 3.001***
Number of economically active persons (18 - 64) 3.72(1.95) 3.42(1.71) 0.30(0.23) 1.333
(LabAge)
Distance to market (DISTMarket) in walking minutes 97(88.32) 50(37.93) 46.50(8.23) 5.652***
Total land owned (OwnLand) in ha 1.98(2.96) 1.24(1.22) 0.74(0.27) 2.713***
Livestock in TLU before FLR (LivestockTLUBFLR) 5.73(7.07) 5.05(6.37) 0.68(0.83) 0.819
Remark: - ***indicates 1% level of significance.
Table 2. Summary statistics of outcome (economic indicator) variables.
Variables FLR (N=120) Non-FLR (N=140) Mean Difference T value

Mean SE Mean SE Mean SED
Crop income 61368.39 5086.38 46514.72 3454.79 14853.67 6007.79 2.472***
Livestock income 25987.19 5105.79 25101.70 8090.52 885.49 9936.54 0.089
Forest income 8217.66 1883.31 4179.21 2289.40 4038.45 3025.97 1.335
Other income 245.91 117.78 824.82 2981.44 -578.90 293.26 -1.974**
Off-farm income 17312.40 3664.90 12816.85 1390.56 4495.54 3709.78 1.212
Total income 113131.56 8537.95 89437.31 9442.40 23694.25 13075.72 1.812*
Livestock in TLU 5.24 0.36 4.94 0.42 0.30 0.57 0.521
No of Beehives 0.49 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.49 0.22 2.225**
Honey production 1.30 0.52 0.01 0.01 1.29 0.48 2.682***
No of training 5.35 0.30 2.90 0.28 2.45 0.42 5.897***
Repetition of training 18.61 3.80 7.38 0.84 11.24 3.63 3.092***
Remark: *, ** and *** implies significant at 10%, 5% and 1% significance levels, respectively.
Estimation of results of propensity scores size tends to decrease the probability of

and FLR impacts participation in FLR. Households headed by
females are more likely to participate in FLR. Age
Estimation of propensity scores of the household head has a negative and
The logit model estimates of the propensity score significant effect on FLR participation.
as a function of pre-FLR observed characteristics Additionally, as distance to the nearest market
of households are presented in Table 3. The level increases, so does the probability of household
of participation in FLR is determined by a participation in FLR. The estimated results also
combination of socioeconomic, demographic and indicate that participation in FLR significantly
geographical factors. The likelihood of increases as a household’s pre-intervention other
households to participate in FLR increases with income declines while participation in FLR
family size and the education level of household decreases as off-farm income rises.
heads (Table 3). On the other hand, landholding

Table 3. Logit Estimates of Participation in FLR.

Variable Coefficient Z-value P-value
Household head sex (HhSex) -0.70(0.27) -2.63 0.009***
Household head age (HhAge) -0.01(0.01) -1.72 0.086*
Household head education (HhEdu) 0.53(0.23) 2.37 0.018**
Household head Marital status (HhMTS) -0.21(0.39) -0.54 0.589
Family size (Familysize) 0.15(0.06) 2.50 0.013**
Total land owned (OwnLand) 0.12(0.06) 1.88 0.060*
Number of economically active persons (LabAge) -0.11(0.07) -1.65 0.099*
Distance to market (DistMarket) 0.01(0.00) 4.42 0.000***
Credit access before FLR (CABFLR) 0.06(0.20) 0.33 0.742
Off-farm income before FLR (OffFarmIncBFLR) -0.00(0.00) -2.86 0.004***
Other income before FLR(OtherIncBFLR) 0.00(0.00) 1.69 0.091*
Training number before FLR (TrainNoBFLR) 0.03(0.04) 0.76 0.445
Bee hives number before FLR (BeehivesBFLR) 0.03(0.16) -0.19 0.850
Livestock in TLU before FLR (LivestockTLUBFLR) -0.01(0.01) -0.98 0.325
Constant -0.13(0.55) -0.25 0.806
Pseudo R2 0.1979
Prob > chi2 0.0000
LR chi2(14) 71.02
Log likelihood -143.94001
Observations 260
Note: Dependent variable (participation) equals one if a household participated in FLR programme and zero if
not. Standard errors in parenthesis*, ** and *** indicate statistical signiﬁcance level at 10, 5 and 1%,
respectively.
Estimations of the Impact of FLR relatives, transfer of funds, etc. The increase in
off-farm income may likely have resulted from
Average effect of participation in FLR employment opportunities created by the FLR
The findings show that the FLR intervention had program for daily laborers. The results show that
a statistically significant impact on FLR the average number of beehives and honey
participants compared to non-participants. produced increased by 0.49, 1.3 kg, respectively,
Significant differences were observed in terms of in FLR HHs compared to non-FLR HHs (Table
the number of beehives, honey production and 5). These results could be due to the effect of the
income (Table 4 and 5). The average other FLR interventions. However, the focus group
income of FLR participants decreased by 844.92 discussions and the key informant interviews
ETB and off-farm income increased by 10252.4 revealed a wide range of livelihood opportunities.
ETB (Table 4). This may be due to declines from
other income sources, such as support from
Table 4. Matching estimates on average impact of FLR (ATE) in Sodo FLR sites.
Outcome variables ATET AI Robust S.E Z P value
Coefficient
Crop income -6013.77 12551.01 -0.48 0.632
Livestock income 1399.83 9962.34 0.14 0.888
Forest income -451.15 3132.16 -0.14 0.885
Other income -844.92 468.48 -1.80 0.071*
Off-farm income 10252.40 4324.00 2.37 0.018**
Total income 4342.39 13024.55 0.33 0.739
Credit access 0.27 0.04 6.28 0.000***
Cooperative formed -0.05 0.08 -0.77 0.443
Livestock in TLU -1.35 1.16 -1.16 0.246
No of Beehives 0.49 0.24 2.05 0.041**
Honey production 1.30 0.47 2.74 0.006***
No of training 3.50 0.44 7.96 0.000***
Repetition of Training 13.74 3.87 3.55 0.000***
Remark: - *, ** and *** implies significant at 10%, 5% and 1% significance levels, respectively.

It was observed that the FLR initiatives brought a than before (Table 4 and 5) and as a result, the
number of training opportunities to participating FLR initiative brought several livelihood options,
HHs from government extension services, FLR such as poultry and sheep farming as well as the
project office and non-governmental introduction of fuel-efficient stoves through
organizations. Moreover, the findings indicated credit to participants.
that FLR participants had more access to credit
Table 5. Matching estimates on average impact of FLR (ATT) in Sodo FLR sites.
Outcome variables Treated Control Difference S.E T value
(ATT)
Crop income 58743.64 60164.24 -1420.60 9593.03 -0.15
Livestock income 26838.33 18295.78 8542.54 12517.18 0.68
Forest income 8348.88 7189.56 1159.31 2475.31 0.47
Other income 223.36 1232.76 -1009.40 821.88 -1.23
Off-farm income 17268 8164.14 9103.86 4661.32 1.95
Total income 111422.20 95046.49 16375.72 16165.92 1.01
Credit access 0.46 0.20 0.26 0.10 2.72**
Cooperative formed 0.33 0.33 0.00 0.08 0.00
Livestock in TLU 5.07 5.75 -0.69 1.37 -0.50
No of Beehives 0.28 0.00 0.28 0.11 2.62**
Honey production 1.08 0.00 1.08 0.47 2.29**
No of training 5.29 2.00 3.29 0.71 4.62***
Frequency of training 18.47 4.59 13.88 4.31 3.22**
Remark: - ** and *** implies significant at 5% and 1% significance levels, respectively. Difference indicates the
relative mean difference between participant and non-participant households.
Perception on FLR friendly relationships varied with 67.9% saying it

increased, 17.1% significantly increased, and
The results (Tables 6 & 7) showed that 83.1% of 14.2% stayed about the same. Following the
non-FLR participants were highly interested, FLR's establishment, response on illegal cutting
while 12.4% were somehow interested in within the FLR area was also variable, with 30%
participating in FLR activities. The level of saying illegal cutting highly declined, 35% it
perception on participation also varied with declined, 12.9% saying it remained same, while
64.6% respondents saying the initiative was 18.8% said it had increased. Moreover, 57.8%
highly participatory and 21.5% saying it was responded the species composition has increased
somehow participatory. About 91.8% of the with 20.8% saying the increment was very high,
households indicated that the FLR initiative 12.7% remained the same. On the change in the
benefited society, with an additional 89.5% forest cover inside FLR, about 26.9% respondents
indicating that the local community was engaged said the increment was high, 60.9% it increased
in decision-making. About 92.1% respondents somehow and 11.3% said that it remained the
said FLR initiative attempted to consider local same.
conditions of the area during the initiative’s
establishment. The shift in trust, harmony, and
Table 6. Perception of respondents on Forest Landscape Restoration (1).
FLR initiative Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly
agree disagree
Increased species richness and diversity 46.5% 51.3% 0.9% 1.3%
Increased soil productivity and carbon storage and fresh 51.9% 45.9% 1.3% 0.9%
water in the area
Recovered forests, restored biodiversity, and improved 54.6% 43.3% 1.3% 0.8%
ecosystem services
Decreased soil erosion and downstream water runoff 55.8% 42.5% 0.4% 1.3%
FLR initiative increased the greenness of the area 55.2% 42.7% 0.4% 1.7%
FLR site improved livelihoods of the local community 41.6% 52.5% 1.3% 4.6%
The FLR initiative supported HHs economically 50.8% 30.1% 18.6% 0.5%
The FLR site have clear and consistent evaluation and 54.0% 42.2% 3.1% 0.6%
learning framework

Table 7. Perception of respondents on Forest Landscape Restoration (2).

FLR initiative Excellent Good Satisfactory Poor
Management was adaptive in adjusting 41.0% 37.2% 15.5% 6.3%
restoration strategies as per condition
FLR initiative restored ecological functionality 51.9% 29.1% 15.2% 3.8%
FLR initiative focused on landscape restoration 48.3% 33.9% 14.0% 2.5%
Encouraged youth participation 38.5% 38.5% 13.4% 9.6%
Promoted women participation 41.3% 37.4% 11.5% 9.8%
The FLR initiative allowed for multiple benefits 50.8% 30.1% 18.6% 0.5%
Similarly, the expert view on FLR was positive engaged, 45% mainly engaged, 10% were
with 65% respondents saying the initiative was somewhat engaged and 5% were not engaged
mainly participatory, 15% highly participatory, stakeholders in the decision-making processes.
10% somewhat participatory, and 5 % not About 70% of experts strongly agreed that the
participatory. Moreover, 60% of experts FLR initiative restored degraded forest,
responded that the FLR initiative highly biodiversity, and improved ecosystem services
benefited society, 25% mainly benefited and 15% and 30% agreed to the above.
somewhat benefited. While 40% experts
responded the FLR initiative was completely
Table 8. Perception of experts on Forest Landscape Restoration.
FLR initiative Excellent Good Satisfactory Poor Not
applicable
Implementation was based on adaptive 50% 45% 5%
management in adjusting restoration
strategies in response to social, economic
and environmental change
Its focus on landscape restoration was 45% 50% 5%
satisfactory
It adequately included ecological 30% 50% 10% 10%
functionality in its restoration activities
It allowed for multiple benefits satisfactorily 45% 35% 20%
It enabled women participation 40% 40% 15% 5%
It promoted youth participation 30% 40% 25% 5%
Adopted adaptive management in adjusting 40% 35% 25%
restoration strategies as per condition of
FLR sites and local communities
The management intervention of FLR site 45% 45% 5%
was satisfactory
FLR initiative Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly
agree Disagree
FLR sites have clear and consistent 20% 70% 5% 5%
evaluation and learning framework
The FLR initiatives addressed problems of 45% 45% 10%
land degradation and forest degradation
The intervention restored degraded forests, 70% 30%
biodiversity, and improved ecosystem
services
FLR interventions enhanced human well- 65% 35%
being
Conclusion interventions are contributing to improving to

improving the local, weather, ecological integrity,
FLR initiatives in Sodo district were established and some aspects of participants' livelihoods. To
in a participatory way, restored degraded forests, maximize positive impacts on livelihoods, FLR
conserved biodiversity and improved ecosystem interventions need to be accompanied with
services. FLR initiatives also improved the credit agricultural intensification and forest friendly
access and provisioning of training, increased the livelihoods diversification and income generating
number of beehives and honey production. In options. This implies that policy coordination
addition, they restored ecological functionality, across agriculture, forestry and other natural
increased the greenness of the area, species resources sectors has to be improved.
richness and diversity, youth and women Identification and promotion of business-
participation and helped improve livelihood of oriented forest development that help create new
the local community. It can be concluded that jobs for the communities considered during the
FLR is executed in the manner that needs to be planning and implementation of FLR
developed. It is widely perceived that FLR interventions.

Acknowledgements Maginnis, S. and Jackson, W. 2007. What is FLR

and how does it differ from current
The authors sincerely thank the Ethiopian approaches? pp. 5-20. In: J. Rietbergen-
Forestry Development, SIDA and UNDP as the McCracken, S. Maginnis, and A. Sarre,
costs of the study were covered by the Catalyzing editors. The forest landscape restoration
Forest Sector Development Project of Ethiopian Handbook. Earthscan, London, UK.
Forestry Development, funded by the Swedish http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781849773010
International Development Agency (SIDA) and Mansourian, S. 2005. Overview of forest
UNDP. The authors are also grateful to experts of restoration strategies and terms. pp. 8-16.
the project and Sodo Zuria Office of Agriculture In: S. Mansourian, D. Vallauri, and N.
who assisted during the data collection process. Dudley, editors. Forest restoration in
Our thanks also go to community members who landscapes: beyond planting trees. Springer,
shared their time and kindly agreed to respond to New York, USA.
the questions of the research team. We are very http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/0-387-29112-1
grateful to Mr. Nesibu Yahya for his assistance in MEFCC. 2016. Degraded Landscape Restoration
preparing the map. Program in Ethiopia, Strengthening
development of the Green Economy, Addis
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-8028-4

ISSN: 2224-0616
Spice production and marketing in Kaffa Biosphere Reserve, Ethiopia

Amanuel Afeto1* , Kefyalew Kassa2 Tesfaye Belay3 and Abiy Gebremchael4
Received 17 July 2023, Revised 7 December 2023, Accepted 25 December 2023, Published online 31 December 2023
ABSTRACT
Ethiopia has favorable climate conditions for the production of spices, herbs, aromatic and
medicinal plants useful for flavoring food, aroma, therapeutic and marketing for cash
income. Ethiopian is the largest consumer of spices in Africa, but the contribution of spice to
the national economy is meager. The study area is endowed with diversified spice types with
different purposes. However, it is not well announced, attention is not given and still many
spices are growing in the wild. However, it is not well announced, attention is not given, and
many spices are still collected from the wild. This study aimed to assess spice production
and marketing in Kaffa biosphere reserve. This study was undertaken in four districts of
Kaffa zone including Tello, Gimbo, Shishoende and Decha districts by selecting one
representative kebele from each district. The data collection method used for this study is a
household survey, key informant interviews and focus group discussion. Out of the total
sampled 89% of sampled households participate and produce diversified types of spice.
Korarima, red pepper, rue, ginger, turmeric, bush tea, holey basil, machewolago, aemacho
nechamacho, coriander, rosemary, onion, long pepper and lemon grass were identified at
the household survey. About 60.9% of the sample households provide spice products to
market and the sample households generate a mean income of 1,611.14 ETB from spice
product marketing. Most sampled households ranked themselves at low and very low
knowledge levels on spice production and marketing. Spices are mainly produced in the
home garden area for consumption. The main challenges for spice production in the study
area are the unavailability of improved variety, low attention given by government and
stakeholders, unavailability of the market, lack of knowledge and skill on production and
post-harvest handling, low-value addition practice and unavailability of recommended
practice. Creating a market for spice products and promotion is needed its importance and
give attention to spice production. Training is needed for the farming community on spice
cultivation, management, post-harvest handling and processing.
Keywords: Spice, Kaffa, Production, Marketing
1,2,3
Bonga Agricultural Research Center, Southwest Ethiopia Agricultural Research Institute, Ethiopia
4
Southwest Ethiopia Agricultural Research Institute, Ethiopia
*Corresponding author’s email: amanyaster@gmail.com (Amanuel Afeto)
Cite this article as: Afeto, A., Kassa, K., Belay, T. and Gebremchael, A. 2023. Spice production and marketing
in Kaffa Biosphere Reserve, Ethiopia. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 22-30.
Introduction
Ethiopia has very favorable agro-ecology and food additive for seasoning and killing bacteria
climate conditions for cultivation of spices, herbs, (Yimer, 2010; FAO, 2005). When compared to
aromatic and medicinal plants which are very African countries, Ethiopia is the largest
useful for food flavoring, therapeutic and consumer of spices and its people utilize them to
marketing for cash income generation (Hordofa flavour bread, butter, meat, soups, and vegetables
et al., 2020). Spice is the basic food item in the and to make medicines and perfumes (Goshme
diet of Ethipian and its utilization history is and Ayele, 2019). Even though the country is
ancient (Deribe, 2022). Spice is found in many conducive to spice cultivation, its contribution to
forms as a dried or row seed, fruit, root, bark or the national economy is very low less than 1%
vegetative and utilized in small quantities as a (Asfaw, 2020).
Afeto et al. (2023) Spice production and marketing in Kaffa Biosphere Reserve, Ethiopia
Ethiopia is the place of origin for Korarima multiple purposes, including consumption,
(Aframomum corrorima), long pepper, Black income generation, medicinal, and cultural value.
cumin, white cumin /Bishop weed, coriander and Spices are cultivated in the area in the home
ginger (Deribe, 2022). The country produces garden and alongside farmland, and others are
more than 50 types of spices from 109 spices, collected from the wild with lower or without any
herbs and aromatic plants shortlisted by management practice. There is a high potential
International Organizations for Standardization for spice production in the area, but utilization
(ISO), out of which 23 are trading as export and production are lower. Lower attention was
items. Ginger, turmeric, cumin, rosemary, given to the sub-sector by the government, local
cardamom, capsicum, fenugreek, coriander, communities, and other supporters. The habit of
korarima, long pepper, black pepper, hot pepper, spice product marketing is lower and resulted in
rue, celery and thyme are majorly produced in a lower market-oriented production system in the
Ethiopia (EIC, 2016). Smallholders in Ethiopia study area. Also, this sub-sector is producing
produce Korarima (Aframomum corrorima), red traditionally without agricultural technology
pepper, ginger, rue, turmeric, cardamom, black support like production systems and improved
pepper, black cumin, white cumin /Bishops weed, verities.
coriander, fenugreek, sage, and cinnamon.
However, korarima (Aframomum corrorima), This study wants to indicate the diversity,
red pepper, ginger, turmeric, black cumin and production, and marketing of spices in the study
cardamom are the six most important spices area. It is necessary to determine the income
produced in Ethiopia (Asfaw, 2020). According households generated from spice production and
to Goshume and Ayele (2019), long pepper, black marketing and also it is necessary to determine
cumin, bishop’s weed, coriander, thyme and the spice potential, constraints and opportunities
fenugreek are attached to Ethiopia as a center of of smallholder producers of the study area.
origin or diversity. General objective
The demand for spice products from domestic The overall aim of this study was to assess spice
consumers and the international market is higher production and marketing in the Kaffa biosphere
than those produced within the country. Many reserve, the southwest region of Ethiopia.
factors hindering spices production and
productivity in Ethiopia, including unavailability Specific objectives
of high-yielding varieties, inadequate research
• To identify the major types of spices
support, weak private sector role, weak
produced in the area
stockholder linkage, lack of extension services,
lack of technology, deforestation, traditional way • To assess beneficiaries’ skills in spice
of farming, low attention to government, production and post-harvest handling
displacement of spices by other crops, animal • To determine households' income from
grazing, lack of proper pre and post-harvest spice production and marketing
handling practices (Deribe, 2022; Asfaw, 2020;
Goshme and Ayele, 2019). Korarima production
Methodology
is declining in Gamo Gofa, Debub Omo and Kaffa Description of the study area
zones due to the deforestation of natural forests
of the area destruction of the plant’s natural This study was conducted in the Kaffa zone of
habitat (Zakir, 2018). Spice producers are facing southwestern Ethiopia. It is located 465 km
many challenges in marketing spice products southwest of Addis Ababa, having 12 districts & 5
including capital constraints, low market price, administrative cities. The total land area of the
poor market access and information, limited Kaffa zone was 10,602.7 square kilometers. Kaffa
processing of spices, transportation problems, zone is known for its dense forest coverage and
low government support, lack of adequate the agroecology is 70% mid-land, 20% highland
knowledge, price volatility, weak market research and 10% lowland. Four representative districts
and promotion (Goshme and Ayele, 2019). Gimbo, Tello, Shishoende and Decha, were
selected for this study. Gimbo district lies within
Southwest Ethiopia is rich in the diversity of 07°00’- 7°25’ N Latitude and 35°55’- 36°37’ E
spice having different functions. Still, many kinds Longitude. Tega kebele was selected for this
of spices are collected from natural forests and study; its altitude is 1840 masl. The topography
others are cultivated in home gardens and of Kebele is characterized by plain land and
alongside farmland. Kaffa zone is one of the spice slopping and rugged areas. The mean annual
biodiversity most affluent areas with suitable rainfall and temperature ranged from 1710 mm to
agroecology and climate conditions for different 1892 mm and 18.1°C to 19.4°C, respectively. The
types of spice production (Mulatu and Gadisa, major crops cultivated and grown in the area
2020). Many spices grown in the area have include Enset, coffee, maize and tea.

