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Sources of History – Importance and Classification

‘No Source, No History’ is a fact in historical research. One can’t write history without the sources of the past.
Sources are the basic element in historical research. The availability of sources enables historians to carry out
research on a particular topic. Sources are the foundations upon which the discipline of history is built.
Sources differentiate history from myth and story. Sources are the medium to the historian to relook at the
past, and sources help the historians to indirectly experience the past. Further, sources give credibility to
historians’ accounts about the past. It gives authority to historians to reconstruct the past in an objective
manner. Thus, the discipline of history is shaped by the sources of the past.

What is a Source of History?

Polish historian Joachim Lelewel, who wrote Historyka (The Methodology of History, 1815), one of the earliest
works on historical method, considered “anything that could contribute to the reconstruction of the past is a
historical source”. Ernst Bernheim, a German historian in his work on Historical Method (1889) refers to
sources as “all those data from which the historian draws his knowledge". In this sense, historical source
covers all information about the past, in whatever type or form. Thus, a source is anything from which a
historian can draw information about the past.

Classification of Historical Sources

Historical sources can be classified in different ways. Different historians have given different categorisation of
historical sources.

LeleweI, in his Historyka (The Methodology of History, 1815) classified the sources into three:

1 Tradition (oral relations);

2 Non-written sources, that is, silent monuments of the past";
3 Written sources

He also realized that, from the point of view of a given research problem, there may be direct and indirect
sources.

Sources can also be classified into:

 Documentary sources; and Non-documentary sources

 Published and unpublished sources

In the modern period, historical sources are generally classified into two:

a) Primary Sources, and (b) Secondary Sources

It is generally accepted that good historical works are built on primary sources. However, secondary sources
are also essential to the historian’s task. The distinction between primary and secondary sources is
complicated. Many sources can be categorized either as primary or secondary depending on the subject being
studied.
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Primary Sources – Popular Categories and Importance

A primary source is also known as original source. It is a piece of evidence written or created during the period
under investigation. Louis Gottschalk defines primary source as “the testimony of any eyewitness, or of a
witness by any other of the senses….” Primary sources are the records of contemporaries who participated,
witnessed, or commented on the events under the study. These are the source materials produced during or
immediately after the event happened. They have a direct physical relationship to the event being studied.

Primary sources help the researcher for a direct understanding of the topics under study. Arthur Marwick
notes that “historical work is generally esteemed serious and scholarly to the extent that it is properly based
on the primary sources.” Using primary sources highlights a historian’s research depth. Without primary
sources, history does not exist, but primary sources alone are not “history.” It depends on how those sources
are organized, evaluated, and interpreted as evidence.

The primary sources can be divided into four broad categories:

1) Archaeological Sources
2) Archival Sources
3) Literary Sources
4) Oral History

Many other sources like newspapers, autobiographies, and other written evidence can be categorized as
primary depending on the subject being studied.

Archaeological Sources
Archaeological sources constitute the foremost primary sources for the re-construction of pre-historic period.
Archaeology is the scientific study of the material remains of past human life and activities. These include
human artefacts from the very earliest simple stone tools to the man-made massive structures.

Important Categories of Archaeological Sources

1. Inscriptions or epigraphic sources

Epigraphy refers to the study of inscriptions. The earliest inscriptions can be found on rocks, metal, wood, clay
tablets or even wax. Generally, there are two broad categories of inscriptions – Royal or Official and Private or
Individual. Generally these inscriptions represent king’s orders, policies and grants. The study of inscriptions
provides valuable historical sources for the reconstruction of the past. It throws light on:

 The language, script and its regional variations

 Political authority of a ruling class
 Social structures, economic order and religious life

The script enables us to determine the approximate age of the inscription. However, fixing the authorship,
chronology and purpose of inscriptions are crucial task of a historian. Ashoka’s inscriptions are the earliest
epigraphs in India.
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2. Monuments

The ancient monuments are the primary sources for the study of ancient art, architecture and sculpture. The
ancient monuments can be categorised into two – secular and religious monuments. The secular monuments
consist of palaces, forts and other public buildings. The study of monuments gives information regarding:

 Development of art, architecture, sculpture and craft

 Urban development
 Political and economic conditions
 Religious belief systems
 Cultural practices
 Intellectual and technological development

3. Coins or numismatics sources

The study of coins will give valuable sources about the past like:

 The ruling class, the dynasties and the king, extent of the kingdom
 Metallurgy
 Chronology
 Economic relationship among the people
 Religious symbols or figures of deities on coins inform us about religious outlook of issuing dynasties.
 Foreign contacts and trade relations

4. Archaeological Sites and Material Remains

Archaeological excavations exposed many materials of the prehistoric settlements. These materials help us to
reconstruct history of people’s life before the discovery of writing.

The important archaeological remains are:

 Structural remains
 Pottery
 Tools
 Beads
 Funeral remains/bones
 Floral remains
 Domestic materials
 Occupational materials

The study of these remains helps to understand the settlement and life pattern of an ancient group.