Shishoende is located at a distance of 56 km from structured household survey questionnaire. To

Bonga and 556 km from Addis Ababa. validate the household survey, key informant
Geographically it lies at 7 0 20’ N and 35086’ E. interviews and four focus group discussions were
The altitude ranged from 1350 to 2200 meter organized in each of the sampled kebele.
above sea level. Wareta kebele was selected for
this study from 31 kebeles of the shishoende The sample size for this study was determined by
districts and its altitude was 1780m above sea Yamane's (1967) formula with a precision level of
level. The annual rainfall of the kebele ranged 7.5%. A total of 164 households were randomly
from 1400 to 2000 mm and rainfall shortage selected and interviewed with a structured
happened between December and March. Coffee questionnaire from 2116 households of the four
and Enset-based farming systems are practiced in sample kebeles selected above and taken
the kebele and Enset, coffee, maize and Teff are proportional to the number of total households of
majorly cultivated in the area. The annual mean that kebele.
temperature of the kebele ranged from 18°C to 𝑁
20°C. n=
1 + 𝑁(𝑒)2
Decha is one of the districts found in Kafa zone Where ‘n’ is the sample size; ‘N’ is the total
located 24 km from Bonga town. Geographically, number of households of the four kebeles and ‘e’
it is located at a latitude of 070 22’ 34’’ N and a is the level of precision (error level).
longitude of 20029’89’’ E. The altitude of the
district ranges from 1550 to 2000 masl. Its Data type, source and collection technique
annual rainfall ranged from 1490 mm to 2195
Quantitative and qualitative data were collected
mm and the average annual temperature ranged
from primary and secondary sources for this
from 14.10C to 21.950C. Agro-climatically, 7% of
study. Primary data were collected through key
the district is highland, 45% mid-highland and
informant interviews and focus group discussions
48% are lowland. Modiyo gombora kebele was
by semi-structured questionnaires and household
selected for this study and its altitude is about
surveys using structured questionnaires. Key
1860 and some parts of the kebele were about
informant interviews conducted at Woreda and
>2000 masl. The total land area of Modiyo
kebele levels that have better knowledge of spice
Gombora kebele was 3193 ha and the total
production and marketing. A focus group
population was 3008.
discussion was performed in all four kebeles of
Tello district was another selected area for this four districts by including elders, females, youth,
study; it was about 42 km away from Bonga. development agents and kebele administrators
Geographically it is located in latitude of 07 0 28’ who have better knowledge of the issue and about
34’’ N and longitude of 22020’89’’ E. Yama kebele the area. The members of the focus group
was selected for this study and it is located 37 km discussion range from 13 to 30 persons.
away from Bonga. The total area of the kebele Household surveys conducted in all four Kebeles
was 788.64 ha. The altitude of the Kebele ranged with different sizes were taken from each Kebele.
from 2050 to 2100 meter above sea level. The
Primary data were about the socio-economic
mean annual temperature of the kebele ranged
characteristics of households, type of spice
from 14°C to 17.5°C. The mean annual rainfall of
cultivated, production system and importance of
kebele ranged from 1400-1900 mm. The major
spice, marketing and income from spice sold.
crops cultivated in the study area include enset,
Secondary data were collected from reports of the
maize, coffee, bean, wheat, barley and teff.
respective district and Kebele office, published
Sampling design and sample size and unpublished materials, and internet and
determination website reports.
A multiple-stage sampling technique was Method of data analysis

employed and Kafa zone was the selected study
The main analytical method used to indicate the
area. In the first stage, four districts i.e. Tello,
results was descriptive statistics. The sample
Shishoende, Decha and Gimbo were selected
respondents’ demographic and socio-economic
purposely from project intervention districts at
conditions, type of spice produced and marketed
Kafa zone. In the second stage, from each district
and knowledge of spice producers are analyzed
one representative kebele was selected purposely
using descriptive statistics like mean, standard
by farming system, agroecology and other
deviations, frequency and percentage using the
variables. In the third stage sample households
SPSS version 23 package. The results of the
were selected by simple random sampling
analysis were indicated by table, chart, graph and
method. Households were interviewed by
descriptions.

Results and Discussion 21.2%, 7.5%, 51.7%, 13.0% and 6.6% of the
average land holding of households, respectively.
Socio-economic characteristics of the
sample household Livelihood income sources
Out of the sample households, 91.5% were male Households in the study area depend on
and 8.5% were female. No one is single, 91.5% are diversified income sources. The main livelihood
married, 2.7% are divorced and 58% are activities conducted by the sample households
widowed. The mean age of the sample household include crop production, livestock rearing, forest
head was 44.7 years and ranged from 21-63 years. product collection, spice production and off-farm
The average family size was 6 members with a activities. This finding showed that crop
minimum of 2 and a maximum of 13 family production, livestock rearing and spice
members. The education status of the sample production ranked 1, 2 and 3 of the main income
households was assessed. Out of the sample sources for households in the area. Households in
households, 41.35% did not join formal the study area generate a minimum of 5,000 ETB
education, while 42.5% joined primary school, and a maximum of 190,000 ETB with a mean of
14.25% joined secondary school and 1.9% joined 49,748.53 ETB total annual incomes from all
college. livelihood activities. The variation of total annual
income, crop income, livestock income and spice
The land holdings of the sample household income between Kebeles are statistically
ranged from 0.125 to 6.0 hectares with a mean of significant; households in Yama and Tega kebele
1.577 hectares and all of the sample households generate higher than households in Modiyo
have land. The average land holding of the gombera and Wareta kebele. The sample
sample households is smaller for mixed farming households generate a minimum of 4000 ETB
households due to many plots of land being and a maximum of 150,000 ETB with a mean of
covered by permanent crops and some are 32,829.27 ETB from crop production,
allocated for grazing. Different sizes of land were contributing 65.99% of the household’s annual
allocated for different purposes. The mean size of income (Table 1). It is the major source of income
land allocated for homestead is 0.335 ha; for for households in the area.
woodlot is 0.118; for grazing is 0.205 and for
spice production is 0.104 ha. with a share of
Table 1. The mean incomes of sample households from different sources.
Income sources Total sample Share Yama Modiyo Tega Wareta Sig.
Mean (%) gombera
Crop production 32,829.27 65.99 36954.5 23,500.0 47,437.5 27083.3 0.075
Livestock rearing 12,945.12 26.02 19750.0 10825.0 9,343.78 10875,0 0.019
Forest resource 891.06 1.80 1229.3 635.4 607.2 416.6 0.131
Off-farm 1,471.95 2.96 3054.5 850.0 406.0 1250.0 0.393
Spice production 1,611.14 3.24 4011.6 1097.1 957.2 841.7 0.008
Total income 49,748.53 65,000.0 36,907.5 58751.7 40,466.6 0.032
Livestock rearing is the secondary contributor to contribute 1.8% of annual household income in
the annual income of the sample households the study area. On the other hand, sample
since it shares 26.02% (Fig. 1) and generates an households generate a mean income of 1,471.95
average income of 12,945.12 ETB with a ETB from off-farm income sources, which is
maximum of 50,000 ETB and a minimum of 0 2.96% of the sample household’s annual income.
ETB. Households in the study area generate a Spice production contributes a mean income of
mean income of 891.06 ETB from forest 1,611.14 ETB with a minimum of 0 ETB and a
resources with a minimum of 0 ETB and a maximum of 25,000 ETB, which is 3.24% of
maximum of 6,250 ETB and forest resources households' annual income.

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
crop livestock forest off-farm spice
(65.99% (26.02%) (1.8%) (2.96%) (3.24%)
Fig. 1. Income of the sample households from different sources.

Spice production were identified during the household survey. The
results were in line with the findings in West
The results from focus group discussions, key Shoa and south wollo, Ethiopia that diversified
informant interviews and household surveys spice types produced in smallholder’s home
confirmed that the availability of numerous spice gardens (Zuberi et al., 2014; Tesfa et al., 2017).
types and the study area have high potential for Results from household surveys indicate that
spice production. Out of the sampled households, about 76.2% cultivate less than five types of spice
89% cultivate spice and 11% do not participate in and only 23.8% cultivate 5 and above types of
spice cultivation. The engagement of households spice in their home garden, alongside farmland
in spice production varies from kebele to kebele. and in the forest. The commonly produced spices
The results of the household survey indicate that, identified in all four kebele include holey basil,
out of the sample households 95% of Yama rue, korerima, bush tea, coriander, long pepper,
kebele, 85% of Modiyo gombora kebele, and 87% Machiwolago, Aemacho and Nechamacho. Ginger
of Tega and Wareta kebeles are engaged in spice and turmeric were only produced in Tega kebele,
production. The results show that the largest rosemary is produced by a small number of
household engagement was recorded in Yama households in Wareta and Yama kebele. While
Kebele and the lowest in Modiyo Gombera onion and red pepper are only produced in
Kebele. Wareta kebele. Even korerima produced all the
During focus group discussion and key informant sample kebeles it is majorly produced in Yama
interview 18 major types of spices produced in kebele by allocating large land.
the study area are identified, which include The average land allocated for spice production
Korarima (Aframomum corrorima ), red pepper, by the sample household was 0.104 ha. There is
ginger, rue, bush tea, turmeric, holey basil, black also a variation of land allocated for spice
cumin, coriander, rosemary, onion, long pepper, production between sample kebeles. The average
lemon grass, Machewolago (Foeniculum size of land allocated by sample households in
vulgare), Aemacho (Artemisia afra), Yama kebele was 0.105 ha, Modiyo gombera
Nechamacho, Shukindo (Artemisia abyssinica), kebele was 0.06 ha, Tega kebele was 0.103 ha and
Aedicho (Verbena officinalis) and Nechedicho Wareta kebele was 0.04 ha. All those spices
(Aeollanthus densiflorus). However, the cultivated in the area are local varieties; no
availability of diversified spice types at the improved varieties are cultivated in each type of
household level was very limited. Black cumin, spices. The discussants and interviewer confirm
Shukindo (Artemisia abyssinica), Aedicho that there is no one supporting governmental and
(Verbena officinalis) and Nechedicho non-governmental organizations or institutions
(Aeollanthus densiflorus) were not found during for this spice production and marketing in the
the household survey. area.
Korarima (Aframomum corrorima ), red pepper, Spices cultivated in the study area were utilized
ginger, turmeric, rue, bush tea, holey basil, for home consumption as an additive to food as
Machewolago (Foeniculum vulgare), Aemacho condiments, aroma, medicine, cleaning material
(Artemisia afra), Nechamacho, coriander, and others. The findings are in line with the
rosemary, onion, long pepper and lemon grass findings in South Wollo, Ethiopia that the

majority of spices produced are used for home turmeric, onion and red pepper. Rue, bush tea,
consumption and the excess products are holey basil and rosemary products sold in the
provided to market (Tesfa et al., 2017). Limited market were also used as seedlings if bought the
types of spices are sold in the market for cash fresh product. Husbands and other male family
income generation, which includes korerima, members participate in cultivating korerima, long
long pepper, ginger, turmeric, rue, holey basil, pepper, ginger and turmeric by planting,
onion, red pepper and bush tea. Korerima and weeding, managing and proving to market. While
long pepper are sold in the market at the market wife and other female family members cultivate
price per kilogram. However, other spices are bush tea, rosemary, holey basil, coriander, lemon
quantified by estimation and prices are settled by grass, rue, red pepper, aemacho, nechimacho,
negotiation and the sellers are price takers and machewelago, ginger, turmeric, onion, and
hardly negotiate the price due to fear of post- others, which mainly grow in the home garden.
harvest loss in case the product is not sold. Geneder role in spice cultivation and marketing is
in line with the finding in South Wollo, Ethiopia
Value addition practices like sorting, cleaning, (Tesfa et al., 2017). Spice produced in the study
drying and storing are done to long pepper and area has many purposes. Some spices are used for
korerima, while other types of spices and spice medicinal, condiment, aroma and cash income
products were sold as fresh without processing generation by selling and some others are used
and value addition practices. Limited spice for all purposes.
seedlings were sold in the area, including ginger,
Table 2. List of spices produced in the area with their purpose.
No. Purpose of production List of spices
1 Condiment, aroma, Korerima, onion, red pepper, besobila, koseret, ginger, turmeric, rue,
consumption dimbilal, kodo, shukindo, tibis kitel, teji-sar,
2 Medicinal plant Rue, aemacho, nechimacho, maciwolago, aedicho, nechidicho, dimbilal
3 Marketing Korerima, onion, red pepper, besobila, long pepper, rue, ginger, turmeric,
dimbilal
The discussants confirmed that the trend of spice income from spice marketing is about 1,611.14
production and its diversity in the home gardens ETB with a minimum of 0 birr and a maximum of
of farming households are decreasing. The 25,000 ETB. The mean income of the sample
majority 68.3% of sample households said that households from selling spice also varies from
the trend of spice production in the study area kebele to kebele. Households in Yama kebele
was decreasing, 14.6% said there was no change generate the highest average income and while
and 17.1% said that it was increasing. The main households in Wareta kebele generate the lowest
reasons raised by the interviewer and discussant income from spice selling. The mean income of
for the decrement in the trend of spice the sample households of Yama, Modiyo, Tega
production were giving less attention than staple and Wareta are 2,540.90 ETB, 1,732.5 ETB,
food crops, marketable crops and cereal crops; 1,564.37 ETB and 1,258.30 ETB, respectively. The
less knowledge/ awareness on spice uses, market availability of market infrastructure in the
unavailability, less demand in quantity, residence affects spice production and marketing.
unavailability of supporting bodies, land From the sample households, 64.6% have a
shortage, and unsuitability of climate condition market within 5 km and 35.4% do not have a
in some area for some spices. market within 5 km of their residence.
Marketing of spice product Knowledge of households on spice
production to market engagement
The provision of spice products to the market is a
crucial way to generate cash income and diversify The sample households were asked to evaluate
sources of income. About 60.9% of the sample their knowledge of spice production, collection,
households provide spice products to market handling, processing, market engagement, buyer
while 39.1% do not participate in spice and storage by ranking their knowledge as very
marketing. In the study area, the participation of low, low, medium, high and very high. The
households in the marketing of spice products interview result indicates that most sampled
varies from place to place. In the sample kebeles, households ranked themselves at low and very
91%, 60%, 56% and 38% of Yama, Modiyo, Tega low knowledge levels on spice production and
and Wareta, respectively, participate in the marketing. This indicates that households in the
selling of spice products. Most households from study area have no adequate knowledge to
Yama kebele participate in the spice product produce in large quantities and frequently. So
market and households from Wareta kebele are training is needed for households in the study
the least participants. Korerima is the main area on how to cultivate, manage process, handle,
marketable and in most households, the only store, and provide spices products to market.
marketed spice in the study area. The average

Korarima (Aframonum corrorima ) Rosemary
Bush tea Rue
Holey basil
Plate 1. Major spices produced in the area of Kaffa Biosphere Reserve, Ethiopia.
Table 3. Knowledge of sample households on spice production to marketing.
No. Evaluation criteria of the producer’s Very low Low Moderate High Very
knowledge (%) (%) (%) (%) high (%)
1 How to cultivate, manage and utilization 20.7 26.5 32.9 13.5 6.4
2 How to collect, handle, dry and store spice 34.1 32.9 21.8 11.2 0.0
3 Buyer of your spice product 31.5 42.6 18.3 5.2 2.4
4 Buyer preference 36.6 51.2 11.0 1.2 0.0
5 Production to market engagement 33.4 34.2 22.6 7.5 2.3

Major spices produced in the area cultivated for its good aroma and for cleaning
milk storage. Due to its bush nature, covering a
The major and frequently available spices
wide area and small quantity needed for
identified in the study area at the household level
consumption, only 1 to 3 plants were cultivated
are korerima, rue, bush tea and holey basil.
per household. All of the interviewed producers
A. Korerima are cultivating on home garden and its leaf was
the economic part of the plant. Female family
Korerima is produced by 69.5% of the sample members were responsible for managing bush tea
households with an average experience of 4.6 and nothing value addition or processing was
years. There is a variation in the engagement of taken to provide it to market due to its fresh leaf
households in korerima production from kebele being chosen by buyers.
to kebele. Out of the sample households 91% of
Yama, 75% of Modiyoa gombera, 69% of Tega C. Rosmery/ tibis kitel
and 46% of Wareta kebele are engaged in
Rosemary is a rarely cultivated spice, only 8.5%
korerima production. The average lands allocated
of the sample households produce it. It is not
for korerima production were 0.0987 hectare or
much adopted in the area and rarely produced for
0.79 timad, which is less than the finding of
home consumption. 1 to 3 plants were cultivated
Mulatu and Gadisa (2020). Their result shows
by the producer. It is produced only in Yama and
that households in the study area allocate 0.25 ha
Wareta kebele by a small number of households.
for korerima production. It is majorly produced
The main responsible persons for its
alongside farmland by selecting farmlands
management were female family members. It is
unsuitable for other cultivation. It is mainly
cultivated in a home garden and no significant
cultivated for income generation as a cash source,
land is allocated for its cultivation.
out of the sample households 47.4% were
cultivated for cash income generation purposes, D. Holey basil/ besobila
17.5% were cultivated for consumption at home,
as a condiment and 35.1% were cultivated for Holey basil is cultivated by the majority 73.2% of
both market and consumption at home. The main the sample households. There is a variation in the
economic part of korerima was its row seed, participation of households in holey basil
which is considered a highly important spice in production from kebele to kebele, 91% of Yama,
the study area. The main person responsible for 60% of Modiyo gombera, 56% of Tega and 79% of
korerima production was the male family Wareta kebele of the sample households produce
member next to the husband. The value addition holey basil. Two types of holey basil were
practiced on korerima products identified cultivated in the study area, Kefo (Ocimum
includes sorting, clearing, clipping together by basilicum var. basilicum) and Diro (Ocimum
fiber, hanging, drying and smoking. According to basilicum var. thyrsiflorum) by local language. It
the result of the household survey, the is mainly cultivated for consumption or
productivity of korerima in the study area was household usage as a condiment for food. It is
63.59 kg per 0.125 ha or 508.76 kg per hectare. also cultivated in a small quantity of 5 to 10
Even if households produce with lower amount plants per household and no significant part of
and land allocated is less, it is the potential spice land was allocated for its cultivation due to its
in the area, as reported by Mulatu and Gadisa usage in small quantity. The economic part of
(2020). indicated that the area has a high holey basil was its leaf and seed. Female family
potential for korerima production with an members were responsible for its management by
average productivity of 400 kg per hectare. cultivating around the home. Nothing value
Income from selling korerima covers 96.2% of addition is practiced before selling and those
households’ average income from spice seeds sold are used as seedling preparation for
marketing. the buyers.
B. Bush tea/ koseret E. Rue /Tenadam
Bush tea is another potential spice in the study Rue is another spice cultivated by 78% of the
area, cultivated by 65.9% of the sample sample households, due to its importance as
households. There is a variation in the medicinal value, ingredient for coffee and as a
participation of households in koseret production condiment. It is also mainly cultivated for
from kebele to kebele, 77% of Yama, 35% of household consumption; only 4.7% is produced
Modiyoa gombera, 75% of Tega and 75% of for consumption and marketing. It is cultivated in
Wareta kebele participate in koseret production. the home garden and female family members
The majority 96.5% were cultivating for home were responsible for weeding, planting and
consumption and only 3.5% were cultivating for management of this spice. Only 1 to 3 plants were
both consumption and market. Income from the cultivated per household due to their
marketing of koseret was very low due to the consumption needs were smaller. Its leaf and
amount provided to the market being small and seed were the economic part sold at market and
its market price being very low. It is mainly no value addition was practiced during
marketing.

Challenges of spice production and marketing support and facilitating all necessary materials
for data collection until the final paper write-up.
The main challenges raised by interviewers and
discussants for spice production and marketing References
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Prospects and problems of YouTube and virtual video channels in

agricultural content dissemination
Tasnim Farabi, Md. Matiul Islam * and Mohammad Bashir Ahmed
Received 3 August 2023, Revised 26 November 2023, Accepted 25 December 2023, Published online 31 December 2023
ABSTRACT
Farmers need new technologies and information to cope with the challenges and difficulties
of agricultural extension. YouTube, a low-cost tool, offers opportunities for farmers'
feedback, interaction, and networking. In order to utilize this tool for the benefit of farmers,
it is necessary to learn the prospects and problems of YouTube and virtual video channels in
agricultural content preparation and dissemination. Data were collected from 105
respondents under the Khulna Metropolitan Agriculture Office (both Metro 1 and 2) and
from the 3 content creators from February to May 2023. However, the majority of
respondents (94.30%) perceive YouTube as a promising tool for agricultural content
dissemination. Besides, the majority of the respondents (64.80%) perceive problems with
YouTube and virtual video channels in agricultural content dissemination. Age, farm size,
experience, extension media contact, and training received positively impact respondents'
perceptions of YouTube. The findings suggest that the public extension system and
policymakers may consider reducing internet costs and providing low-cost devices for both
respondents and content creators. Additionally, other virtual video platforms like YouTube
can be made more accessible, allowing audiences to access information from diversified
virtual video channels.
Keywords: Content Dissemination, Content Preparation, Problems, Prospects, YouTube
Agrotechnology Discipline, Life Science School, Khulna University, Khulna-9208, Bangladesh

*Corresponding author’s email: matiul@at.ku.ac.bd (Md. Matiul Islam)
Cite this article as: Farabi, T., Islam, M.M. and Ahmed, M.B. 2023. Prospects and problems of YouTube and
virtual video channels in agricultural content dissemination Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 31-40.
Introduction
YouTube is a popular social media platform that platform that shares knowledge and contributes
enables users to interact, create, share, and to the economic status of the agricultural sector.
exchange information and ideas in various forms. In the global context, the agricultural sector is
As the second largest search network after progressively involved in agriculture-based
Google, it has an extensive audience reach YouTube content creation to promote relevant
(Johnson, 2017). Being a great popular and information and knowledge. Information has
highly used channel, it can be the best option for become a critical factor in agricultural production
spreading agricultural information (Holt-Day et (Rao, 2007). This information must be relevant
al., 2020). and meaningful to farmers, in addition to being
packaged and delivered in a way preferred by
In this modernized world, YouTube secures a them (Diekmann et al., 2009). YouTube can be
crucial position in farming because it creates the beneficial in agricultural marketing to create an
scope to connect with farmers and content image of authority (Khou and Suresh, 2018),
creators from around the world over large build credibility and trust, and engage with the
geographical distances. It also allows businesses audience, more so than many other forms of
and organizations direct access to consumers and media (Agrawal, 2016).
their genuine thoughts, giving up-to-date and
relevant information on trends and preferences Virtual video channels are contemporary
(Chui et al., 2012). The most visited agri-related channels of digital communication for discussion
YouTube channels such as "Shykh Seraj", and sharing of information among people.
"Deepto Krishi", "Krishi Bioscope" and "Math Besides YouTube, other Virtual video channels
Krishi" contribute to enhancing interactions and such as Aistube (www.aistube.com), Akkbd
information flows among actors involved in (https://akkbd.com) and greeniculture
agricultural innovation. These channels also (https://greeniculture.com) also play a crucial
remove geographical limitations, enabling a role in agricultural information and technology
Farabi et al. (2023) Prospects and problems of YouTube and virtual video channels in agricultural content
dissemination. From the above background and Materials and Methods

facts, it can be seen that using YouTube and other
virtual video channels is a blessing for Design of the study
agricultural information dissemination, but very
little research work has been done on it. That’s The design of the study was descriptive and
why the researcher felt the necessity to conduct diagnostic survey research. The study was
research. The research aims to introduce conducted based on the collection of data
YouTube and virtual video channels to through the face-to-face interview method. The
agricultural stakeholders and identify the Likert-type scale was used for the relevant
limitations and problems faced by viewers and statements to know the status, prospects, and
content creators. problems of YouTube in content preparation and
In view of the above circumstances, the following dissemination.
objectives were formulated to give proper Locale of the study
direction to the study to:
In the metropolitan area of Khulna, there are two
• Scrutinize the status and prospects of
Metro Agriculture Offices. The study's location
YouTube and virtual video channels in the
provision of agricultural content included both Metro Agriculture Offices (Metro 1
preparation and dissemination. and 2). Comparatively speaking, the literacy rate
• Find out the problems faced by the content is higher in urban areas than in rural areas. This
creators during content preparation and the indicates that they are more aware and that
problems faced by the respondents while urban or semi-urban residents are more
watching any content. technologically savvy than rural residents. It was
• Ascertain the relationship between the assumed that city dwellers who were partially or
selected characteristics of the respondents entirely involved in agricultural activities were
and the perception of the respondents more exposed to YouTube and virtual video
towards both prospects and problems of channels than farmers in the countryside. That’s
YouTube in agricultural content why metropolitan areas were selected to conduct
dissemination. this study.
Figure 1. Khulna Metropolitan 1 and 2, location icon indicating the sampling sites of Khulna district
(22° 48′ 59.76″ N) and (89° 33′ 57.96″ E).
Population and sampling technique for the interview. Three content creators were
selected to conduct this research. The number of
All the respondents and stakeholders in content creators was low due to the scarcity of
Metropolitan Areas 1 and 2 under Khulna district content creators. Therefore, the sample size for
were considered as the population of the study. A the respondents was 105 and for the content
number of 105 respondents were selected creators, it was 3.
randomly to execute the research. The researcher
remained unbiased while selecting respondents

Specification of variables 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐦 𝐒𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐱 (%)

Independent and focus variables were used in observed highest scores
this research study. Independent variables = ×100
possible score
included age, family size, education, monthly
family income, farm size, training received, Data analysis
extension contact, organizational participation,
cosmopolitanism, farming experience, and Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package
YouTube knowledge level. The status and for Social Science (SPSS). By using this software,
prospects of YouTube and virtual video channels frequency, mean, standard deviation, minimum,
in agricultural content preparation and maximum, and percentage were measured to
dissemination and the problems of YouTube and describe the dependent and independent
virtual video channels in agricultural content variables. Spearman’s rank-order correlation
preparation and dissemination were the focus coefficient is a nonparametric statistical measure
variables in the study. of the strength and direction of association that
exists between two variables measured on at least
Measurement of the focus variable an ordinal scale. To measure the relationship
between the selected characteristics and their
For measuring the focus variables, the perception of YouTube in agricultural content
Respondent Perception Index (RPI) for the preparation and dissemination, Spearman’s rank-
agricultural content preparation and order correlation coefficient was used.
dissemination was calculated by using the
following formula: Results and Discussion
RPI= Nsa×5+Na×4+Nu×3+Nda×2+Nsda×1 Respondent’s perception of the status of
Where, YouTube and virtual video channels on
prepared content
RPI= Respondent Perception Index
Nsa= Number of respondents rated the Results shown in Table 1 reveal that 92.38% of
statements as strongly agree the respondents agreed with the statement that
Na= Number of respondents rated the statements “YouTube provides retrievable agricultural
as agree information” and it was ranked in first position,
Nu= Number of respondents rated the statements followed by “Farmers watch YouTube content to
as undecided learn and adopt new technologies” ranked second
Nda= Number of respondents rated the (83.04%) and “YouTube helps in increasing
statements as disagree farming production” ranked third (82.85%). The
Nsda= Number of respondents rated the majority of respondents stated that they generally
statements as strongly disagree search on YouTube for forgotten items. Whereas
statements such as “views, likes, durations can be
𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐱 (%) considered to judge the agri-contents quality of
YouTube” emerged as ninth (52.38%).
observed highest scores
= ×100 The majority of respondents had positive
possible scores
perceptions of their status and future prospects,
The severity of the problem of YouTube in and this was the discussion's primary concern.
agricultural content preparation and According to them, agriculture and farming-
dissemination was determined based on the related YouTube channels provide valuable
Problem Severity Index (PSI). It was determined information on several topics, such as crop
by the following formula: cultivation, livestock management, sustainable
PSI=Na×0+Nb×1+Nc×2+Nd×3 practices, irrigation techniques, and so on. It is
filled with tutorial videos that demonstrate step-
Where, by-step processes related to agriculture.
Moreover, agricultural researchers and
PSI= Problem Severity Index
institutions occasionally use YouTube to share
Na= Number of respondents did not extent the
their findings and studies with a broader
problem at all
audience. These videos can provide viewers with
Nb= Number of respondents extended the
ongoing information on the most recent
problem and rated as less severe
developments in agriculture due to this the
Nc= Number of respondents extended the
respondents strongly agreed with the statement
problem and rated as severe
that was ranked first. On the other hand, most of
Nd= Number of respondents extended the
the respondents did not agree with the statement,
problem and rated as highly severe
“Views, likes, durations can be considered to
After determination of PSI, the severity of the
judge the agri-contents quality of YouTube”.
problem was determined by the following
According to them, subjectivity and information
formula:
should be considered to judge the agri-contents
quality on YouTube that’s why it emerged as last.

Table 1. Rank order of the statements related to the respondent’s perception of the status of YouTube
and virtual video channels on prepared content.
Sl. No. Status RPI (%) Rank
1 All time good quality content is published on YouTube 71.43 5th
2 Views, likes, and durations can be considered to judge the agri- 52.38 9th
content quality of YouTube
3 Content is made according to farmer’s need and demand 79.43 4th
4 The educational background of content creators is agriculture- 59.24 8th
based
5 Farmer watches YouTube content to learn and adopt new 83.04 2nd
technologies
6 Regular activities of different agri-institutions are found on other 69.52 6th
virtual media besides YouTube
7. YouTube helps in increasing farming production 82.85 3rd
8. The latest update on farming is found on the YouTube channel 66.29 7th
9 Farmers are satisfied with the message on YouTube 79.43 4th
10. YouTube provides retrievable agricultural information 92.38 1st
Respondent’s perception of the status of agronomists, and researchers who share their
YouTube and virtual video channels in knowledge and experiences. These videos often
agricultural content dissemination showcase innovative and practical solutions to
common agricultural challenges. Farmers from
Results mentioned in Table 2 stated that among
around the world use YouTube to share their
ten statements "agricultural new technologies can
insights into specific farming practices and
be easily disseminated through YouTube" secured
techniques that have worked well for them. A
the first rank (95.43%) followed by “For young
similar observation was also reported by Holt-
farmers and professional agriculturists, YouTube
Day et al. (2020) who stated that being a great
is a popular medium for information seeking”,
popular and highly used channel, YouTube could
“People quickly get solutions of the problem
be the best option for disseminating agricultural
related to farming from YouTube” emerged as
information.
second (93.52%) and third (88.00%) position,
respectively whereas 47.80% of the respondents Many of the respondents thought that any new
agreed with the statement "any new technology information and technology was first shared on
first shares on YouTube." It was ranked in the last Facebook, and many of them were undecided
position, which was tenth. about whether the new technology was first
shared on YouTube or not, that’s why it appeared
The respondents stated that YouTube is a suitable
as last among the statements.
platform for sharing and promoting agricultural
innovation that often features experts, farmers,
Table 2. Rank order of the statements related to the respondents’ perception of the status of YouTube
and virtual video channels in agricultural content dissemination.
Sl. Status RPI (%) Rank
No.
1. For young farmers and professional agriculturists, YouTube is a 93.52 2nd
popular medium for information-seeking
2. Agricultural new technologies can be easily disseminated 95.43 1st
3. through
Any newYouTube
technology first shared on YouTube 47.80 10th
4. Farmers usually adopt agricultural information from YouTube 74.48 8th
and other virtual video channels
5. YouTube can raise commercial interest in farming 79.8 6th
6. People quickly get solutions to the problems related to farming 88.00 3rd
from YouTube
7. Farmers regularly watch agri-based videos and other virtual 57.33 9th
channels
8. YouTube publishers can establish a personal brand and 82.48 5th
generate money
9. All types of content related to farming can be found on YouTube 75.80 7th
and virtual video channels
10. Virtual video channels can be used as agricultural advertising 83.62 4th
and marketing places.

Prospects of YouTube and virtual video time. It is not a simple task to complete. That’s
channels in agricultural content why they ranked the statement "Necessary
preparation editing can be done easily" in the last position
(60.00%).
To know the content creator’s perception of the
prospects of YouTube, the researcher talked with According to the respondents, YouTube and other
the content creators, and the findings were virtual video channels are global platforms with a
presented in the following Table 3. Results huge user base that can help disseminate
showed that among the six statements related to agricultural knowledge and best practices
prospects of YouTube and virtual video channels worldwide. However, creating and uploading
in agricultural content preparation, the following videos on YouTube is relatively cost-effective
four “Many people watch YouTube videos”, compared to traditional media, that’s why
“Many people can be reached in a limited time”, content creators can use simple video production
“International coverage is possible”, and tools to create informative videos without
“Knowledge can be disseminated at a very low substantial financial investments. They can
cost” ranked in the first position secured 100%. demonstrate new tools, methods, and sustainable
That means all three content creators strongly practices, inspiring other farmers to adopt
agree with those statements. On the contrary, modern techniques. Due to all those reasons the
between the remaining two statements “Content above-mentioned statements ranked first, while
creators feel happy to do this work” emerged as content creators expressed that video editing is a
second securing 93.30%. In contrast, “Necessary time-consuming task. It cannot be done very
editing can be done easily” appeared as third easily, that’s why they kept it in the last position.
obtaining 60.00%. Video editing takes a lot of
Table 3. Rank order of the statements related to content creators’ perception of prospects of YouTube
and virtual video channels in the agricultural content preparation.
Sl. No. Prospects CPI (%) Rank
1. Many people watch YouTube videos. 100.00 1st
2 Content creators feel happy to do this work. 93.30 2nd
3 Many people can be reached in a limited time. 100.00 1st
4 International coverage is possible. 100.00 1st
5 Necessary editing can be done easily. 60.00 3rd
6 Knowledge can be disseminated at a very low cost. 100.00 1st
Prospects of YouTube and other virtual The respondents expressed that as the mobile
video channels in agricultural content phone can be carried out anywhere it is possible
dissemination to watch videos on YouTube anywhere and
anytime if the internet package is available.
According to the respondents' opinion in case of YouTube is an audio-with-video-sharing platform
prospects of YouTube and other virtual video at a time. Agriculture often involves practical
channels in agricultural content dissemination, skills and techniques that are best understood
the statement “YouTube can be used anywhere” through visual demonstrations, so watching
ranked first position (97.50%) followed by videos makes any information easier to
“Learning by watching videos makes it easier to remember. Video content allows for an
remember” and “Information can be stored and immersive and engaging learning experience,
used as per one’s need” that emerged as second making it easier for viewers to grasp complex
(92.60%) and third (92.80%) position among the concepts. Farmers can learn from the experiences
six statements mentioned in the table (Table 4). of others, leading to the adoption of more
Most of the respondents stated that if internet efficient and sustainable farming methods. Most
data is available, it can be used anywhere using a of the respondents informed that maintenance
mobile phone and the installation process is also costs can be reduced to make it more available to
very simple to run YouTube that’s why this all people. Purchasing internet package
statement emerged as first. Meanwhile, only comparatively high. Therefore, most of them
55.80% of them agreed with the statement disagreed with that statement, and the statement
"Maintenance costs are not so high", which “Maintenance cost is not so high”. Although some
secured the sixth position. of the respondents agree with this statement who
were Wi-Fi users. This statement was ranked in
the sixth position.

Table 4. Rank order of the statements related to the respondent’s perception regarding prospects of
YouTube and virtual video channels in agricultural content dissemination.
Sl. Prospects RPI (%) Rank
No.
1. YouTube provides new concepts about agricultural technology. 71.00 5th
2 Maintenance cost is not so high. 55.80 6th
3 YouTube can be used anywhere. 97.50 1st
4 Information can be stored and used as per one’s need. 92.80 3rd
5 Media coverage can be achieved to an extent that is not possible by 76.80 4th
the Extension Department.
6 Learning by watching videos makes it easier to remember. 92.60 2nd
Content creator’s perception regarding purchasing price of internet data packs. The
problems of YouTube and virtual video reason behind a huge amount of data requires
channels in agricultural content making a good-quality video on YouTube and
preparation other virtual channels. Moreover, creating high-
quality agricultural content can be time-
Respondents’ perceptions regarding problems of consuming and require significant effort,
YouTube and virtual video channels in especially for detailed tutorials or in-depth
agricultural content preparation were collected explanations. They thought that content creators
through six statements in the interview schedule with agricultural backgrounds could make more
mentioned in Table 5. Results presented in the knowledgeable content than non-agricultural
table revealed that the content creators content creators. They also informed that
confronted the most serious problem in “Internet smartphone is not a major issue in making
purchasing is not cheap in our country”. That’s content because now a days it is readily available
why it was ranked first position obtaining to all levels of people.
38.80% followed by “Content making is a time
consuming” together with “There is no peer- Similar findings were also reported by Barua
reviewed system that ultimately defects the (2021) who investigated the problems
quality of content” ranked second (33.33%). On confrontation of the respondents in using
the other hand, according to the respondents, YouTube through six problems. Data indicate
“Smartphone is needed to make content that is that the respondents confronted the highest
not affordable all the time by the content problem in “high price of internet package” as
creators” emerged as a minor problem among the indicated. In contrast, the second and third
six statements, that’s why it ranked last (5.56%). problems confronted by them are “unavailability
of smartphones” and “ignorance of using a
According to the respondents, the main problem smartphone”, respectively.
faced by content creators was the high
Table 5. Rank order of the statements related to the content creator’s perception of the problems of
YouTube and virtual video channels in the agricultural content preparation.
Sl. Problems CPI (%) Rank
No.
1. Content creators do not have vast knowledge of agriculture. 16.67 3rd
2. Internet purchasing is not cheap in our country. 38.8 1st
3. Content-making is time-consuming. 33.33 2nd
4. Smartphone is needed to make content that is not affordable all the 5.56 4th
time by the content creators.
5. There is no peer-reviewed system that ultimately defects the quality 33.33 2nd
of content.
6. Agricultural YouTube content cannot be monitored. 16.67 3rd
Respondent’s perception of the problems videos on the virtual platform, so there remains a
of YouTube and virtual video channels in gap to disseminate authentic information,” and
agricultural content dissemination “People are more interested to see recreational
videos rather than farming videos” ranked as
Among ten statements displayed in Table 6 second (75.90%) and third (72.40%), respectively
regarding respondent’s perception of the whereas the statement “Most of the time, viewers
problems of YouTube and virtual video channels download content to see later on, but the
in agricultural content dissemination indicated maximum time they miss it” observed as minor
that the most serious problem was "Limited problems that’s why ranked last (28.30%) among
viewers; old-age farmers have no access to see the below mentioned ten statements.
videos on YouTube because of illiteracy or the
unavailability of smartphones" appeared as first
position (78.40%) followed by “Anyone can share

Based on the information of the respondents, information, and for this, the statement “Limited
older farmers are not familiar with digital viewers; old age farmers have no access to see
technology, including smartphones and internet videos on YouTube because of illiteracy or
usage thus; they find it challenging to use online unavailability of smartphone” emerged as the
platforms like YouTube and other virtual video major problems. Whereas “Most of the time,
channels. Moreover, older farmers do not have viewers download content to see later on, but the
their smartphones, computers, or other devices maximum time they miss it” was observed as a
required to access YouTube and they are not able minor problem because most of the respondents
to purchase such devices, especially if they are on said that this is not a severe problem. Besides, the
a limited income. They prefer traditional media frequency of missing downloaded files to see later
sources, such as radio, newspapers, or in-person on is very rare that’s why it ranked last.
interactions for obtaining agricultural
Table 6. Rank order of the statements related to the respondent’s perception regarding problems of
YouTube and virtual video channels in agricultural content dissemination.
Sl. No. Problems PSI (%) Rank
1 Internet and smartphones are not available to all levels of rural 45.0 8th
farmers.
2 Relevant videos are not found by the farmers in some cases. 49.5 7th
3 Agricultural universities do not have any YouTube channels to 45.0 8th
disseminate their research or technologies.
4 Misleading information used in the videos can cause extensive 57.8 5th
damage at the field level.
5 Anyone can share videos on the virtual platform, so there remains a 75.9 2nd
gap in disseminating authentic information.
6 Most of the time, viewers download content to see later on, but 28.3 9th
maximum the time they miss it.
7 People are more interested in seeing recreational videos rather than 72.4 3rd
farming videos.
8 Poor internet connection in rural areas hinders agricultural content 70.5 4th
dissemination.
9 Limited viewers: Old-age farmers have no access to videos on 78.4 1st
YouTube because of illiteracy or the unavailability of smartphones.
10 People show interest more in those videos which have more views. 53.7 6th
Content analysis of five different YouTube due to a lack of knowledge and activation on
channels YouTube. They believe that content creators with
an agricultural background can create
A content analysis of five agri-based YouTube
meaningful and authentic content. They also
channels, including "Shykh Seraj", "Deepto TV",
emphasize the importance of constructive
"Math Krishi", "Krishi Bioscope" and "Amader
negative comments to improve their content.
Krishi Diginto" was conducted from January to
March 2023 to understand audience preferences, YouTube's popularity and worldwide viewership
attitudes, and adoption patterns. make it a valuable platform for sharing
agriculture-related knowledge. However, content
The five YouTube channels provide time and
creators face challenges such as high internet
resource-demanding information on vegetables,
purchasing costs and time-consuming content
fruits, and crop cultivation. Content producers
creation and editing. They encourage the young
aim to provide high-quality content with satisfied
generation to create clear, meaningful, and
audiences and creators learning from comments.
demandable content to benefit their fields and
This digital information service system provides
farms.
information to people of all levels with limited
time. Selected characteristics of the
A Quasi-Case Study of the Content Creators
respondents
A phone interview was conducted with three Data presented in Table 7 showed the
content creators of three YouTube channels, distribution of respondents according to their
focusing on their perception of YouTube and its socioeconomic characteristics.
role in sharing content. The content creators, who Age: The majority of the respondents were
are Department of Agricultural Extension middle-aged (46.7%) and young aged (44.8%).
personnel, believe that YouTube is organized for
sharing content and sharing it with others. Family size: The majority of the families were
However, creating accurate content is challenging small sized (51.4%) to medium sized.

Educational status: The highest portion of the Cosmopolitanism: The majority of the
respondents was undergraduate (28.6%) to respondents had a medium (68.6%) score of
postgraduate 26.7%. cosmopolitanism.
Farm size: The majority of the respondent’s
farm size was marginal (48.6%) to small farms Organizational Participation: A major
(35.0%). portion of the respondents had no participation
Monthly family income: The major (69.5%) in any organization and 30.5%
proportion of the respondents (53.3%) had participated in the organization.
medium income to high income 23.8%. Experience in farming: The majority of the
Training Exposure: The majority of the respondents were medium experienced (43.0%)
respondents (66.0%) did not receive any training. then low experienced 30.5% and high
experienced 28.6%, respectively.
Extension media contact: Most of the
respondents (52.4%) were rarely to occasionally Knowledge Level: The majority of the farmers
(41.0%) exposed to extension media. The had a high (66.7%) level of knowledge about
minimum extension media exposure was 5 and YouTube, and 33.3% had a medium level of
the maximum extension media exposure was 35. knowledge about YouTube.
Table 7. Distribution of respondents according to their socioeconomic characteristics.

Characteristics Categories Score N=105 Mean± SD (x̄ ± σ) Range
(Years)
% Min. Max.
Age Young aged ≤35 44.8 39.4±12.50 18 67
Middle aged 36-55 46.7
Old aged >55 8.6
Family size Small sized ≤4 51.4 4.5±1.42 2 10
Medium sized 5-7 4637
Large sized >7 1.9
Educational status Illiterate 0 0 11.47±3.196 0.5 17
Can sign only 0.5 2.9
Primary 1-5 8.6
Secondary 6-10 19
Higher Secondary 11-12 14.3
Undergraduate 13-16 28.6
Postgraduate >16 26.7
Farm size Landless <0.02 0 0.51±.65 0.03 3.36
Marginal 0.02-0.20 48.6
Small 0.21-1.0 33.3
Medium 1.01-3.00 17.1
Large >3 1
Monthly family Low income ≤ 20000 22.9 35089.52±53878.25 11000 57000
income Medium income 20001- 53.3
35000
High income >35000 23.8
Training received No training 0 62.9 0.75±1.19 0 5
Low training exposure 1-2 23.8
Medium training 3-4 11.4
exposure
High training exposure >4 1.9
Extension media Rare 0-10 52.4 12.07±5.86 5 35
contact Occasional 11-20 41.0
Often 21-30 3.8
Regular 31-45 2.9
Cosmopolitanism Low 0-5 21.9 7.11±1.91 3 12
Medium 5-10 68.6
High 11-15 9.5
Organizational No participation 0 69.5
participation Participation 1 30.5
Experience in Low experience <10 30.5 16.41±10.94 0.50 40
farming Medium experience 10-20 41
High experience >20 28.6
Knowledge Level Low 0-3 0 8.03±1.45 4 10
Medium 4-7 33.3
High 8-10 66.7

Relationship between the selected Family size, cosmopolitanism, and knowledge

characteristics of respondents and the level had a positive but non-significant
perception of prospects and problems relationship with their perception of YouTube in
regarding YouTube in agricultural agricultural content dissemination. Educational
content preparation and dissemination status and organizational participation had a
negative non-significant and negative
The correlation displayed in Table 7 illustrated relationship.
that age, farm size, training, extension media
contact, and farming experience had significant Barua (2021) observed that there was a
effects on respondent’s perceptions about significant contribution of the farmers’ annual
“YouTube's prospects in agricultural content family income and innovativeness were the most
dissemination” whereas, in case of family size, contributing factors whereas effective farm size,
educational status, cosmopolitanism, farming experience, agricultural extension media
organizational participation, and knowledge contact and agricultural knowledge were the
level, no significant relation was observed. It second contributing factors that had a significant
means that the higher the age, farm size, training relation in agricultural technology diffusion
received, extension media contact, experience in through YouTube.
farming, and the clearer the respondent’s
perception of prospects in agricultural content On the contrary, farm size, training received,
dissemination. According to the respondents, extension media contact, and experience had a
younger farmers are more comfortable using significant and positive relation with the
digital platforms like YouTube, while older problems of YouTube from the respondent’s
farmers might face challenges in accessing and point of view. It means that the higher the farm
utilizing online content due to limited literacy or size, training received, extension media contact,
technology access; higher educational levels may and experience, the higher the ability to identify
be more likely to use digital media effectively and the problems of YouTube in agricultural content
have the skills to create and share agricultural dissemination. Educational status, monthly
videos on YouTube; larger farm operations may income and organizational participation had a
have more resources in creating and significant but negative relationship. This means,
disseminating agricultural content on YouTube, that the higher the educational status, monthly
while small-scale farmers might face limitations income and organizational participation the
in terms of resources and technology access; lower the problems. Age and family size had a
training on digital media and content creation positive relationship but were non-significant.
may be better equipped to utilize YouTube Cosmopolitanism and knowledge level negative
effectively for agricultural content preparation but non-significant relationship with the
and dissemination; regular contact with problems of YouTube in content dissemination
agricultural extension services and media may from the respondent’s point of view.
have more exposure to YouTube as a platform for
accessing and sharing information. Whereas,
Table 8. Relationship between the selected characteristics of respondents and the perception of
prospects and problems regarding YouTube in agricultural content dissemination.
Characteristics Focus variables
(Independent variables)
Prospects of YouTube in content Problems of YouTube in content
dissemination dissemination
1. Age .333* .065 NS
2. Family size .012 NS .091 NS
3. Educational status -.190NS -.435**
4. Farm size .350** .382**
5. Monthly income .000 -.227*
6. Training received .302** .403**
7. Extension media contact .387** .325**
8. Cosmopolitanism .127 NS -.018 NS
9. Organizational -.135 NS -.351**
participation
10. Experience in farming .205* .252**
11. Knowledge level .127 NS -.069 NS
NS= Non significant, *Correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed), **Correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2-tailed)

Conclusion Barua, S. 2021. Use of YouTube for Diffusion of

Innovative Agricultural Technologies: A
Agriculture is a concept that is expanding, but Digital Self-Help Approach to the Farmers.
dynamic communication channels like YouTube Doctoral dissertation, Department of
can be helpful for spreading agricultural content Agricultural Extension and Information
more rapidly. The government can offer technical System, Sher-E-Bangla Agricultural
assistance for efficient participation on YouTube, University, Dhaka-1207. pp. 41-42.
which would improve the agricultural Chui, M., Manyika, J., Bughin, J., Dobbs, R.,
environment. Most respondents (66.70%) have a Roxburgh, C., Sarrazin, H., Sands, G. and
high knowledge of YouTube and perceive it as a Westergren, M. 2012. The social economy:
valuable source for agricultural content Unlocking value and productivity through
dissemination. However, there is a lack of social technologies. McKinsey Global
organized efforts from public extension systems, Institute.
internet cost, and network availability, which Diekmann, F., Loibl, C. and Batte, M.T. 2009.
require policymakers to improve. For improving The economics of agricultural information:
content quality, training, incentives, reducing factors affecting commercial farmers’
internet costs and device availability are needed. information strategies in Ohio. Rev. Agril.
Econ. 31(4): 853–872.
Acknowledgements https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9353.2009.01470.x
The author thanks the Omnipresent Creator for Holt-Day, J., Curren, L. and Irlbeck, E. 2020.
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needed for her research. She also expresses YouTube Presence and Video Quality. J.
gratitude to the Ministry of Science and Agril. Edu. 61(1): 190-202.
Technology (MoST) for funding the National https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.2020.01190
Science and Technology (NST) fellowship as well Johnson, P. 2017. Importance of YouTube
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Profitability analysis of cut flower cultivation in Bangladesh:

Constraints and opportunities
Md. Imrul Kaysar1 , Md. Shofiqul Islam2* , Mohammad Shamsul Hoq3 ,
Sultana Parvin Mukta4 and A K M Golam Kausar5
Received 6 August 2023, Revised 15 December 2023, Accepted 25 December 2023, Published online 31 December 2023
ABSTRACT
Bangladesh has immense potential for cut flower production and export to the world
market. Although the export earnings from cut flower cultivation are gradually increasing in
our country, production and profitability are hindered by some constraints. The present
study was undertaken in Jashore (Jhikargachha) and Dhaka (Savar) districts to examine the
financial profitability, constraints, and opportunities of cut-flower cultivation in Bangladesh.
A total of 120 cut flower cultivating farmers were selected for interview in 2019, taking 60
sample farmers from each location. Multi-stage random sampling method was followed to
collect primary data. For profitability analysis, two cut flowers, namely gladiolus and rose,
were selected for the study. The result indicates that per hectare total cost, net return, and
benefit-cost ratio (BCR) were Tk. 687439, Tk. 261509 and 1.38, respectively, for gladiolus
cultivation. On the other hand, net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and
BCR of rose cultivation were Tk. 2325762, 146%, and 1.46, respectively, indicating that rose
production is highly profitable to the farmers of the study areas. Despite such potentialities,
cut flower cultivation was constrained by the requirement of high initial investment, lack of
modern varieties, lack of credit facility, lack of storage facility, attack by pests & diseases,
and uncertain market price. However, there is a huge scope to increase cut flower
production by removing constraints in Bangladesh that can boost up livelihoods, incomes,
and living conditions of rural people.
Keywords: Cut flower, Gladiolus, Rose, BCR, IRR
1Pulses Research Centre and Regional Agricultural Research Station, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI),
Ishwardi-6620, Pabna, Bangladesh
2Agricultural Economics Division, Bangladesh Sugarcrop Research Institute (BSRI), Ishwardi-6620, Pabna, Bangladesh
3Agricultural Economics Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Gazipur, Bangladesh
4Bangladesh Institute of Research and Training on Applied Nutrition (BIRTAN), Narayanganj, Bangladesh
5Postgraduate Student, Resource Economics Group, Humboldt University of Berlin, 10117 Germany
*Corresponding author’s email: shafiqbau07@gmail.com (Md. Shofiqul Islam)
Cite this article as: Kaysar, M.I., Islam, M.S., Hoq, M.S., Mukta, S.P. and Kausar, A.K.M.G. 2023. Profitability
analysis of cut flower cultivation in Bangladesh: Constraints and opportunities. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech.
13(2): 41-48. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v13i2.70853
Introduction
The fertile land and favorable climate conditions indirectly (Rakibuzzaman et al., 2018). Flowers
are suitable for flower production in Bangladesh. are usually used in various social functions such
Flower production was initially begun in the late as weddings, worshipping, interior decoration,
seventies in our country by some innovative religious functions, birthday parties, and
farmers on a small-scale, but rapid commercial welcoming friends, or relatives as a symbol of
production was initiated in the mid-eighties, beauty.
especially in the Jashore district (Jahan, 2009).
Commercially grown most common flower Bangladesh has a competitive advantage in flower
species in Bangladesh are rose (Rosa indica), production due to the availability of nursery
tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa), marigold plants and seeds, easy production technology,
(Tagetes erecta, T. patula) and gladiolus competitive prices, and export potentialities
(Gladiolus spp.). Currently, around 10000 (Ahmed et al., 2021; Mou, 2012). The current size
hectares of land are under cut flower cultivation, of the flower market is around Tk. 10 billion and
and approximately 5000 promising farmers are flower is being grown across the country (Laboni
cultivating flowers and foliage as their sole et al., 2019). Bangladesh exports various kinds of
livelihood (Ahmed et al., 2021; Jahan, 2009). flowers and floral products to different developed
More than 0.15 million people in Bangladesh are countries like Italy, the United States, Portugal,
engaged in the floriculture business directly or Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Japan, Britain,
Germany, and France etc. (Laboni et al., 2019).
Kaysar et al. (2023) Profitability analysis of cut flower cultivation in Bangladesh
The trade of flowers was worth approximately above importance a study was undertaken in two
€15bn (£10.6bn) globally in 2015 (Ahmed et al., different locations of Bangladesh to examine the
2021). Bangladesh also exported cut flowers and financial profitability and constraints of cut-
foliage worth USD 0.8 million in FY 2021-22 flower production in Bangladesh to derive some
(EPM, 2023). Despite high potentialities, policy recommendations supporting cut-flower
production and export are constrained by some production.
barriers such as the lack of storage facilities, the
inappropriate temperature in the airplane (10ºC), Materials and Methods
the lack of modern seedlings, the lack of credit Two cut flowers, namely rose and gladiolus were
facilities, and uncertain market prices, etc. selected for analyzing the profitability of cut
(Jahan, 2009; Laboni et al., 2019). flower cultivation. Based on area coverage, two
Floriculture appeared as a winsome business Upazila from two districts, namely Jhikargachha
because many farmers converted to floriculture Upazila from Jashore district and Savar Upazila
from other crops for higher benefits (Mou, 2012; from Dhaka district were selected for the study. A
Rakibuzzaman et al., 2018). As a result, it not multistage random method was followed to
only generates employment opportunities for collect data. A total of 120 farmers were selected
many, especially poor women but also enlarges for interview, taking 60 farmers from each
the scope to export. However, due to various location. Secondary data have been collected from
production problems and lack of government the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), Hortex
support, cut flower producers face losses, which Foundation, Export Promotion Bureau (EPB),
can narrow the potentiality of flower exports national & international journals, articles, and
(Chowdhury and Khan, 2015). So, realizing the earlier research reports.
Fig. 1. Map of the study areas.

A mostly tabular method of analysis was followed results, tabular methods of analysis were used
to achieve the objectives of the study. The profit using descriptive statistics. The NPV, BCR and
function and project analysis were used in the IRR have been calculated in the case of rose
study. The profit equation was used to estimate cultivation with the help of the following formula
the profitability of gladiolus flower cultivation (Kaysar et al., 2017; Kaysar et al., 2019):
(Islam et al., 2016; Miah et al., 2019). The net 𝑡=𝑛
return of gladiolus cultivation was estimated as 𝐵𝑡 − 𝐶𝑡
follows: 𝑁𝑃𝑉 = ∑ … … … … … … . . (2)
(1 + 𝑖)𝑡
𝑡=1
𝜋𝑖𝑗𝑘 = 𝑃𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝑄𝑖𝑗𝑘 − (𝑇𝑉𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘 + 𝑇𝐹𝐶𝑖𝑗𝑘 ) … … … … . . (1) 𝑡=𝑛 𝐵𝑡
(1+𝑖)𝑡
Where, π = Net return from ith flower per 𝐵𝐶𝑅 = ∑ 𝐶𝑡 … … … … … … … … (3)
hectare; Pijk= Per unit price of ith flower (Tk. unit- 𝑡=1 (1+𝑖)𝑡
1); Q = Quantity of ith flower (unit ha-1); TVC
ijk ijk =
Where, Bt = Total benefit (Tk/ha) in tth year; Ct =
Total variable cost of ith crops (Tk ha-1); TFCijk= Total cost (Tk/ha) in tth year; t = Number of year
Total fixed cost of ith crops (Tk ha-1); i (1..2)= and i = interest (discount) rate.
number of flower; j (1..2)= number of location
and k (1…..120) = number of farmers. 𝑁𝑃𝑉 𝑎𝑡 𝐿
𝐼𝑅𝑅 = 𝐿 + × (𝐻 − 𝐿) … . . (4)
Data were categorized according to the year for 𝑁𝑃𝑉 𝑎𝑡 𝐿 − 𝑁𝑃𝑉 𝑎𝑡 𝐻
the rose. The age of the rose garden was classified Where L represents a lower discount rate and H
as 1st year, 2nd year, 3rd year, 4th year, 5th year, 6th- represents a higher discount rate.
9th year, and 10th-12th year. In presenting the

Results and Discussion flower varieties. The plant-to-plant distance for

gladiolus and rose cultivation was found to be 6
Production practices of cut flower inches and 13-15 inches, respectively, while line-
cultivation to-line spacing was found to be 6-9 inches and 13-
The most appropriate planting time of gladiolus 18 inches, respectively (Table 1). The average no.
and rose was October to December and mid- of seedlings required for gladiolus and rose
February to April in the study areas, respectively cultivation was 800-1000 and 130-136 decimal-1,
(Table 1). Farmers cultivated exotic varieties of respectively, in the study areas. The average no.
gladiolus like Pink, Kolmi, Beguni, Sada, and of weeding ranges 6-10 times in all areas. The
Halod varieties. In case of roses, the farmers irrigation requirement was higher for rose
cultivated Lingkon and Mirinda varieties for cultivation compared to gladiolus cultivation
grafting on the rootstock. Both rose and gladiolus (Table 1).
farmers had little knowledge about modern
Table 1. Production practices of cut flower cultivation by the farmers.
Parameter Gladiolus Rose
Jashore Dhaka (Savar) Jashore Dhaka (Savar)
(Jhikargachha) (Jhikargachha)
Variety used Pink, Kolmi, Beguni, Pink, Kolmi, Sada, Lingkon Mirinda
Sada, Halod Halod
Planting time October-December October-January Mid Feb-Mid April March-April
Spacing
Plant to plant (inch) 6″ 6″ 13″-14″ 13″-15″
Line to line (inch) 6″ 9″ 15″-18″ 15″-18″
No. of seedlings decimal-1 800-1000 800-1000 123-130 130-136
Age of seedling (months) 9-10 9-10 2.5-4.0 2.5-6.0
No. of weeding year-1 6-7 7-8 12 10
No. of irrigation year-1 8-9 8-9 20 18
Profitability analysis of gladiolus TSP, DAP, MOP, and Gypsum fertilizers at the
cultivation rate of 267 kg ha-1, 806 kg ha-1, 97 kg ha-1, 151 kg
ha-1, and 124 kg ha-1, respectively, but mostly in
The result indicates that, on average, 393 man- an unbalanced way (Table 2). Proper agronomic
days ha-1 of human labour were applied by management practices like those that balanced
gladiolus farmers, but it varied from district to fertilizer application can enhance rose and
district (Table 2). Farmers used 212485 corms as gladiolus yields in the study areas. There are lot
a seed per hectare in all areas. The gladiolus of evidence that balanced fertilizer application
farmers applied per hectare 6612.5 kg cow-dung practices can improve both crop yields and
and 23 kg oilcake as an organic fertilizer in all the farming profitability (Islam et al., 2022a; Islam et
selected areas. The farmers of Dhaka district used al., 2022b).
more cow-dung (7382 kg ha-1) relative to Jashore
(5843 kg ha-1) district. The farmers applied Urea,
Table 2. Input use pattern (ha-1) of gladiolus cultivation.
Particulars Jashore (Jhikargachha) Dhaka (Savar) All area
Human Labour (man-days) 372 416 394
Own labour 164 193 179
Hired labour 208 223 216
Seed (Corm) 220467 203933 212485
Organic fertilizer (kg)
Cow-dung 5843 7382 6612.5
Oilcake 45 -- 23
Inorganic fertilizer (kg)
Urea 333 196 267
TSP 793 820 806
DAP 156 33 97
MOP 178 122 151
Gypsum 137 109 124
However, the results show that the total used comparatively lower inputs than farmers of
production cost of gladiolus was Tk. 687439 ha-1 the Dhaka district. Among different cost items,
in which the TVC was Tk. 670598 ha-1 and the the results implied that seed cost was the highest
TFC was Tk. 16841 ha-1 (Table 3). The total (Tk. 460126 ha-1), followed by human labour (Tk.
production cost of Savar farmers (Tk. 716064 ha- 107592 ha-1), fertilizer (Tk. 55577 ha-1) and
1) was found to be higher relative to the farmers of irrigation (Tk. 20592 ha-1) (Table 3).
the Jashore district (Tk. 659609 ha-1) due to they

Table 3. Per hectare cost of gladiolus cultivation (Tk. ha-1).

Particulars Jashore (Jhikargachha) Dhaka (Savar) All Area
A. Total variable cost (TVC) 644639 697352 670598
Land preparation 12187 10577 11410
Human labour 92215 124067 107592
Own labour 40542 57258 48612
Hired labour 51674 66808 58980
Seed 456372 464147 460126
Organic fertilizer
Cow-dung 14876 30002 22178
Oilcake 1449 -- 750
Inorganic fertilizer
Urea 6287 3573 4977
TSP 19392 21096 20215
DAP 4988 1127 3124
MOP 3025 2223 2706
Gypsum 1295 1065 1627
Irrigation 17867 23512 20592
Insecticide/Pesticide 9879 10770 10309
Interest in operating capital 4806 5191 4992
B. Total fixed cost (TFC)
Land use cost 14970 18712 16841
Total Cost 659609 716064 687439
The returns came from gladiolus cultivation in 1, Tk. 278350 ha-1 and Tk. 261509 ha-1,
two ways: as a flower (stick) and as a seed (corm). respectively, whereas the average BCR was
The yield of the gladiolus flower was around estimated at 1.38 in all selected areas. The highest
179350 stick ha-1, whereas, in the case of corm BCR (1.45) was found in the Jashore district
yield, it was found at 146335 corm ha-1. On (Table 4).
average, the gross return, gross margin, and net
return of gladiolus cultivation was Tk. 948948 ha-
Table 4. Per hectare yield, gross return, and net return of gladiolus cultivation.
Particular unit Jashore Dhaka (Savar) All area
(Jhikargachha)
Yield as a flower (stick) no. ha-1 187397 171304 179350
Yield as seed (corm) no. ha-1 149918 142753 146335
Average sale price flower Tk. stick-1 3.5 4.0 3.8
Average sale price corm Tk. corm-1 2.0 1.8 1.9
Gross return Tk. ha-1 955726 942170 948948
Total variable cost Tk. ha-1 644639 697352 670598
Gross margin Tk. ha-1 311087 244818 278350
Total cost Tk. ha-1 659609 716064 687439
Net return Tk. ha-1 296117 226105 261509
Benefit-cost ratio (BCR) 1.45 1.32 1.38
Profitability analysis of rose cultivation used in the 3rd year of gardening. On average,
farmers used 775 kg ha-1 of oilcake in rose
The results show that, on average 1165 man-days cultivation. Similar to gladiolus, the rose farmers
ha-1 human labour was required for rose applied 319 kg ha-1, 936 kg ha-1, 51 kg ha-1, 177 kg
cultivation (Table 5). Farmers used an average of ha-1, and 172 kg ha-1 of Urea, TSP, DAP, MOP, and
6264.1 kg ha-1 cow-dung. The highest 7567 kg ha-1 Gypsum, respectively, without following scientific
cow-dung was used during the 1 st year of recommendations (Table 5).
gardening, whereas the lowest 5293 kg ha-1 was

Table 5. Input use pattern (ha-1) of rose cultivation.

Particular Year
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th -9th 10th -12th All year
Human Labour (man-days) 1191 1142 1093 1188 1117 1252 1172 1165
Own labour (man-days) 496 515 533 466 411 486 444 479
Hired labour (man-days) 695 627 560 722 706 766 728 686
Seedling (cutting) (no.) 31481 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Organic fertilizer (kg)
Cow-dung 7567 6430 5293 7070 5939 5800 5750 6264.1
Oilcake 856 881 907 904 748 -- 1130 775
Inorganic fertilizer (kg)
Urea 386 409 431 216 297 124 368 319
TSP 1156 1016 875 1041 922 823 717 936
DAP 20 69 118 -- -- 150 -- 51
MoP 170 158 146 115 300 124 225 177
Gypsum 200 240 281 -- 300 185 -- 172
Different cost items like human labour, seedlings, Among various cost items, human labour cost
organic fertilizer, inorganic fertilizer, pesticides, was the highest cost in the subsequent years. The
irrigation, bamboo sticks, rope, net, etc., were average per hectare total cost was Tk. 634975 in
included to estimate the total production cost of all study areas. The highest cost (Tk. 980986 ha-1)
rose cultivation (Table 6). Land use cost was was observed in the 1st year garden due to the
added as a fixed cost. The seedling cost was high cost of seedlings (Table 6).
required only for the first year, and it was highest
(Tk. 377786 ha-1) among different cost items.
Table 6. Per hectare total cost of rose cultivation (Tk. ha-1) in the study areas.
Particular Year
A. Total variable cost 913486 504395 502480 522149 497674 506847 525294 567475
Land preparation 7875 -- -- -- -- -- -- 7875
Human labour 327498 313968 300438 326700 307175 344300 322163 320320
Own labour 136483 141529 146575 128150 113025 133650 122100 131644
Hired labour 191015 172439 153863 198550 194150 210650 200063 188676
Seed 377776 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Organic fertilizer
Cow-dung 46053 41144 36234 29656 31951 36960 46200 38314
Oilcake 27398 28203 29008 28928 23936 -- 36160 24805
Inorganic fertilizer
Urea 8110 8581 9051 4536 6237 2480 7718 6673
TSP 30064 26407 22750 27053 23972 21398 18651 24328
DAP 626 2193 3760 -- -- 4800 -- 1626
Mop 2890 2682 2474 1955 5100 1984 3825 2987
Gypsum 2004 2405 2805 -- 3000 1665 -- 1697
Irrigation 24781 35886 46991 48105 46424 44460 37250 40557
Insecticide/Pesticide 36887 42928 48970 55216 49879 48800 53329 48001
Bamboo stick 17796 -- -- -- -- -- -- 2542
Net and rope 3729 -- -- -- -- -- -- 533
Interest in operating 27405 15132 15074 15664 14930 15205 15759 17024
capital
B. Total fixed cost
Land use cost 67500 67500 67500 67500 67500 67500 67500 67500
C. Total Cost (A+B) 980986 571895 569980 589649 565174 574347 592794 634975
From Table 7, it is apparent that the highest yield Tk. 863479 ha-1 in which the highest gross return
(1133316 stem ha-1) was found in the 2nd year was found in 2nd year (Tk. 1246648 ha-1) and the
garden, which started to decline from the 3 rd to lowest in 1st year (Tk. 554066 ha-1). The average
the subsequent year. Gross return was estimated net return was found (Tk. 314852 ha-1) similarly
as yield multiplied by the price of a rose stem. highest in the 5th year (Tk. 674752 ha-1). The
The price varied from area to area and season to negative net return was found in 1st year (Tk. -
season. The average gross return was obtained at 426921 ha-1) due to high initial investment.

Table 7. Per hectare yield and return of rose cultivation in the study areas.
Particular Year
Yield (stem ha-1) 503696 1133316 1101835 944430 912949 787025 661101 863479
Gross return 554066 1246648 1212019 1038873 1004244 865728 727211 949827
Total variable cost 913486 504395 502480 522149 497674 506847 525294 567475
Gross margin -359421 742252 709539 516724 506570 358881 201917 382352
Total cost 980986 571895 569980 589649 565174 574347 592794 634975
Net return -426921 674752 642039 449224 439070 291381 134417 314852
In the study, the best discount factor was huge amount of initial investment, which might
considered at 6.5% (See appendix Table A1 and be 6-7 times higher than cereal crops (Table 8).
A2). The discounted gross cost and benefit of Another 80% suffered a lack of improved variety
present worth at a 6.5% rate of interest was Tk. of seed/seedlings. They used different imported
5094902 ha-1 and Tk.7420663 ha-1, respectively. exotic varieties of seed due to the unavailability of
The estimated average net present worth of rose improved verity. The pest and diseases attack
cultivation at a 6.5% discount rate was Tk. (75%), lack of credit facility (75%), lack of training
2325762 ha-1 in the selected locations. On the facilities (75%), damage during rainy and foggy
other hand, the estimated BCR was 1.46 at a 6.5% weather (62%), and lack of high technology-
rate of interest, which indicates that rose farmers oriented floriculture (67%) were the major
are getting higher profits compared to gladiolus production problems reported by the farmers.
farmers. In the rose cultivation project, the IRR The farmers also faced some marketing problems,
was 146%, which was greater than the such as the absence of cold storage facilities at the
opportunity cost of capital. Therefore, it is production point (85%), uncertain market price
acceptable and highly profitable (See Appendix (80%), and seasonal demand (79%) (Table 8).
Table A1 and A2). Similar types of results are also Effective extension services like training,
reported by Jahan (2009) while examining the demonstration, etc. can improve farmers’
financial analysis of cut flower production. scientific knowledge regarding flower production
Cultivation of flowers can provide almost 3-5 dramatically, which ultimately can boost flower
times and 1.5-2.0 times higher profits compared production (Islam et al., 2023; Jahan, 2009). In
to rice and vegetables, respectively, in Bangladesh addition, Govt. of Bangladesh should take the
(Mou, 2012). initiative to develop storage facilities in the cut
flower growing areas so that farmers can store
Constraints of cut flower cultivation unsold flowers in cold storage to keep the flowers
The results show that about 86% of farmers alive (Mou, 2012).
reported that cut-flower cultivation required a
Table 8. Farmers’ responses about constraints of cut flower cultivation.
Constraint Jashore Dhaka All Area
(Jhikargachha) (Savar) (%)
Production constraints (%)
High initial investment requirement 84 88 86
Absence of improved variety 82 78 80
Lack of credit facility 76 74 75
Pest and disease attack 76 74 75
Damage during rainy and foggy weather 64 60 62
Lack of high technology-oriented floriculture 62 72 67
Lack of training facility 76 74 75
Marketing constraints (%)
Uncertain market price 82 78 80
Seasonal demand 74 84 79
Absence of cold storage 82 88 85
Limited buyers 66 62 64
Dominance of market intermediaries 74 84 79
Social and other constraints (%)
Thief and animal problems 62 72 67
Spoilage 66 62 64

Conclusion and Policy Recommendation from the Eastern Gangetic Plain, South Asia.
Heliyon. 9(3): e14139.
There is a high market demand for increasing https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14139
diversified use of various flowers in Bangladesh. Islam, M.S., Bell, R.W., Miah, M.A.M. and Alam,
It is clear from our study that cut flower M.J. 2022a. Farmers’ fertilizer use gaps
production is more profitable than other cereal relative to government recommendations in
crops, though it requires high investment the saline coastal zone of the Ganges Delta.
initially. The profit margin is comparatively high Agron. Sustain. Dev. 42: 59.
for rose cultivation relative to gladiolus https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-022-00797-1
cultivation. Many new farmers are getting Islam, M.S., Bell, R.W., Miah, M.A.M. and Alam,
involved in flower cultivation, and it is being M.J. 2022b. Unbalanced fertilizer use in the
promoted gradually in our country. Lack of Eastern Gangetic Plain: The influence of
storage facilities, lack of modern varieties, lack of Government recommendations, fertilizer
credit & training facilities, and uncertain market type, farm size and cropping patterns. PLoS
prices are hindering cut flower production. ONE. 17(7): e0272146.
Following policy recommendations should be https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272146
taken by the Govt. of Bangladesh to improve cut Islam M.S., Khatun, S., Kamruzzaman, M.,
flower cultivation covering the above constraints. Kaysar, M.I. and Islam, S. 2016. Economics
i. Cold storage facilities should be developed at of sugarcane cultivation in some selected
char lands of Bangladesh. Int. J. Bus.
the production point, as cut flowers are highly
Manag. Soc. Res. 2(2): 132-139.
perishable. https://doi.org/10.18801/ijbmsr.020216.15
ii. Flower-growing farmers need to be informed Jahan, H. 2009. Production, post-harvest
about modern flower production technologies handling and marketing of cut-flowers in
like fertilizer, HYV seed, irrigation water, the Bangladesh: An Agribusiness Study. SAARC
new variety of flowers, flower caps, packaging J. Agric. 7(2): 1-14.
materials, etc., through training programs Kaysar, M.I., Hoq, M.S., Islam, M.W., Islam, M.S.
and Islam, M.T. 2019. Profitability Analysis
and demonstration.
of Papaya Cultivation in Some Selected
iii. Market information should be easily Areas of Bangladesh. Bangladesh J. Agril.
accessible to the farmers so that farmers can Res. 44(1): 115-126.
be aware of uncertain market prices. To https://doi.org/10.3329/bjar.v44i1.40936
ensure better prices, a contract growing Kaysar, M.I., Hoq, M.S., Mia, M.S., Islam, M.S.
system should be encouraged for the farmers. and Islam, M.M. 2017. An economic analysis
of Jara and Colombo lemon production in
iv. Cut flower cultivation should be supported by
Bangladesh. J. Bangladesh Agric. Univ.
the Govt. of Bangladesh to coordinate the 15(2): 289-296.
public-private partnership (PPP). https://doi.org/10.3329/jbau.v15i2.35078
v. Institutional credit facilities should be made Laboni, S.A., Promy, J.A. and Abdullah, S.Z.
easily available for cut flower farmers. 2019. Export potentiality of flower industry:
a case study on Bangladeshi flower industry.
References North American Acad. Res. 2(11): 251-271
Ahmed, M.S., Bagum, T., Mondal, T. and Das, D. Miah, M.A.M., Rouf, M.A., Islam, M.S., Alam,
2021. Use of improved post-harvest practices M.J., Rashid, M.H., Boyd, D., Bell, R.W.,
by the flower farmers: A study on some Haque, M.E., Satter, M.A., Rahman, M.W.,
selected cut flowers. Int. J. Agric. Educ. Ext. Jahan, H. and Hutchenson, J. 2019.
7(1): 424-431. Assessment of gaps in current fertilizer use
Chowdhury, R. and Khan, F. 2015. Cut flower by farmers and scientific recommendation in
export from Bangladesh: Prospects, selected areas of Bangladesh. Krishi
challenges, and propositions. Manarat Int. Gobeshona Foundation (KGF), BARC,
Uni. Stud. 5(1): 11-21. Farmgate, Dhaka. 128p.
EPB. 2023. Monthly summary sheet of export Mou, N.H. 2012. Profitability of flower
performance (goods) for FY 2022-2023. production and marketing system of
Export Promotion Bureau, Bangladesh. Bangladesh. Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 37(1):
Retrieved from http://www.epb.gov.bd 77-95. https://doi.org/10.3329/bjar.v37i1.11179
Islam, M.S., Alam, M.J., Bell, R.W., Boyd, D., Rakibuzzaman, M., Rahul, S.K., Jahan, M.R., Ifaz,
Hutchison, J. and Miah, M.M. 2023. M.I. and Uddin, A.J. 2018. Flower industry
Fertilizer use gaps of women-headed in Bangladesh. Int. J. Bus. Soc. Sci. Res. 7(1):
households under diverse rice-based 50-56.
cropping patterns: Survey-based evidence

Appendix
A1. Financial analysis of rose cultivation
Year Gross Goss benefit Discount factor Present worth of Present worth of
cost at 6.5% cost at 6.5% benefit at 6.5%
1 980986 554066 0.939 921114 520249
2 571895 1246648 0.882 504217 1099118
3 569980 1212019 0.828 471857 1003368
4 589649 1038873 0.777 458348 807540
5 565174 1004244 0.730 412510 732978
6 574347 865728 0.685 393620 593313
7 574347 865728 0.644 369596 557101
8 574347 865728 0.604 347038 523100
9 574347 865728 0.567 325858 491173
10 592794 727211 0.533 315797 387404
11 592794 727211 0.500 296523 363760
12 592794 727211 0.470 278425 341559
Total 5094902 7420664
BCR=1.46
A2. Financial analysis of rose cultivation
Year Incremental Lower discount at Higher discount at NPV at NPV at
benefit 145% 150% 145% 150%
1 -426921 0.408 0.400 -174253 -170768
2 674752 0.167 0.160 112412 107960
3 642039 0.068 0.064 43658 41090
4 449224 0.028 0.026 12468 11500
5 439070 0.011 0.010 4974 4496
6 291381 0.005 0.004 1347 1193
7 291381 0.002 0.002 550 477
8 291381 0.001 0.001 224 191
9 291381 0.000 0.000 92 76
10 134417 0.000 0.000 17 14
11 134417 0.000 0.000 7 6
12 134417 0.000 0.000 3 2
Total 1499 -3761
IRR=146%

ISSN: 2224-0616
Evaluation of the efficacy of hydro-alcoholic products for hand skin

disinfection: Case study Bactigel® used in the Livulu district of Lemba,
Kinshasa City (Democratic Republic of Congo)
Odette N. Kabena1,2 , Jean Jacques D. Amogu1,2* , Anicet I. Kuabayina1 ,
Lyz N. Makwela1 and Didier L. Dianzuangani1
Received 14 September 2023, Revised 27 November 2023, Accepted 25 December 2023, Published online 31 December 2023
ABSTRACT
Preventing, reducing, and improving infection control have been struggles that have
preoccupied the World Health Organization for many years. The present study aims to
evaluate the efficacy of Bactigel hydro-alcoholic gel on the cutaneous flora of hands. The
study was conducted by interviewing people on their knowledge and use of hydro-alcoholic
products and culture of palm flora samples before and after hand disinfection. Results
showed that 90% of respondents knew about hydro-alcoholic products, 96.3% of whom had
already used them, and 92.3% were still used. In addition, 90% do not have alcohol-sensitive
skin, and 80% use soap and water with soap for hygiene in their homes. Bactigel
significantly reduced the microbial load on palms by 90.04%. Based on these results,
Bactigel hydro-alcoholic gel is effective against skin germs. It is concluded that Bactigel can
only be effective in the community when compliance is good hand hygiene.
Keywords: Skin flora, Hydro-alcoholic products, Palm disinfection, Bactigel, Efficacy
1
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Kinshasa, P.O. Box 190, Kinshasa XI, Democratic
Republic of the Congo
2
Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear Center of Excellence (CoE-CBRN), Ministry of Scientific
Research and Technological Innovation, Democratic Republic of the Congo
*Corresponding author’s email: jj.amogu@unikin.ac.cd (Jean Jacques D. Amogu)
Cite this article as: Kabena, O.N., Amogu, J.J.D., Kuabayina, A.I, Makwela, L.N. and Dianzuangani, D.L. 2023.
Evaluation of the efficacy of hydro-alcoholic products for hand skin disinfection: Case study Bactigel® used in
the Livulu district of Lemba, Kinshasa City (Democratic Republic of Congo). Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech.
13(2): 49-54. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v13i2.70854
Introduction
The prevention, reduction and improvement of Since the emergence of this new coronavirus
infection control have been struggles that have pathology, numerous measures have been put in
preoccupied the World Health Organization for place to combat it, including preventive public
many years (WHO, 2009). Hands are one of the health measures. Despite the development of a
major pathways for the circulation of germs, vaccine, these measures remain, nevertheless, the
some of which are pathogenic (Vogel et al., 2021); first choice in the fight against COVID-19,
in Tanzania, a study revealed the presence of especially in regions where vaccination is less
bacteria indicative of faecal pollution on the widespread (Talic et al., 2021), particularly in
hands of housewives (Pickering et al., 2011). The Africa and the DRC (Bukasa et al., 2021). It
mothers' poor hand hygiene was implicated in the demonstrated that these measures have had a
occurrence of the onset of 50% of diarrheal significant impact on common infections in
episodes in children under the age of 5 years society by reducing their incidence and impact
(Diakite et al., 2018). In 2019, a study showed (Launay et al., 2021). Among these measures,
that there were means of cholera in East Africa hand hygiene is one of the most important
(11%), South Africa (13%) and West Africa (15%) against the spread of COVID-19 (Güner et al.,
(Alkassoum et al., 2019). In addition, a recent 2020). It helps to avoid, with the observance of
study shows that hands have been involved in the certain practices, 70% of infections in hospitals
spread of COVID-19 since its first appearance in (WHO, 2022). Moreover, hydro-alcoholic
late 2019 (Umakanthan et al., 2020). products are highly effective against SARS-Cov-2,
Ebola virus, etc., and one study has shown their
Kabena et al. (2023) Evaluation of the efficacy of hydro-alcoholic products for hand skin disinfection
effectiveness against multi-resistant bacteria "culture" without counting when counting was
(Ciotti et al., 2021). In China, household difficult. We verified heterogeneity by
disinfection with alcohol- and chlorine-based macroscopic examination of the cultures. This
products reduced COVID-19 transmission by 77% enabled us to determine the possible number of
(Talic et al., 2021). After the WHO's declaration species in each dish (hands).
of a global health emergency, hand hygiene
became an important means of limiting the Data processing
transmission of COVID-19 (Zengarini et al., Data were entered and analyzed using Excel
2020). However, in a global analysis of three 2010. We applied the Student's t-test to our data
studies, hand washing reduced the incidence of to compare the means of independent parametric
COVID-19 by 53%, but statistical analyses showed data, the correlation and correlation coefficient
that the reduction was not statistically significant correlation, and the paired data comparison test
(Talic et al., 2021). In 2016, Dokunde to identify relationships between parametric data.
demonstrated in vitro the ineffectiveness of We consider significance (at the 5% threshold)
certain hydro-alcoholic products on certain when the p < 0,05 and the existence of a
bacterial strains, and according to Ali and Abed- relationship when p < 0,05 and strong when
Eliazim (2021) quoted by Pidot et al. (2018), 0,75 ≤ 𝑟 < 1.
certain bacterial able to survive exposure to low
doses of alcohol. In our study, we evaluated the Results and Discussion
efficacy of hydro-alcoholic products for hand skin
Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of the
disinfection. The case of Bactigel® is used in the
sample.
Livulu district of Lemba.
Sex Number Percentage
Materials and Methods Masculine 11 36.7
This was a cross-sectional study lasting two Feminine 19 63.3
months, September and October. Our study Age (years) Number Percentage
focused on the Lemba population, aged over or 15-21 2 6.7
equal to 15 years of age, and fixed sellers in small 22-28 11 36.7
markets. We used hydro-alcoholic gel (Bactigel®) 29-25 4 13.3
disinfectant and tested it on the cutaneous flora 36-42 9 30.0
of the hands (palm). We inoculated our samples 43-49 1 3.3
before and after disinfection on Mueller-Hinton 50-56 3 10.0
II agar medium. Civil status Number Percentage
Single 19 63.3
Sampling method Married 10 33.3
We sampled 30 people using a simple random Abstained 1 3.3
method based on voluntary participation. Using a Study level Number Percentage
questionnaire we designed, we interviewed them Primary 5 16.7
in a face-to-face question-and-answer format State graduate 11 36.7
(Uwingabiye et al., 2015; Bukasa et al., 2021). For Graduate 11 36.7
the microbiological analysis, we used a method Licensee 2 16.6
based on skin flora culture skin microbiota (Vogel Abstained 1 3.3
et al., 2021), which we sampled by swabbing the
palm of the right hand before disinfection (T0) In our study, we interviewed and sampled the
and after disinfection (T1) (Vogel et al., 2021; skin flora of the hands of 30 people, the majority
Uwingabiye et al., 2015) and we considered the of whom were women (63.3%), with a sex ratio of
hands macroscopically clean. Hand disinfection 0.58. The average age of our respondents was
was performed using the hand friction method 33.3 ± 10 years; with a mode of 23 years modal
proposed by the WHO to control infections class comprised individuals aged 22 to 28, with a
frequency of 36.7%. Singles dominated the
during the filovirus outbreak (WHO, 2014). We
sample (63.3%), and graduates and postgraduates
inoculated on Mueller-Hinton II agar using
were the most represented, with 36.7% each
surface plating (Vogel et al., 2021).
(Table 1). According to our results, the majority of
We used the surface enumeration method to respondents (90%) claimed to know about hydro-
assess our samples' microbial load. Colony alcoholic products under the term "disinfectant"
counting was done by hand; we divided the petri (Figure 1). This result is higher than that found by
dishes by 4, 8, 16, 32, or 64, depending on the Uwingabiye et al., (2015) and Longembe and
load present. Petri dishes, and we counted the Kitronza (2020). Indeed, the myths surrounding
parts with a low load and the estimated value by vaccination have led the DRC's population to turn
multiplying it by the number of parts according to to preventive public health measures to combat
the division. In addition, we considered a COVID-19 (Bukasa et al., 2021).

Yes No
90%
10%
Knowledge
Figure 1. Distribution of respondents according to the knowledge of hydro-alcoholic products

(disinfectant).
100.00% 96.30%
92.30%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
AU
50.00%
CU
40.00%
DU
30.00%
20.00%
7.70%
10.00%
0.00%
Utilization
Figure 2. Use of hydro-alcoholic products in our sample, AU: already used; CU: continued use; DU:
discontinued use.
Our analyses also showed that those who claimed by Lukonon (2020) in the 4 health centers of
to know about hydro-alcoholic products had Parakou, but 6% of healthcare workers at
already used them at least once in 96.30% of Kisangani General Hospital (Longembe and
cases, and more than 90% continue to use them. Kitronza, 2020). The population has not received
However, 7.70% had stopped using them (Figure any training, and awareness of practical
2). These results concur with those of Lokonon observance has not been raised among the
(2020) since more than 80% of healthcare people. Bukasa et al. (2021) pointed out that
workers were using them, but they are higher practical knowledge was among the DRC
than those found by Bukasa et al. (2021). Hand population.
hygiene is one of the key measures against
nosocomial infections (WHO, 2014), and Despite widespread knowledge and use in the
Mwembo et al. (2021) have shown that hand population, the frequency of use was low, with
hygiene with a hydro-alcoholic product was high only 29% of respondents using them daily and
in the DRC during this global health crisis. only 37% using them often. We noted that 17%
Furthermore, our data showed that the majority used them rarely (figure 3). A systematic study
(90%) have skin that is tolerant to hydro- showed that hand hygiene was the preventive
alcoholic products. This result confirms that of measure that did not significantly reduce the
Derraji et al. (2013) and demonstrates the incidence of COVID-19 (Talic et al., 2021). At
effectiveness of the new WHO formula (INSPQ, least 90% of people do not comply with WHO
2018). On the other hand, the hand rub technique guidelines for good hand hygiene (Zogblatin,
is not known in the community (0%), as observed 2018).

17%
29%
Rarely
Occasionnelly
Often
17% Daily
37%
Figure 3. Frequency of hydro-alcoholic product use in the population.

Nevertheless, in the homes of our respondents, found by Bukasa et al. (2021) among saleswomen
water and soap remained the most widely used at Lubumbashi's Texaco market. Hand hygiene
means (80%) for hygiene in the house and only with soap and water is the cheapest and most
3.3% for hydro-alcoholic products (figure 4). widely available for the entire population
These results concur with those found by (INSPQ, 2018).
Uwingabiye et al. (2015) in the community
environment. Still, they are higher than those
found in the hospital environment and those
3.3% 3.3%
6.7% Water + soap
water and water + soap
6.7%
Water
Water + soap and fire dust
Hydro-alcoholic gel
80%
Figure 4. Types of hand hygiene used by people in their homes.

Microbiological data from the vendors' hands and microbial load (r = −0,39, p < 0,05) had
showed that the contamination rate was 100%. little influence on the number of species. For
However, Vogel et al. (2021) and Zèbre et al. Bactigel's germicidal activity, we noted that the
(2022) showed 76% and 69% contamination microbial load prior to microbial load before
rates, and Uwingubiye et al. (2015) found that all disinfection was significantly higher than the load
phone jackets were contaminated. However, we after disinfection (𝑝 = 0,008). Bactigel gel
observed that the microbial load on women's reduced the load on the hands by up to 90.04%
hands was not statistically different from that on (figure 5). On inert surfaces, hydro-alcoholic
men's (𝑝 = 0,40). products reduce the microbial load by up to
Our cultures were heterogeneous, with an average 99.5% (Uwingabiye et al., 2015). In addition,
of 6.4±2.2 species. Vogel et al. (2021) identified some studies have shown that certain hydro-
numerous species on hands, some of which were alcoholic products are not effective in vitro
pathogenic, and Uwingabiye et al. (2015) (Dokounde, 2016; Zèbre et al. (2022). It has been
identified numerous species of transient hand demonstrated that hydro-alcoholic products with
flora on telephone covers. We also noted that 70° alcohol were more effective than those
women's hands were not statistically more containing 98° alcohol (Zèbre et al., 2022). This
is because alcohol evaporates more quickly when
heterogeneous than those of men were (𝑝 =
it is in concentration.
0,53); in addition to age (r = −0,26 ; p = 0,01)

600
500
Mmicrobial load (CFU)
400 T0
T1
300
200
100
0
Germicidal activity
Figure 5. Germicidal activity of alcohol contained in hydro-alcoholic gel (Bactigel®).

Conclusion
We have carried out a study of the efficacy of Acknowledgements
hydro-alcoholic products for hand disinfection in The authors would like to thank the inhabitants
the case of Bactigel. It concerned small market of the Livulu district in the Lemba commune for
vendors in the Livulu district. It provided an agreeing to participate in this study.
overview of the effectiveness of the hydro-
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ISSN: 2224-0616
New infestation records of two-spotted spider mites on potato tubers under

storage conditions and response of genotypes at Kulumsa, Ethiopia
Gizaw Wegayehu Tilahun* and Tamirat Negash Gure
Received 14 September 2023, Revised 12 December 2023, Accepted 25 December 2023, Published online 31 December 2023
ABSTRACT
The study sought to ascertain spider mite prevalence, infestation, and identification and to
assess the response of potato genotypes. In 2022, this pest was only observed on some
genotypes in December. In late January, an infestation, incidence, and severity increased
from 10 to 13 genotypes on potato tuber stocks stored for irrigation experiments. Those
genotypes were planted in irrigated fields, and the sprouted tuber losses ranged from 12.5%
to 100% and up to 15.38% in the 2022 and 2023 records, respectively. Following this, spider
mites, often known as two-spotted spider mites (TSSM) or Tetranychus urticae, were
identified. This is the first time a potato sprout infestation has been recorded in Ethiopia.
The two-spotted spider mites damaged the tubers quantitatively by sucking the moisture of
sprouts up to the 5th grade, with 97 and >75% infestation levels, incidence, and severity,
respectively. The pest grows very rapidly and hastens the drying of sprouted tuber leaves.
Some genotypes were resistant to TSSM and recovered after the sprouts were infected and
dried, which were treated with pesticides in 2023. The typical agricultural insecticides were
ineffective in controlling the pest in the first year, and a Profenofos was applied in the
second year. Thus, seed tubers are the main production limit unless appropriate research
efforts are undertaken and management techniques are created.
Keywords: DLS, Potato, Tetranychus urticae, TSSM
Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center, P.O. Box 489, Asella, Ethiopia

*Corresponding author’s email: gizawweg21@gmail..com (Gizaw Wegayehu Tilahun)
Cite this article as: Tilahun, G.W. and Gure, T.N. 2023. New infestation records of two-spotted spider mites on
potato tubers under storage conditions and response of genotypes at Kulumsa, Ethiopia. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov.
Tech. 13(2): 55-63. https://doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v13i2.70857
Introduction
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the 2011; Labarta, 2013). Major insect pests of
world's most important crops and ranks fourth in potatoes include cutworms (Agrotis and Exigua
terms of production, volume, and area coverage spp.), green peach aphid (Myzus persicae),
(FAO, 2008; Tkachenko et al., 2021; Amare et al., metallic leaf beetle (Lagria vilosa), potato aphid
2022). In Ethiopia, it leads the list of root and (Macrosiphum euphorbiae), potato epilachna
tuber crops (CSA, 2022). With average yields of (Epilachna hirta), potato tuber moth
16.69 ton ha-1, potatoes were grown on about (Phthorimaea operculella), red ants (Dorylus
78,478.72 hectares of land in peasant holdings sp.), and red spider mite (Tetranychus utricae)
(CSA, 2022). Most potatoes are produced in (Bayeh and Tadesse, 1992; Ferdu et al., 2009;
Kulumsa areas in the Tiyo district of the Arsi Muluken et al., 2016). P. operculella received
Highlands (FAO, 2008). Farmers grow potatoes more attention than other insect pests affecting
in the "Meher" and "Belg" seasons due to the potatoes (Ferdu et al., 2009).
country's increasing demand for the crop and the
ensuing drop in the average size of farmland The productivity of potatoes under farmer
(Birsh et al., 2018; Fekadu and Gizaw, 2020). management is relatively low, ranging from 8 to
15 ton ha-1) (ARDO, 2007), compared to that
Several biotic and abiotic factors limit potato produced under research management (over 20
productivity. Unfavorable climatic conditions and ton ha-1). The low yields of potatoes were linked
the physical and chemical properties of the soil with the susceptibility of local potato cultivars' to
are abiotic factors; biotic factors that reduce crop late blight disease in the Arsi highlands (Fekadu
yields include low-yielding potato varieties, poor- and Gizaw, 2020). From previous reports by
quality potato seed tubers, diseases, and insect Gebremedhin et al. (2008), the main problems
pests (Ferdu et al., 2009; Bezabih and Mengistu, related to very low yields include a lack of
Tilahun and Gure (2023) New infestation records of two-spotted spider mites on potato tubers in Ethiopia
improved varieties and poor-quality seed tubers host plants, including more than 150 that are
of unknown origin, deprived cultivation practices, commercially important (Zhang, 2003). Under
storage structures, and seed systems, a high natural conditions, TSSM likes to feed on the
incidence of diseases, and potato tuber moths. underside of the leaves (Reddall et al., 2004).
Moreover, a lack of advanced storage facilities for Spider mites eat the contents of plant cells after
seed and ware potatoes and the traditional puncturing the cells with their stylets (Riley,
storage structure used by many farmers are 1989). The subsequent feeding of the pest results
attributed to severe losses of potatoes in storage in a stippled-bleached appearance of chloroplasts,
(Gebremedhin et al., 2008). Nearly 30–50% of and later, leaves turn yellow, grey, or bronze
the annual potato production is lost after harvest (Riley, 1989). A large spider mite population can
due to poor storage systems at farm and village eliminate plants, resulting in a loss of yield
levels (Buys and Nortje, 1997).The prevalence of (Stavrinides and Hadjistylli, 2009). There is no
the above production constraints contributes to information available on the source of the pest
the low productivity of potato cultivation in the under storage circumstances or the total tuber
Arsi highlands, including Kulumsa, until loss following infestation.
production technologies, such as improved
varieties and production techniques, are The pest was first reported as a potato pest in
introduced through research schemes. fields in the Haramaya district of Eastern
Ethiopia in 2016 (Muluken et al., 2016). Although
Seed tubers are the central components of potato the TSSM infestation was severe in the first year,
production, as they represent a higher proportion significant damage was caused, and it was not
of total costs and are a major source of disease recognized as a potential threat. No attention was
and pests. The unavailability of good quality and paid to the pest, which was considered a minor
healthy potato seed at the right time and amount pest. However, those potato genotypes were
is becoming a major problem in potato brought into the field and could not emerge
cultivation. Diffused Light Stores (DLS) allow completely because the sprouts were dried due to
farmers to store their seed stock instead of the sucking effect of the red spider mite. In 2023,
purchasing seeds of unknown health from distant it emerged as a serious pest infesting sprouts of
suppliers. This is not always the case for many potato tubers in the DLS. The pest occurrence in
potato growers, and seed shortages force most the DLS has caused great concern among the
farmers to buy seeds from other regions. potato research team. This can also alert
However, the potato tuber moth was a major pest researchers to pay due attention, distinguish the
of stored potatoes for many years, causing pest, and seek apt management alternatives and
significant damage to stored tubers. Fekadu and varietal responses before the pest becomes a
Gizaw, 2020) reported that mealy bugs were potential threat and causes an outbreak in potato
serious insect pests under storage conditions, production in Southeastern Ethiopia. Monitoring
especially in the hottest months of the year on of storage was conducted with the express goal of
sprouted potato tubers. Similarly, Palaniswami determining the occurrence, infestation,
and Pillai (1979) reported new records of mealy identification, and response of potato genotypes
bugs as pests on elephant foot yam under storage at Kulumsa, Southeastern Ethiopia, taking into
conditions. A new invasive pest called the red account the economic significance of the pest.
spider mite has emerged as a serious insect pest
for potato tubers stored at Kulumsa Agricultural Materials and Methods
Research Center (KARC). This pest has not been Description of the study area
reported as a potential potato pest by KARC or
anywhere else in the country as a storage pest, Infestations of mites were recorded at Kulumsa
even though it was reported as a field pest of Agricultural Research Center (KARC) in a
potatoes in 2016 (Muluken et al., 2016). diffused light store in the Southeastern parts of
Following this occurrence, KARC agricultural Ethiopia on spouted potato tubers from
entomologists and potato breeders examined the December to February and January to May in
affected potato tubers and conducted a diagnosis 2022 and 2023, respectively. The study included
of the pest and its state under DLS and laboratory all potato experimental materials stored in DLS
conditions. The pest had been identified as a two- for the major potato-producing areas of Arsi.
spotted spider mite (Tetranychus utricae Koch, KARC is located at 8o 00' to 8o 02'N latitude and
Acari: Tetranychidae) after the symptoms and 39o 07' to 39o 10'E longitude at an elevation of
damaged sprouts were recognized with 2210 m.a.s.l. in Tiyo district, the Arsi
magnifying glasses on the sprouts of potato Administrative Zone of the Oromia Regional
tubers. State, 167 km southeast of Addis Ababa. In 2022
and 2023, the mean monthly temperature and
The two-spotted spider mite (TSSM) is a relative humidity varied from 10.2°C to 24.8°C
widespread species that can be found on a variety and 25% to 82%, respectively (Table 1).
of plants all over the world (Helle and Sabelis,
1985). The pest affects more than 1200 types of

Table 1. Mean values of temperature and relative humidity in Kulumsa in 2022 and 2023.
Parameter 2022 2023
December January February January February March April May
Temperature (°C) 10.2-22.9 10.4-23.2 11.0-24.6 11.2-24.8 11.3-24.7 11.0-24.8 11.0-24.3 12.0-24.7
Relative humidity (%) 35-76 30-82 27-67 26-70 33-79 27-68 32-63 25-62
Source: Kulumsa metrological station data 2022-2023, unpublished
Monitoring of diffused light Stores (DLS), the number of adults per sprout of a tuber was
specimen collection, and visual identification counted. The average TSSM for each sprout
collected from a potato was calculated using the
To check on the health of the tubers, the KARC formula following the work of Kataria and Kumar
research team monitored the genotypes and (2012) and Gebissa et al. (2019).
varieties of potatoes kept in DLS once a week
(Fig. 1). Every genotype was observed every week, Incidence =
Number of infested plants
x 100
and afterward, the monitoring frequency was Total plant observed
raised to twice weekly as sprouting had begun. The following criteria were used to categorize the
However, at the end of December 2022 and mid- levels of mite infestation: According to the
February 2023, an unusual and unanticipated research of Steinkraus et al. (2003), the severity
insect was seen on the sprouts of some genotypes index was calculated using the following scales:
during the time in which temperature and relative Zero: no spider mites found; light: one to ten
humidity near the sprouted tubers had increased. spider mites per leaf found on occasional potato
However, it was also discovered in storage during tuber sprouts; medium: eleven to fifty spider
the first week of March 2023, when the tubers mites per leaf present on many tubers; leaves
had sprouted and were ready for planting. With mottled yellow or red; and heavy: more than fifty
time, the extent of the infestation grew, and the spider mites per potato tuber on most leaves of
pest quickly expanded by sucking on the sap from sprouts; many leaves became reddish brown. The
sprouts and netting on potato tubers. The insect severity index (SI) is the sum of the values of the
infested more than 30 genotypes in mid-March grade points of infected plants (1 to 5 infestation
2023, with fewer adult populations on the tubers. grades, from I to V, respectively) divided by the
Infestation levels rose sharply from the end of total number of infected plants observed. It was
March to mid-April. graded on a scale of 1 to 5, each denoting zero,
For the identification of the pest in the 25%, 25–50%, 51–75%, and 75% severity,
laboratory, mite samples were collected from respectively.
infected tubers within the DLS and placed in Results and Discussion
white plastic bags. During monitoring, potato
tubers were visually inspected in DLS using an Visual identification of the pest
aided 10-times magnifying hand lens. Samples of
ten randomly selected tubers from each genotype In March 2023, mite sample identification was
were used for the species identification of the done. It was recognized at the Kulumsa
pest. Digital cameras were used to capture images Protection Laboratory in Asella, Ethiopia. All
of sprouting potato tubers infested with spider samples were identified as two-spotted spider
mites. Tubers found in and near infested potato mites (Tetranychus urticae Koch, Acari:
storage columns were also examined for possible Tetranychidae) (Figures 1 and 2). To the best of
mite infestation, and the results were recorded. our knowledge, this is the first instance of T.
urticae found in Ethiopian sprouting potatoes
Assessment of Two-Spotted Spider Mites (TSSM) under DLS. Individual spider mites are difficult to
see with the naked eye due to their small size and
The infestations, occurrences, and level of
cryptic behavior, leaving single individuals and,
damage caused by two-spotted spider mites in
most of the time, infestations undetected (Tehri
thirteen and thirty-two stored potato genotypes
and Gulati, 2015). When observed, eggs were
were chosen during the first and second years,
white, and adults and nymphs were reddish-
respectively. To determine the presence of TSSM
orange. Spider mite damage to leaves can be seen
on tubers, 10 samples were randomly selected
with the unaided eye, but a hand lens or
following the "W" pattern from 100 sprouted
stereoscope is typically used to find mites.
potato tubers for each potato genotype. The data
were collected using a straightforward hand lens The main indicators used to identify TSSM in
and ocular observations. To calculate the number DLS were morphological characteristics, the sort
of TSSM per sprouted tuber of potato genotypes, of damage it caused, and web-developing

behaviors on the tubers. According to the author's al., 2017). The study of spider mite population
observations, red spider mites were first dynamics, prompt control of their numbers in
discovered on sprouted potatoes at KARC DLS in agro- and biocenosis, and the removal of trade
2022 and later in 2023. They were then examined barriers based on international plant quarantine
in the KARC protection laboratory using a stereo are all dependent on the accurate identification of
microscope with a resolution power of 100 times spider mite species (Li et al., 2015; Razuvaeva et
the actual size in March 2023. Most al., 2023). The Tetranychidae family is currently
morphological methods for identifying diagnosed using biochemical (protein-based) and
herbivorous mites are based on the visual molecular (DNA-based) approaches, as well as
evaluation of morphological traits; currently, this identification by adult morphological trait
is considered the main method (Razuvaeva et al., techniques (Razuvaeva et al., 2023). The
2023). The size and shape of the male genitalia principles of the morphological approach for
are typically used to identify the mite's genus and identifying spider mites have made a significant
species (NAPPO, 2014). Their morphological contribution to the management and ongoing
identification is, however, greatly complicated by scientific study of the pest, in which the concepts
their microscopic size, slight variations in derived from earlier research remain applicable
diagnostic features across species belonging to (Mitrofanov et al., 1987; Mehle and Trdan, 2012;
the same genus, and the laboriousness of Popov, 2013; Konoplev et al., 2017).
preparing the biomaterial for study (Konoplev et
Figure 1. Potato tubers infested by the two-spotted spider mites in KARC DLS. (A) Tubers covered by spider web-
like structures; (B) A swarm of eggs and adults of mites on sprouted potato tubers and dried tips by TSSM
infestation.
The symptoms of the TSSM on the sprouted Webbing may be a sign that spider mites are
potato tubers present nearby (Fig. 1B and Figs. 2A and C). The
two-spotted spider mites are a member of a group
The pest's signs and symptoms were noticed on of mites that spin webs, and the name "spider"
sprouting potato tubers in the KARC DLS. The underscores its capacity to create webbing that
insect had a white mass of a body that looked like resembles silk. They were typically hidden
cotton and appeared at various phases of beneath the webs, which serve as a vehicle for
development with different body sizes (Figs. 1A dispersal, shelter from predators, a suitable
and B). By constructing webs between the microhabitat for the TSSM, protection against
sprouting leaves of neighboring tubers, the mites abiotic agents, and a means of communication
were able to spread to nearby uninfected tubers (Le Goff et al., 2010; Clotuche et al., 2011;
(Fig. 1A). Both adults and nymphs were reddish- Muluken et al., 2016; Gebissa et al., 2019).
orange when they were examined, with two black
spots visible on the adults (Figs. 2B and 2C).

C
__
__
__
__
bi
ol
og __
Figure 2. A Red spider mite colony: (A) and __
ica (C) enlarged TSSM adults by stereo microscope attached to their web
(silk-like structure) (at KARC protection lLaboratory); (B) TSSM showing the two black spots. __
Damage due to the red spider mite str on potato how TSSM damaged potato plants __ in eastern
tubers uct Ethiopia, from leaf drying tobi complete plant
death. Muluken et al. (2016) also outlined how
Attacked sprout leaves gradually changed ur from the attacked leaves graduallyolturned greyish-
green to light brown to greyish-white, e completely white or light brown, resultingogin the complete
drying them out and ultimately causing the death drying of potato leaves and ultimately leading to
of
of the entire plant (Fig. 1B). Even though the the death of the whole plant. ica
Phytotoxic
damage levels of the pest vary with the thepopulation chemicals can be injected when l feeding, which
of mites, it dried the entire sprout, including
pe the can have various effects onstrthe host plant
stem (Fig. 1B). Similarly, the TSSM larval and (Jhonson and Lyon, 1991). Therefore, the ability
adult stages prefer to feed on the st underside of of the plant to photosynthesizeuct
leaves (Jhonson and Lyon, 1991; Reddall … et al., which decreased both its production urwas diminished,
and overall
2004). Following this study, the mites - created growth (Dara, 2015). Additionally, e faecal matter
spider webs all over the apexes of potato plant buildups, webbing, and/or defoliation affect the
leaves under significant infestations__under field plant's look and marketability of
conditions (Muluken et al., 2016; Gebissa et al., Lyon, 1991).
__ the(Jhonson and
2019). Muluken et al. (2016) and Gebissa __ et al. pe
(2019) described similar observations regarding
pic st
tur …
Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): es 55-63, December 2023
-
59
tak __
__ en __
at __
Assessment of the Two Spotted Spider Mites the DLS (Table 3). The level of infestation
(TSSM) increases from light (1–10 mites per sprout) to
heavy (>50 spider mites per potato sprout on
In 2022 DLS monitoring, the distribution of the most tubers) in 2022 and 2023. However, potato
mite pest was confined to 10–13 potato genotypes tubers observed in other columns were free from
only (Table 2) but expanded to other genotypes in a two-spotted spider mite infestation.
2023, and the pest heavily infested a number of
potato genotypes in different parts (columns) of
Table 2. Infestation, severity, incidence, and loss of tubers of the two-spotted spider mite (T. urticae)
on potato tubers at Kulumsa, Southeastern Ethiopia, during the 2022 off-season.
Genotypes Pedigree Infestation Severity (%) Incidence Tubers Tuber loss
level (Grade) emerged (%) (%)
G1 CIP-300065.4 3rd 50 56 79.17 20.83
G2 CIP-302498.72 3rd 30 36 47.92 52.08
G3 CIP-302499.30 4th 55 86 8.33 91.67
G4 CIP-312922.528 2nd 20 30 43.75 56.25
G5 CIP-312923.637 2nd 15 22 79.17 20.83
G6 CIP-312923.644 2nd 25 28 56.25 43.75
G7 CIP-312924.545 3rd 40 62 45.83 54.17
G8 CIP-312924.618 4th 75 100 0.00 100.00
G9 CIP-312927.578 5th 85 100 0.00 100.00
G10 CIP-312928.593 3rd 35 50 52.08 47.92
G11 CIP-396268.9 3rd 45 52 87.50 12.50
G12 CIP-396272.12 3rd 48 78 0.00 100.00
Dagim CIP-396004.337 3rd 50 66 70.83 29.17
Similar monitoring of the DLS in April 2023 leaves and a higher number of sprouts per
showed an expansion of the mite pest to other individual tuber. The genotypes were planted the
sprouted potato tubers (Table 3). In most of the following year after being sprayed with the highly
observed potato genotypes, infestation lethal herbicide Profit 72 EC, as recommended by
levels ranged from 1–5th grade of the spider mite Tesfay et al. (2018) and Gebissa et al. (2019).
on the sprouts (Tables 2 and 3). In some Compared to the first year's results, the tubers of
genotypes, whole potato sprout tips and leaves potato genotypes emerged up to 100%, with a
were killed or dried (Fig. 1B). This implies that maximum tuber loss of 15.38% for G-2 and G-7
susceptible and resistant potato genotypes can be (Table 3). Field and greenhouse-recommended
used for susceptible check and resistance crop chemical applications can significantly help
breeding in future crop improvement. The manage the pest, and the decrease in losses of the
incidence of TSSM on potato tubers was different tubers was due to timely and repeated chemical
across the studied genotypes. Incidences of TSSM treatment. However, some of the treated
were highest in G8 (100%) and G9 (100%) in genotypes displayed burning symptoms on their
2022, followed by G3 (86%), G12 (78%), G-9 leaves. This could be due to the dosage
(72%), and G-6 (69%). G-7 (97%) had the highest (concentration) of the chemical recommended for
incidence level in 2023, followed by G-9 (72%) use under field conditions as well as the lesser
and G-6 (69%). resilience of young sprout leaves.
The insect damaged the sprouted tubers in 2022, The hot and humid conditions that prevailed in
resulting in a loss of tubers of 12.5–100% (Table the area from December to February 2022 and
2). G8, G9, and G12 were the genotypes that January to May 2023 aggravated the damage
failed to emerge from 16 tubers per net plot, incurred by the pest (Table 1). Under field
resulting in a 100% loss of sprouted tubers. The conditions, hot and dry conditions influence the
tubers from G11 had the highest percentage of density of mites (Chinniah et al., 2007; Rampal et
germination (87.5%), followed by those from G1 al., 2013; Muluken et al., 2016). Gebissa et al.
(79.17%) and G5 (79.17%). Tuber losses were (2019) reported in Eastern Hararghe, Ethiopia,
12.5%, 20.8%, and 20.8%, respectively, indicating that TSSM severely affected 44.2% and 7.4% of
comparable or greater resistance. This could be the flowering and seedling stages of potato
inherent like potato genotypes and could be production, respectively. Similarly, Muluken et
suggested for resistance breeding potatoes for al. (2016) reported that TSSM severely damaged
TSSM. 80% of potato plant leaves. This might occur
because of environmental variables favorable for
In 2023, the infestation levels varied from 1st TSSM growth, reproduction, and development in
grade (no severity) to 5th grade (more than 75% the warmer seasons of 2022 and 2023, such as
severity) for the sprouted potato genotypes. This temperature and relative humidity.
could be the inherent nature of the genotypes or
the nature of sprouts, with a fewer number of

Table 3. Infestation, severity, incidence, and loss of tubers of the red spider mite (T. urticae) on
potato tubers at Kulumsa, Southeastern Ethiopia, during the 2023 off-season.
Genotypes Pedigree Infestation Severity Inciden Tubers emerged Tuber loss
Level (Grade) (%) ce (%) (%) (%)
G-1 CIP 319007.34 3rd 40 67 92.31 7.69
G-2 CIP 31003.3 3rd 50 72 84.62 15.38
G-3 CIP 31004.70 3rd 40 63 92.31 7.69
G-4 CIP 319004.5 3rd 30 52 100.00 0.00
G-5 CIP 319004.55 2nd 20 38 100.00 0.00
G-6 CIP 319003.25 3rd 50 69 100.00 0.00
G-7 CIP 319003.7 5th 90 97 84.62 15.38
G-8 CIP 319008.10 3rd 30 49 100.00 0.00
G-9 CIP 31004.4 3rd 50 67 100.00 0.00
G-10 CIP 319007.28 3rd 30 54 92.31 7.69
G-11 CIP 319004.40 2nd 10 25 100.00 0.00
G-12 CIP 319004.32 3rd 30 51 100.00 0.00
G-13 CIP 319004.35 2nd 20 35 100.00 0.00
G-14 CIP 319004.20 1st 0 1 100.00 0.00
G-15 CIP 319004.43 1st 0 2 100.00 0.00
G-16 CIP 319006.41 2nd 10 22 100.00 0.00
G-17 CIP 319007.33 3rd 30 54 92.31 7.69
G-18 CIP 319004.38 2nd 20 36 100.00 0.00
G-19 CIP 319008.50 2nd 10 23 92.31 7.69
G-20 CIP 319006.2 2nd 20 3 100.00 0.00
G-21 CIP 319008.56 1st 0 0 100.00 0.00
G-22 CIP 319004.22 2nd 10 25 100.00 0.00
G-23 CIP 319004.61 3rd 40 62 100.00 0.00
G-24 CIP 319004.12 2nd 10 22 92.31 7.69
G-25 CIP 319009.25 3rd 30 55 100.00 0.00
G-26 CIP 319003.30 1st 0 0 100.00 0.00
G-27 CIP 319003.32 3rd 30 55 100.00 0.00
G-28 CIP 319008.6 2nd 20 37 100.00 0.00
G-29 CIP 319004.72 3rd 40 66 100.00 0.00
G-30 CIP 319001.29 2nd 10 26 100.00 0.00
G-31 CIP 319004.10 2nd 10 24 100.00 0.00
G-32 CIP 319008.4 1st 0 0 100.00 0.00
Control measures taken at DLS were resistant to the chemical. The key reasons
could be the short generation cycle, high
This infestation was accidental and occurred fecundity, and haplodiploid sex determination of
suddenly. The first step was to discuss the best TSSM, which facilitate the rapid development of
ways to manage the TSSM in the store with an pesticide resistance (Van Leeuwen et al., 2010;
entomologist. Sanitation measures such as hand- Grbic et al., 2011).
peaking and cleaning were taken to control the
level of infestation and prevent its spread to more Conclusion
genotypes. At the time of the infestation, no
research-recommended pesticides were available Seed tubers are the most important determinant
for use on sprouted tubers under storage of potato productivity. It can represent a higher
conditions. It could not manage the TSSM in the proportion of total costs and is a major source of
first year with the conventional insecticides disease and insect pests. Healthy and free seed
available on the local market. Profit 72 EC tubers from insect infestations such as two-
(Profenofos) insecticide was sprayed with the spotted spider mites (TSSM) need to be available
perception that spider mites are sap-feeding for farmers' use promptly and at affordable
insects and a field recommendation of the prices. Seeds could be the means of disseminating
insecticide with a high pest mortality rate (20 ml TSSM to different areas, but infested tubers failed
knapsack spray-1) in the second year. However, to emerge, with up to 100% tuber loss in some
treatment of the sprouted tubers (chemicals genotypes. Therefore, it is important to ensure
applied) was expected to influence the fresh the health of the tubers before using them as
sprouts of the tubers, as the dosage and experimental planting material and supplying
concentration were not recommended for potato them to users. Since the pest is newly reported in
tubers under storage conditions, and the pests the area, visual and molecular species

identification should be conducted as part of pest Dara. S.K. 2015. Efficacy of botanical, chemical,
control efforts. Verification of appropriate and microbial pesticides on two-spotted
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Phytochemical and mineral profiling of anti-fertilizer plants used by pygmy women

in the town of Mbandaka in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: Case of Ipomoea
involucrata P.Beauv. and Piptadeniastrum africanum (Hook.f.) Brenan
Ruth Katunda1* , Jean Jacques Amogu1 , Jean-Paul Nzundu1 , Florent Mukeba3 ,
Didier Dianzuangani1 , Paulin Mutwale2,4 , Odette Kabena1 and Félicien Lukoki1
Received 14 September 2023, Revised 29 November 2023, Accepted 25 December 2023, Published online 31 December 2023
ABSTRACT
This study was carried out to determine the phytochemical and mineral composition of
Piptadeniastrum africanum (Hook.f.) Brenan and Ipomoea involucrata P. Beauv., two
plants presumed anti-fertilizers, were cited during an ethnobotanical survey carried out in
2018 among indigenous women in Mbandaka and the surrounding area. Micrography was
carried out, followed by determination of mineral composition by ICP-AES and SAA, and the
TLC for a highlight of the various phytochemical compounds making up these two plants.
The study determined the relative structure of the multiple cells and tissues making up these
plant drugs, including numerous raphids characteristic of Ipomoea involucrata and calcium
oxalate crystals characteristic of Piptadeniastrum africanum. Among the chemical
compounds, those directly linked to female anti-fertility have been highlighted. These
include flavonoids, tannins, phenolic compounds, and terpenoids. Elemental analysis
revealed mineral salts and trace elements directly influencing reproduction, such as iron,
zinc, calcium, sodium, and arsenic. Even if these data make it possible to justify the activity
of these two plants in reproductive health, it is, however, necessary for an in-depth study on
the in vitro evaluation to determine the clear anti-fertilizing activity of these plants used,
raw, by indigenous women.
Keywords: Contraception, Native women, Heavy metals, Raphides
1Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Kinshasa, BP 190 Kinshasa XI, Democratic Republic of the
Congo
2Center for the Study of Natural Substances of Plant Origin, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kinshasa, BP
212 Kinshasa XI, Democratic Republic of the Congo

3Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, National Pedagogical University, Democratic Republic of the Congo
4Department of Geography, Geostrategy, Environment and Spatial Planning, Human Science Research Center (CRESH), 33,
Avenue Comité Urbain, Commune de la Gombe, BP 3474, Kinshasa/Gombe, Democratic Republic of the Congo
*Corresponding author’s email: marikatunda@gmail.com (Ruth Katunda)
Cite this article as: Katunda, R., Amogu, J.J., Nzundu, J.P., Mukeba, F., Dianzuangani, D., Mutwale, P., Kabena,
O. and Lukoki, F. 2023. Phytochemical and mineral profiling of anti-fertilizer plants used by pygmy women in
the town of Mbandaka in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: Case of Ipomoea involucrata P.Beauv. and
Piptadeniastrum africanum (Hook.f.) Brenan. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 64-69.
Introduction
Birth spacing still does not sit well with the observed among low-income people due to the
conjugal duty of women in the Democratic often inaccessible cost of allopathic medicines
Republic of Congo, particularly in traditional and the cultural acceptability of traditional
pygmy societies, where women constantly seek to system medicines (Diame, 2010).
ingratiate themselves with their husbands or to
be the favorite in the case of polygamy (Bahuchet However, scientific work continues to prove that
and Maret, 2000). To this end, pygmy women, the biological effects induced by these medicinal
reputed to be sexually active, often resort to all plants are due to secondary metabolites and
their ancestral pharmacopeia to satisfy the sexual chemical compounds, which mainly act on the
appetite and shrink the vagina or space births reproductive system (Enitome, 2017).
(Kabena et al., 2018). Ethnobotanical studies At the same time, with the economic situation, we
have revealed that these practices are often are witnessing a change in the practices and
Katunda et al. (2023) Phytochemical and mineral profiling of anti-fertilizer plants in Congo
aspirations of women, in terms of sexuality, who Conditioning

increasingly resort to the ancestral pharmacopeia,
Harvested leaves and bark were dried respectively
no longer to satisfy only their sexual appetite but
for one and two weeks at room temperature (±
rather especially to space births.
27°C) in the shade (in the absence of sunlight).
Although the contraceptive methods of Sample spraying
traditional medicine appeal more to Pygmy
women in the town of Mbandaka, the unmet need After the drying time has elapsed, the biological
for contraception remains among a good number materials are reduced to a fine powder using a
of women, most of whom are afraid of the Moulinex grinder and then sifted using a USA
harmful side effects of these traditional practices Standard testing Steve brand sieve with a
(Zieran et al., 2004; Lazare, 2017). diameter of 1 mm. This made it possible to obtain
a fine powder with a grain size of ± 1 mm.
As the recipes are prepared in a raw way, they
contain all the chemical compounds present in Microscopic examination of powders
the plant. As a result, even compounds with a (Micrography)
toxic effect (heavy metals) on the reproductive
This review is based on the fact that the cellular
system would be directly administered. This elements undergo a simple slippage during
represents a danger to the health of indigenous spraying, which affects their shape, content, or
women, who frequently use these plants as the associations very little. I did not understand.
contraception method for excellence. No in-depth Each plant is characterized by one or more
study has yet been carried out to identify the particular histological elements; these cellular
phytochemical compounds linked to anti- forms are also found in the powder and make it
fertilizing activity or to determine their net possible to characterize it. It, therefore, makes it
activity. possible to detect falsification quickly from a
Based on these observations, we propose to botanical point of view.
undertake a study to determine the composition Thus, the examination is carried out after heating
of secondary metabolites and minerals (mineral the preparation based on fine powders and
salts and trace elements) of two medicinal plants, Steimetz's reagent, and the results are obtained
Piptadeniastrum africanum, and Ipomoea after focusing at 40X magnification of an optical
involucrata, frequently used successfully as microscope.
contraceptive agents in the traditional
pharmacopeia of the pygmies of the City of Phytochemical analysis
Mbandaka in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The fine powders obtained after grinding the
The results of this study would serve as a leaves and the bark served as base materials for
springboard for the design of better-quality obtaining the extracts (methanolic or ethanolic)
contraceptives and would contribute to the to be used.
enhancement of the traditional pharmacopeia of
this region. The different chemical analyses are carried out by
phytochemical screening according to the method
Materials and Methods described by Kapepula et al. (2016). This is a
qualitative analysis based on coloring and/or
Biological material precipitation reactions carried out on dry plant
The biological material consists of leaves of drugs of Piptadeniastrum africanum and
Ipomoea involucrata (Convolvulaceae) and bark Ipomoea involucrata.
of Piptadeniastrum africanum (Fabaceae) Determination of elemental composition
collected at the Botanical Garden of Eala in the by ICP-AES and SAA
town of Mbandaka, in the former Province of
Equateur, Democratic Republic of Congo in July The contents of the following minerals: P, Ca, Mg,
2021. Na, Co, K, Zn, Mn, Ni, Se, Pb, Cd, Al, Ba, Cr, and
As were evaluated by Coupled Plasma Optical
The identification of the plants collected in the Emission Spectroscopy by Induction (ICP-AES).
field was carried out at the Herbarium of the Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) was used
Botanical Garden of Eala in Mbandaka and/or at for Iron and Copper according to the method
the Laboratory of Systematic Botany and Plant detailed by Mukeba (2021). The concentrations of
Ecology of the Department of Biology of the the elements in the solution were determined by
Faculty of Sciences of the University of Kinshasa comparing the sample's and standard solutions'
(Herbarium IUK) under herbal numbers: Devred respective light intensities. The results were then
744 and Pauwels 247 for Piptadeniastrum transferred to the sample in mg kg-1. These
africanum and Carrington 80 and Robyns 4264 analyses were carried out in triplicate for each of
for Ipomoea involucrata. the species studied under the following working
conditions:

ICP-AES working conditions

- Instrument : ICAE S (Optima 8300 Perkin Elmer, USA);
- Power : 1500W;
- Plasma gas flow : 8 L/n;
- Nebulizer : 0.70 L/min;
- Auxiliary gas flow : 0.20 L/n;
- Plasma burn height : 5–22 mm
- Reading time : 1-5s (max 45s);
- Flow time : 1s (max 10s);
- View: Radial.
SAA working conditions
- Instrument : SAA (Anat 400 Perkin Elmer, USA),
- Flame temperature : 2800°C,
- Acetylene pressure : 0.9-1.0 bar,
- Atmospheric pressure : 4.5–5 bar,
- Reading time : 1 to 10 seconds (maximum 60 seconds),
- Flow time : 3-4 seconds (maximum 10 seconds).
Results and Discussion

Micrographic profile of herbal drugs
The microscopic profile of the leaf powder of Ipomoea involucrata is shown in Figure 1 below:
Figure 1. Microscopic profile of Ipomoea involucrata: Tectorial hairs (A), oil droplets (B), stomata (C),
Sclerotic fibers (D), Vessels Fragment (E), Sclerides (F), Raphides (G) and conducting vessels (H).
The microscopic profile of P. africanum bark powdered is shown in Figure 2 below:
Figure 2. Microscopic profile of P. africanum: Sclerides (A), sclerotic fibers (B), parenchyma (C),
tracheids+starch grains (D), tanniferous cells (E), sclerids (F) and crystals (G).

Therefore, the histological elements obtained for In the current state of our knowledge, there is no
each species are characteristic of the powders of data on the microscopy of the powders of these
the plants studied. plants. These characteristic elements, therefore,
It is imperative to point out the presence of constitute a database for the identification and
numerous raphides in Ipomoea involucrata. The authentication of these medicinal plants for
study by Hao and Zhong (2008) proved that further research.
raphides produce severe toxic reactions by Elemental composition of plants by ICP-
facilitating the passage of toxins through the skin AES and SAA
when the tissue containing the raphides also
contains these toxins. Furthermore, plants Analyzes revealed the presence of mineral salts
containing calcium oxalate raphide can injure the and trace elements in different proportions in the
skin and mucous membranes and cause two plants, as shown in Tables 1 and 2 below:
irritation, numbness, and a burning sensation
with swelling (John et al., 2005).
Table 1. Concentration of mineral salts expressed in mg kg-1 (ppm) of dry matter (Average ± SD, n=3).
Element Mineral salt concentration expressed in mg kg-1 (ppm)
Ipomoea involucrata Piptadeniastrum africanum
Potassium 15073 ± 348.19 4643.7 ± 35.34
Phosphorus 1808.9±121.43 3709.5 ± 201.53
Calcium 18863 ± 64.29 673 ± 8.30
Sodium 1138.7 ± 7.77 3064.7 ± 41.681
Magnesium 6011 ± 49.57 530.27 ± 7.45
Significant concentrations of mineral salts were involucrata and those extremely low in calcium
found in both species. It should be noted high (673 mg kg-1) and magnesium (530.27 mg kg-1) in
concentrations of potassium (15073 mg kg-1) and the bark of Piptadeniastrum africanum.
calcium (18863 mg kg-1) in the leaves of Ipomoea
Table 2. Concentration of trace elements expressed in mg kg-1 (ppm) of dry matter (Average ± SD, n=3).
Elements Mineral salt concentration expressed in mg kg-1 (ppm)
Ipomoea involucrata Piptadeniastrum africanum
Iron 279.87 ± 6.16 435.030 ± 23.95
Zinc 14.88 ± 7.05 73.307 ± 12.00
Copper 27.19 ± 0.58 78.040 ± 0.99
Manganese 186.70 ± 1.94 3035.000 ± 9.07
Selenium 684.03 ± 228.41 488.100 ± 55.15
Cobalt 20.50 ± 19.76 16.050 ± 8.27
Cadmium 21.24 ± 6.13 20.060 ± 9.27
Arsenic 201.35 ± 32.17 82.490 ±78.07
Nickel 67.00 ± 51.67 61.500 ± 33.97
Aluminum 1775.00 ± 2.65 1032.700 ± 9.81
Barium 66.14 ± 5.25 1048.000 ± 5.97
Lead ESD 419.07.000 ± 348.25
Aluminum (1775 mg kg-1 and 1032.7 mg kg-1) and • Cadmium has the potential to induce the
selenium (684.03 mg kg-1 and 488.1 mg kg-1) are appearance of endometrial cancer (Wolf and
elements present in large quantities in the two Akesson, 2008; Cho et al., 2013);
plants. In addition, high concentrations of lead • Cadmium has the ability to accumulate in the
(419.07 mg kg-1), barium (1048 mg kg-1), iron placenta, so it is toxic for the development of
(435.03 mg kg-1), and manganese (3035 mg kg-1) the fetus (Skakkebaek et al., 2001);
are found in the bark of Piptadeniastrum • Women's exposure to cadmium and arsenic
africanum and that of arsenic (201.35 mg kg-1) in leads to the depletion of follicular capital. In
the leaves of Ipomoea involucrata. women exposed to cadmium and arsenic, the
These results show the presence of heavy metals average time required for conception is 4.70
in the two samples analyzed, including those with ± 2.27 months, while it is 1.72 ± 1.31 months
physicochemical properties, allowing them to in unexposed women (p < 0.0001) (Mukendi
cross biological barriers and accumulate in et al., 2018);
tissues, thus causing damage to the reproductive • Several experimental and epidemiological
health of women. These include, among others, studies have shown that nickel (Ni 2+) is
cadmium, aluminium, nickel, arsenic, selenium genotoxic (Costa et al., 2002; Chen et al.,
and lead. In relation to these elements, previous 2003).
studies show, in particular, that:

Furthermore, nickel is recognized as having a addition, the chemical analysis was done to have
carcinogenic potential (Denkhaus and Salnikow, an overall view of the different chemical elements
2002). In 1990, nickel and nickel compounds that the raw recipes used would contain and the
were classified by the International Agency for micrography made it possible to ensure that there
Research on Cancer (IARC) in group 1 “potential was no involuntary falsification, which could
carcinogen for humans”. mow the results of the analyses, in the powders
used as biological study material.
Nickel is also an allergen responsible for contact
dermatitis (UKWIR, 1996); The characteristic histological elements allowing
the identification of these two species have been
• Many studies have explored the potential highlighted. This study shows that these two
existence of a relationship between lead species have various secondary metabolites that
exposure and reproductive effects. The directly impact female fertility, namely
results are contradictory, but overall, the flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids and phenolic
available data suggest a link between blood compounds, as demonstrated by previous studies.
lead and the occurrence of abortions, This justifies the use of these plants as a means of
preterm deliveries, impaired sperm, and birth spacing. Moreover, certain minerals found
therefore, male fertility, as well as female in the drugs of these two species are considered to
fertility (Amara et al., 2016); have direct positive or negative effects on female
• Aluminum is one of the toxic substances that fertility. This is the case for calcium, sodium,
can affect male and female fertility. potassium, magnesium, arsenic, nickel, cadmium,
Phytochemical composition by TLC lead and aluminum.
TLC analysis showed the presence of flavonoids Thus, we suggest that extensive studies on the
and phenolic acids in both plants. These results clear activity of these plants in reproductive
agree with those found by Ateufack et al. (2015); health be carried out and that the active
Esien et al. (2017); Mbiantcha et al. (2017) and principles responsible are isolated with a view to
Sinan et al. (2020). the development of "organic contraceptive pills"
to improve the use of these plants in traditional
The leaves of Ipomoea involucrata contain reproductive health care.
chlorogenic acid, anthraquinones, coumarins,
terpenoids, as well as gallic tannins and the bark Acknowledgements
of Piptadeniastrum africanum contains Our thanks go to the various laboratories which
anthocyanins, terpenoids, gallic and catechin allowed the realization of this work, namely the
tannins. Laboratory of Microscopy and that of Botany,
The significant presence of these phytochemicals systematics and Ecology of the Department of
may help justify their use as a means of birth Biology of the University of Kinshasa; the Center
spacing by Aboriginal women based on reports of for the Study of Natural Substances of Plant
previous studies that demonstrate that flavonoids Origin (CESNOV in acronym) of the Faculty of
and phenolic compounds block ovulation and Pharmaceutical Sciences of the University of
destroy the estrous cycle. Sharma et al. (2013) Kinshasa; the Mineral Analysis Laboratory of the
also show that tannins, alkaloids, and saponins OCC (LAMI in acronym) in Lubumbashi and the
contribute to interrupting the estrous cycle. Plant Biotechnology Laboratory of the Regional
Furthermore, these compounds lead to a Center for Nuclear Energy in Kinshasa (CRENK
reduction in the weight and diameter of the in acronym).
uterus, of its myometrium and endometrium,
indicating an uterotrophic effect.
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ISSN: 2224-0616
Economics of maize cultivation at selected intensive areas of Bangladesh

Pradip Hajong1* , Shimul Mondal2 , Md. Ariful Islam3 and Anup Ghosh4
Received 14 September 2023, Revised 18 December 2023, Accepted 25 December 2023, Published online 31 December 2023
ABSTRACT
The study was undertaken to assess the input used pattern and profitability of maize in
selected intensive maize-growing areas of Bangladesh from February to July 2019. The
present study was conducted in four districts viz. Chuadanga, Jhenaidah, Meherpur and
Kushtia were located at AEZ-11, an intensive maize-growing area. In this study, 160 farmers
were selected, of which 40 from each district were randomly selected for data collection. The
average farm size was 0.64 ha, whereas the maize cultivated area was 0.34 ha. It was
observed that maize was cultivated from November to December in the study area. The
average per hectare seed required was 20 kg ha-1 and the fertilizer requirement was 1532 kg
ha-1. The average labor required was 275 man-days in a season due to less use of technology.
Total production cost was Tk. 162047 ha-1, in which variable cost was Tk. 101066 ha-1 (62%)
and the fixed cost was Tk. 60980 ha-1 (38%). The price of the main maize grain at Farmgate
was Tk. 18 kg-1. The gross margin was Tk.1 91962 ha-1 and the net margin was Tk. 40515 ha-1
average. The benefit-cost ratio on a cash-cost basis was 1.90 and on a total-cost basis was
1.18, meaning maize cultivation was profitable. Land preparation, seed, organic manure,
TSP, Urea, MoP, DAP, Gypsum, Zinc and Boron had a positive influence on maize
production. The high price of fertilizer and seed was the main problem farmers faced and
due to high demand, there were no marketing problems. Though it had some problems,
maize cultivation overall was a profitable crop.
Keywords: Economics, Maize, Cost and return, Profitability
1
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Jashore, Bangladesh
2
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Satkhira, Bangladesh
3
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh
4
Bangladesh Jute Research Institute, Jashore, Bangladesh
*Corresponding author’s email: pradip.hajong@gmail.com (PradipHajong)
Cite this article as: Hajong, P. Mondal, S., Islam, M.A. and Ghosh, A. 2023. Economics of maize cultivation at
selected intensive areas of Bangladesh. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 70-78.
Introduction
Bangladesh is an agriculture-based country where things in Bangladesh and worldwide. Maize was a
agriculture is considered the backbone of its great combination of low production cost, high
economy. Agriculture plays a vital role in poverty market demand, and high yield, which has
alleviation, employment generation, food generated great interest in maize cultivation
security, and the living standard by increasing the among farmers. It is gaining popularity daily in
farmer's income. Developing countries like the country due to vast demand, particularly for
Bangladesh benefited from the green revolution the poultry industry (Karim et al., 2018). Farmers
in cereal crop production in the past but could were shifting to maize cultivation from rice and
not substantially reduce malnutrition and wheat due to the low cost of production, higher
poverty. Maize (Zea mays) was one of the most profitability, high demand in the poultry industry,
important food grains in the world and the third and less risk-averse crops (Kausar and Alam,
most important cereal crop after rice and wheat. 2016). Maize supplies food for humans, feed and
In Bangladesh, maize became second after rice fodder for animals, fuel for domestic use and raw
according to acres and production, followed by materials for industry in Bangladesh and the
wheat from 2021 to 2022 (BBS, 2022). Maize was world. The commercial production of maize in
the most important food grain because it was the Bangladesh started in the early 1990s, and since
highest-yielding crop and could be used for many then, it has been increasing and has become a
Hajong et al. (2023) Economics of maize cultivation at some selected intensive areas of Bangladesh
major cash crop (Uddin et al., 2010). In continues to grow day by day. Area and
Bangladesh, the maize area covered was 4,76,492 production also increased yearly in the study area
hectares and production was 4.26 million MT (Table 1). This studied area supplies twenty-five
during 2021-22 (BBS, 2022). The production and percent of total maize production in Bangladesh.
consumption of maize in Bangladesh are The cultivation area and production of maize are
increasing as its demand increases day by day, increasing in Bangladesh day by day (Fig. 1).
though there is a huge gap between demand and
supply (Islam and Hoshain,2022). This demand
increases, and the poultry and fish sector
Maize area (ha) Maize Production (MT)

4500000
Production (MT)
600000 4000000
500000 3500000
3000000
Area (ha)
400000 2500000
300000 2000000
200000 1500000
1000000
100000 500000
0 0
2009-10
2009-10
2016-17
2011-12
2016-17
2011-12
2019-20
2019-20
2020-21
2020-21
2021-22
2021-22
2013-14
2014-15
2013-14
2014-15
2015-16
2015-16
2012-13
2017-18
2018-19
2012-13
2017-18
2018-19
2010-11
2010-11
Year Year
Fig. 1. Area and production trend of maize in Bangladesh.

Table 1. Areas (ha) and production of maize in study areas from 2013-14 to 2021-22.
Year Maize area (ha) Maize production (MT)
Jhenaidah Chuadanga Meherpur Kushtia Jhenaidah Chuadanga Meherpur Kushtia
2013-14 6073 47329 14122 4081 36278 398317 110993 34504
2014-15 5794 43444 14321 2966 36278 422129 94769 23440
2015-16 5671 47017 9315 3646 36212 453262 73788 35024
2016-17 6999 48957 12531 7551 57648 474524 100385 82783
2017-18 6258 44733 14890 8481 58759 437590 135062 100678
2018-19 7183 47017 17170 11135 67920 419767 135062 123403
2019-20 17240 48133 11424 9450 166492 503179 129200 94545
2020-21 17350 47554 11411 9903 171445 517260 124916 97640
2021-22 18563 46563 11017 9598 179301 488723 125421 95423
Source: BBS, 2022
As a remunerative cereal crop, maize is grown in adopt heat-tolerant hybrid maize varieties for
drought-prone and typical environments drought-prone areas to improve stable maize
(Khandoker et al., 2018). Most of these four cultivation (Koirala et al., 2021). Though there
districts were drought-prone, and cultivated were different studies on maize cultivation, the
maize grain became popular in these areas. As present study was undertaken to provide
stated, maize production in drought-prone areas information about the input use pattern and
was lower than in normal areas. However, its profitability of maize cultivation in the study
production cost in drought-prone areas was areas.
higher than in normal land due to the high cost of
irrigation, labour and other required inputs. Materials and Methods
Selected areas included AEZ-11 (High Ganges Study areas with sample size
River Floodplain), predominantly most highland
and some medium highland. The soil was The present study was conducted in four
calcareous brown and dark grey calcareous, with consecutive districts, namely Meherpur, Kushtia,
low organic matter content in the brown ridge Chuadanga, and Jhenaidah, located at AEZ-11
and high dark grey soils. Soils were slightly and covering a large portion of that region. A
alkaline in reaction to the low fertility level of that purposely selected study area was considered for
area. However, this region is intensively maize the higher concentration of maize production.
cultivation at present. With the increasing The study was conducted using a formal survey
demand for maize for food and feed, researchers method with a prepared questionnaire. The

questions included socio-economic data, farm

NR = Net return; TFC = Total fixed cost (Tk.);
type, crop data, crop production, input use, cost
and BCR = Benefit-cost ratio
of input and output price , problem identification,
etc. The questionnaire was prepared in Bengali, The Cobb-Douglas production function model
and a face-to-face interview was done there for was used to calculate the contribution of factors
close interaction with the farmer. In this study, to maize cultivation. The Cobb-Douglas
160 sample farmers were selected, of which 40 production function model is given below.
were from each randomly selected district for the
present interview. Data were collected through a Y = AX1b1 X b2 bn ui
2 … … … … … . . Xn e
pre-designed interview method from February to The function was converted to logarithmic form
July 2019. For a cross-section of information, so that it could be solved using the least square
farmers were gathered in one place and method, i.e.,
interviews were taken together and individually.
lnY = a + b1 lnX1 + b2 lnX2 … … … … … … . + bn lnXn
Data collection, analysis and descriptive + Ui
statistics
The empirical model of production function is as
The primary data was collected based on a field follows:
survey from farmers involved in maize
cultivation. Different required information lnY=a+b1lnX1+b2lnx2+b3lnX3+b4lnX4+b5lnX5+b6l
regarding the study was collected based on socio- nX6+b7lnX7+b8lnX8+b9lnX9+b10lnX10+b11lnX11+
economic characteristics and other related b12lnX12+b13lnX13+b14lnX14+Ui
information of the farmers, crop production,
Where,
input used and, input price and output gain, etc.
The field immunerator, under the guidance of the Y= Yield of maize (kg ha-1),
researcher, collected field-level data. The X1 = Land preparation cost (Tk ha-1),
respondent farmers were categorized into X2 = Seed (kg ha-1),
different groups such as small, medium and large. X3 = Labour (man-days ha-1),
The categories were developed based on the X4 = Manure (kg ha-1),
percentage of respondent farmers concerning X5 =Insecticide cost (Tk. ha-1),
each technology. By analyzing data, a X6 = Irrigation cost (Tk. ha-1),
combination of descriptive statistics, statistical X7 = Urea (kg ha-1),
and mathematical techniques were used to gain X8 = TSP (kg ha-1),
the objectives and to get meaningful results. After X9 = DAP (kg ha-1),
collection data were edited, summarized, X10 = MoP (kg ha-1),
tabulated and analyzed to fulfill the objectives of X11 = Gypsum (kg ha-1),
the study. Descriptive statistics using different X12 = Thiovit (kg ha-1),
statistical tools like percentages, averages and X13 = Boron (kg ha-1),
ratios were used in presenting the study results X14 = Zinc sulfate (kg ha-1),
were calculated using Microsoft Excel. Mean, a = Intercept,
range, maximum value, minimum value, b1 , b2 … … … … . b14 = Coefficients of the variables
standard deviation (SD), etc., were calculated to be estimated,
using the SPSS statistical packages. Graphical Ui = Error term.
data presentation such as graphs and figures were
presented by the output results. Results and Discussion
Profitability analysis of maize Socio-economic profile of maize farmer
The profitability analysis of maize was measured Socio-economic characteristics are the reflection
in gross output, gross margin, net return and of persons positive and negative attitudes or
benefit-cost ratio (undiscounted). The formulas qualities. Socio-economic profile of the sample
required for the estimation of profitability were as farmers, including age, family size, level of
follows: education, social status, occupational status,
professional training, land holding and
GR =∑ Pmj × ∑Qmj; GM = ∑GR – ∑TVCmj; NR distribution of land, etc. Maize production was
= GR – ∑(TFC + TVC) ; BCR = GR ÷ (TFC + TVC) influenced by some important factors such as
Where, education, cultivators neighbor, farm size, high
output price etc. (Alam et al., 2016). About forty-
GR = Gross output; six percent of farmers were young, 31-50 years
Pmj = Selling price of maize of j farmer (Tk. ha-1); old (Table 2). Thirty-one percent of farmers were
Qmj = Yield of maize of j farmer (Ton ha-1); below thirty years old, which means young people
GM = Gross margin; are involved in farming at an early age, especially
TVCmj = Variable cost of maize of j farmer (Tk. profitable crops like maize. Aged old farmers
ha-1);

were also involved in maize farming as they male members were 40%, adult female members
traditionally practiced farming activities. Thirty were 34%, and 26% were children (Fig. 2). The
percent of farmers had mass education, meaning average farming experience was 13.23 years. Most
they could write their names, whereas twenty-one of the farmers are involved in farming as their
percent went to primary school to gather main occupation. The average farm size was 0.64
knowledge. About forty-two percent of farmers ha, whereas the maize cultivated area was 0.34
had gained secondary education and others were ha, about fifty percent of the total cultivated land
HSC and above. The average household size was area.
4.28, the same as the national average (4.06)
(HIES, 2019). Among the family members, adult
Table 2. Socio-economic profile of respondent farmers.
Features Categories % of farmers Range Mean SD
Age of farmer <30 years 31
31-50 years 46 20-65 40.81 12.22
Above 51 years 23
Education Mass education 30
Primary level 21
Secondary level 42 1-15 5.78 3.89
Above HSC 7
Household size (No.) 2-9 4.28 1.35
Average farming experience (years) 1-35 13.23 9.28
Farm size (ha) 0.12-1.62 0.64 0.38
Maize cultivated area (ha) 0.12=1.21 0.34 0.23
Percentage of household member
26%
Adult male member
40%
Adult Female member
Children
34%
Fig. 2. Percentage of household members of the selected sample.

Agronomic management of maize was primed by hydroprimed, it gets a high yield
cultivation (Ahammad et al., 2020). Most of the farmers
cultivated hybrid maize varieties collected from
Maize is cultivated both in the robi and kharif different companies. Among the cultivated maize
seasons in Bangladesh. In the study area, both variety was Pioneer V-92 (21%), Pacific-60 (19%),
seasons of maize were cultivated, but only the Kaberi (14%), NK-40 (12%), Supershine-2760
Robi season was considered in this study. Maize (10%), Elite (9%), Sunshine (7%), 981 (5%) and
was cultivated from mid-November to December 987 (4%) in the study areas (Fig. 3). There did not
in the selected area, whereas it was stated that found BARI and BWMRI maize variety in the
most farmers sown maize hybrid seeds during the selected areas that farmer cultivated. The main
first week of December (Karim et al., 2010). reason for the non-adoption of BARI varieties
However, in other cases, some maize farmers sow would be less availability of seeds in the study.
maize seed in the 3rd week of October and extend The extent of use of maize cultivating variety
it to the last week of December (Moniruzzaman et depends on the availability of seeds at the local
al., 2010). The recommended sowing time of market from which farmer collect their necessary
maize for the Robi season was October to seeds (Khandokeret al., 2018).
November and for the kharif season, mid-
February to March (Azad et al., 2020). If the seed

5 4 Pioneer V-92
7 21
Pacific-60
9
Kaberi
10 19 Nk-40
12 Supershine-2760
14
Elite
Sunshine
981
987
Fig. 3. Maize variety cultivated in the study area (% of farmers).

Input use pattern cultivation because technology is not developed
and adapted. The average labor required was 275
Inputs are necessary for agricultural production. man-days in a season for maize cultivation (Table
Inputs in agriculture include such as seed, labor, 3). Organic fertilizers such as manure and
organic fertilizer (manure, compost, vermin compost have required an average of 1585 kg ha-1.
compost and co-compost), inorganic fertilizer Average fertilizer applications such as Urea, TSP,
(Urea, TSP, MoP, Gypsum, DAP, Thiovit, Boron MoP, DAP, Gypsum, Thiovit, Boron and Zinc
and Zinc etc.), irrigation, pesticide etc. were were 497 kg ha-1, 418 kg ha-1, 266 kg ha-1, 159 kg
necessary for smooth production of any crops. ha-1, 155 kg ha-1, 12 kg ha-1, 13 kg ha-1 and 12 kg ha-
Land, labor, capital and the farmer were the key 1, respectively. All the study areas spend too much
elements of any agricultural production system. fertilizer for maize cultivation, which affects its
In maize production, the average seed required production cost. The average total fertilizer
was 20 kg ha-1, whereas all the selected study requirement was 1532 kg ha-1 in all areas. Studies
areas required seed amounts to be the same as have stated that proper nutrient management at
the average amount. Labor required for land maize fields maximizes maize yield and provides
preparation, seed sowing, weeding, fertilizer a good margin for farmers (Mahamood et al.,
application, pesticide spray, irrigating, harvesting 2016).
the crop, carrying, threshing, cleaning, drying,
weighing, storing and marketing of the products.
There is a huge amount of labor for maize
Table 3. Input used pattern in maize cultivation.
Input Amount % of fertilizer
Seed (kg ha-1) 20 -
Labor (Man-days ha-1) 275 -
Manure (kg ha-1) 1585 -
Urea (kg ha-1) 497 32.45
TSP (kg ha-1) 418 27.28
MoP (kg ha-1) 266 17.37
DAP (kg ha-1) 159 10.38
Gypsum (kg ha-1) 155 10.14
Thiovit (kg ha-1) 12 0.79
Boron (kg ha-1) 13 0.80
Zinc (kg ha-1) 12 0.79
Total fertilizer (kg ha-1) 1532 100.00
Source: Field survey, 2019.

Cost of maize cultivation maize sheller increases maize productivity by 34-

65% at the farm level than the non-user (Begum
The cost was the expenses for accumulating, et al., 2022). In the maize field, there was less
organizing and carrying out the production infestation of pests and insects. Recently, there
process. For calculating the cost of production of was an attack by an insect called the fall army
maize, all variable costs like land preparation, worm, which wreaked havoc and significantly
human labor, seed, fertilizers, manures, affected maize cultivation. For this reason,
insecticide, irrigation, etc., were calculated per farmers applied different pesticides in maize
hectare basis. The fixed cost of maize production fields to control insect pests. Maize cultivation
included family labor cost and the cost of lease required huge amounts of irrigated water because
value of land use. The cost of land use was the weather was dry and arid in this region during
calculated based on the annual lease value of the the Rabi season. Therefore, it requires a lot of
land. Among the cost items, fertilizer buying cost irrigation water, and in the early stages, it needs
was the highest Tk. 36921 ha-1 (23%) followed by to be irrigated many times for good yield.
hired labor Tk. 24641 ha-1 (15%), irrigation Tk. Irrigation has a great impact on its yield, and the
10214 ha-1 (6%), land preparation Tk. 7362 ha-1 highest yield was gained at different stages of
(5%), seed Tk. 5964 ha-1 (4%), organic fertilizer water management (Kobir et al., 2019). Besides,
Tk. 5686 ha-1 (4%) and pesticide were Tk. 3596 interest in organizing capital was considered as
ha-1 (2%), respectively. Maize shelling was variable cost. The average total production cost
important for maize cultivation. Generally, was Tk. 162047 ha-1, in which variable cost was
shelling was done by the shallow engine-operated Tk. 101066 ha-1 (62%) and fixed cost was Tk.
maize sheller machine, whose average cost was 60980 ha-1 (38%).
Tk. 3738 ha-1. It was noted that BARI-developed
Table 4. Production cost of maize per hectare.
Cost item Cost (Tk. ha-1) % of cost
Variable Cost
Land preparation cost 7362 4.54
Seed 5964 3.68
Hired labor 24641 15.21
Shelling cost 3738 2.31
Fertilizer 36921 22.78
Manure 5686 3.51
Pesticide 3596 2.22
Irrigation 10214 6.30
IOC 2944 1.82
Total variable cost 101066 62.37
Fixed cost
Family labor 38540 23.78
LUC 22440 13.85
Total fixed cost 60980 37.63
Total cost 162047 100.00

Note: IOC: Interest on operating capital was calculated on 9% interest rate basis.
LUC: Land use cost was calculated annual lease value and it was Tk. 9000 per bigha (33 decimal) basis.
Profitability of maize cultivation 18 kg-1. The prices of by-products did not count in
this study. The average gross margin was Tk.
Profitability is one of the major determining 191962 ha-1 and the net margin was Tk. 40515 ha-
criteria for acceptance of a crop. Output was 1. Maize residue utilization is also important for
calculated by multiplying yield with its price. crops (rice) and livestock, as maize supplied
Farmers get a good yield of maize by cultivating fodder (Uddin and Goswami, 2016). Large
hybrid varieties of maize in the study areas. Maize farmers get higher profits than medium and small
cultivation was profitable and marginal farmers farmers (Hasan et al., 2017). However, per
gained higher profits than small and large hectare gross margin and net return were higher
farmers (Biswas et al., 2023). The average maize for medium farmers than for small and large
production was 10.66 MT ha-1 (Table 5). The price farmers (Uddin et al., 2010). Another study was
of the main maize grain at the Farmgate was Tk. conducted where the gross margin and net return

of large farmers were higher than those of small Besides this arathdar and wholesalers also store
and medium farmers (Ferdausi et al., 2014). In maize at storehouses for two to three months to
case of Nepal farmers, maize seed production was get high prices(Kausar et al., 2015). The benefit-
more profitable for large farmers than other small cost ratio on a cash-cost basis was 1.90, and the
farmers (Sapkota et al., 2018). For higher profit, undiscounted benefit-cost ratio was 1.18 on a
some farmers store their maize in a granary for total-cost basis, which means maize cultivation
some weeks (Baksh et al., 2017), and storage was the profitable crop in the selected area.
benefit of the products (Hajong et al., 2014).
Table 5. Profitability of maize cultivation.
Particular Amount
Yield (MT ha-1) 10.66
Gross margin (Tk. ha-1) 191962
Production cost (Tk. ha-1) 162047
Net margin (Tk. ha-1) 29915
BCR (cash cost basis) 1.90
BCR (total cost basis) 1.18
Contribution of inputs to maize in the use of seed, MoP, Gypsum and Boron,
cultivation keeping all other different factors remaining
constant would increase the yield of maize by
Various variable inputs were employed for 0.054%, 0.099%, 0.063% and 0.406%,
producing maize, which were included in the respectively. A study stated that Boron played a
model. Cobb-Douglas production function with significant role in increasing maize yield at a
estimated values of coefficients and related certain level (Rahman et al., 2018). The
statistics were presented (Table 6). The coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.706,
coefficient of determination (R2) explains how which implies that around 70.6 percent of the
well the sample regression line is fitted with data. variations in maize yield were implied by the
Land preparation, organic fertilizer, seed, TSP, independent variables covered in the model. The
Urea, DAP, MoP, Boron, Gypsum and Zinc had a statistical F-value of the equation is significant at
positive impact on maize cultivation. Labor, 1% level, exposing that the variation in yield from
pesticide, thiovit and irrigation had a negative maize production predominantly depends on the
influence on maize cultivation. Seed, MoP, independent variables inserted in the model.
Gypsum and Boron had a positive effect and were
significant at 1% level, indicating that 1% increase
Table 6. Coefficients and related statistics of production function for maize cultivation.
Exponential variables Coefficient Standard error t-values
Intercept 8.686*** .475 18.288
Land preparation (X1) 0.381** .046 2.516
Seed (X2) 0.054*** .083 0.477
Labor (X3) -0.131 .044 -1.062
Manure (X4) 0.138** .052 0.799
Insecticide (X5) -0.058 .031 -.461
Irrigation (X6) -0.064 .060 -.400
Urea (X7) 0.245** .059 1.752
TSP (X8) 0.230** .045 1.671
DAP (X9) 0.109** .030 0.784
MoP (X10) 0.099*** .035 0.879
Gypsum (X11) 0.063*** .027 0.521
Thiovit (X12) -0.155 .040 -1.241
Boron (X13) 0.406*** .038 3.377
Zinc (X14) 0.210** .040 1.754
R2 0.706
F-value 2.954***
Note: ***, ** and * indicate significant at 1%, 5% and 10% level, respectively.

Constraints of maize cultivation 346–354.

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✓ Walker, P.T. 1991. Measurement of insect pest population and injury. pp. 19-29. In: Teng, P.S. (ed.). Crop loss assessment and pest
management. APS Press, St. Paul, Minnesota.
✓ De Datta, S.K. 1981. Principles and Practices of Rice Production. New York. J.Wiley and Sons. 618 p.
✓ Deinum, B. 1966. Influence of some climatological factors on the chemical composition and feeding value of herbage. Proceeding of
the 10th International Grassland Congress, Helsinki. pp. 415-418.
✓ Feng, H. and Tang, J. 1998. Microwave finish drying of diced apples in a spouted bed. J. Food Sci. 63(4): 679-683.
✓ Pimental, D. 1981. An overview of integrated pest management (Mimeograph). Department of Entomology, Section of Ecology and
Systematic, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. p. 52.
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ISSN: 2224-0616

International Journal of Agricultural Research,

An International Online Journal

IJARIT Research Foundation

Volume 13 Issue 2 December 2023

Prof. Dr. Md. Shahjahan

Dr. M.S.A. Mamun

International Journal of Agricultural Research, Innovation and Technology (IJARIT) is

IJARIT Research Foundation

Prof. Dr. Md. Shahjahan, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh

Dr. Ghulam Abbas, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Dr. Rajib Biswas, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA

Dr. Dunsin Oluwagbenga, Landmark University, Kwara State, Nigeria

Dr. Kaveh Ostad-Ali-Askari, Isfahan University of Technology, Iran

Mr. Delwar Hossain Ripan, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia

Mr. Frnacis Chimpeni, University of Malawi, Mulanje, Malawi, Central Africa

Published by: IJARIT Research Foundation

The published issues are available in the website at https://www.ijarit.online &

© International Journal of Agricultural Research, Innovation and Technology

Development of banana chips: Analysis of nutritional and sensory characteristics of

Moringa stenopetala leaf powder and frying Descriptive sensory analysis

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 1-5, December 2023 2

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 1-5, December 2023 3

Conclusion for 2.5 minutes and REF were similar.

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 1-5, December 2023 4

Acknowledgement Khanvilkar, A.M., Kamble, A.B., Ranveer, R.C.,

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 1-5, December 2023 5

Gum and resin bearing dryland forests of the Somali region,

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 6-13, December 2023 7

pre-defined as an adult (height greater than 1.5 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑅𝐹)

𝐻 = − ∑ 𝑝𝑖 ln 𝑝𝑖 With the purpose of understanding the

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 6-13, December 2023 8

Figure 2. Spatial distribution map of vegetation types of the study area.

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 6-13, December 2023 9

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 6-13, December 2023 10

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 6-13, December 2023 11

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 6-13, December 2023 12

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 6-13, December 2023 13

Impact of Forest Landscape Restoration on livelihoods of rural households:

Institutional Strengthening of the Forest Sector Methodology

Figure 1. Study area map (Source: Nesibu Yahya, 2022).

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 14-21, December 2023 15

FLR Project Background interviewed and 3 focus group discussions (with

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 14-21, December 2023 16

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of sampled households by FLR participation.

Table 2. Summary statistics of outcome (economic indicator) variables.

Variables FLR (N=120) Non-FLR (N=140) Mean Difference T value

Estimation of results of propensity scores size tends to decrease the probability of

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 14-21, December 2023 17

Table 3. Logit Estimates of Participation in FLR.

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 14-21, December 2023 18

Perception on FLR friendly relationships varied with 67.9% saying it

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 14-21, December 2023 19

Table 7. Perception of respondents on Forest Landscape Restoration (2).

Conclusion interventions are contributing to improving to

Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 13(2): 14-21, December 2023 20

Acknowledgements Maginnis, S. and Jackson, W. 2007. What is FLR