Expertise in archaeology is a prerequisite in verifying archaeological sources. Scientific knowledge in dating

methods, like radio-carbon and other methods are necessary for deciphering its chronology and features.
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Archival Sources
Archives are the repositories of published and unpublished primary documents. Archival materials are often
unique, specialized, or rare materials. These can be in different formats. Archival sources are the most
important sources for the reconstruction of modern history. Archives provide the largest collection of public
records, which helps to carry out research on various aspects of people’s life. Archival sources preserve the
collective memory of the past through documents. In India, the British government established an Imperial
Record Department for the preservation of official documents in March 1891 in Calcutta. In 1911 it was
transferred to New Delhi. There are a number of regional archives working across India. The important among
them are Poona State Archives, Madras State Archives, Kerala State Archives, etc.

Official or Government Documents

Government documents are the widest and the most important type of sources preserved in Government
archives. These are the official documents relating to local, state, or national governments. Thus, Government
archives provide official accounts on various aspects of historical inquiry. Government archives hold all
government documents – both published and unpublished.

Unpublished Documents

The unpublished materials preserved in the archives are generally known as Archival Files. The important
types of archival files generally found in various government archives are:

 Confidential files
 PWD files
 Proscribed literatures
 Police daily reports
 Political Files
 Files of various social movements, speeches, etc.
 Manuscripts
 Microfilms

Published Documents

The published materials consist of various official publications. The important among them are:

 Administrative Reports: These are the annual reports on various administrative departments of local,
state or national governments. These provide information on various aspects of administration.
 Census reports, tax records and other statistical data: These records provide information such as
demography, gender, education, health, caste, community and religious groups, per capita income,
and all other data to understand the socio-economic trends over a period of time.
 Government Orders: These include various administrative orders issued by the government
departments. It provides evidences for the working of government system.
 Reports of the various committees constituted by the government: These include various study
reports, enquiry committee reports, and all other kind of reports submitted to the government.
 Manuals, Proceedings and Minutes of various government meetings: These are the official
documents produced by various government agencies.
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 Legislations, resolutions and court records: These are the published documents about legal affairs.

Private Documents
The most important category of private documents is:

 Religious Documents: These include documents relating to various religious faith and institutions.
 Corporate documents: These are the business records preserved in a company or corporation. These
records provide information regarding various economic aspects.
 Local or Regional Documents: These are locally produced documents and preserved in locally to
promote interest in the history of a region.

Other Sources

 Leaflets and Pamphlets: These are very short documents like notices, brochures, and so on issued by
various organisations.
 Letters, Diaries and Autobiographies: These are the part of life histories and focuses on an individual’s
life, and his accounts of the past.
 Newspapers, Magazines, Souvenirs and proscribed literatures are also preserved in archives.

Digital Archives
The modern technological development gave way to the introduction of new methods of preservation and
circulation of documents. The digital archives provide the scanned copies of all types of rare documents,
including rare books, manuscripts, photographs, etc. The documents in digital format are easier to preserve
and access.

Literary Sources
The literary sources in the ‘primary’ category represent the earliest written sources. These are the individual
and collective literary expressions of a society, which reflects their way of living. The popular categories of
literary sources are:

1. Religious scriptures

The religious scriptures may be the first form of written sources. It represents the beliefs and practices of a
society. These literatures often reflect the nature of myths and legends. Hence, these can be treated as part of
‘quasi history’.

2. Secular literature

The secular literature consisted of prose and poetic literatures, biographical and philosophical works. These
works gives an account on the literary and intellectual development of a particular period.

3. Historical accounts

The early historical accounts were produced by in the forms of chronicles, genealogical accounts and dynastic
histories. These were mainly written by historians, who were patronised by royal dynasties. Most of the
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historical accounts of this category focus on the biography of rulers and the political and administrative
aspects of the period.

4. Foreign traveller’s accounts

The geographical discoveries and the advancement in the maritime trade relations, and religious contacts
produced a good number of historical resources. Most of the travellers account vividly explains the
geography, sea routes, trade relations, socio-cultural peculiarities of the regions they visited. As part of their
religious propaganda, several monks and missionaries travelled across the world, and they left valuable
literary accounts about the life and culture of the indigenous people. Their accounts represent the first form
of historical evidences for many regions.

Limitations of Literary Sources

Historical accounts based on literary sources alone would have been incomplete. The early literary sources
often provide mythical versions and it laps a definite chronology. There are problems with the continuity of
written sources. Many written records of the past were lost because of the absence of proper preservation.
There are also problems like falsification, bias, glorification and exaggeration.

Oral History

Oral history is a means of recovering the past through individual memories. Hence, memory is the core of oral
history. Oral history is a field of study and a method that collects and preserves first-hand, spoken memories
through recorded interviews. It can be understood as an alternative movement in historical accounting. The
Oral History Association of Australia defined oral history: “as a practice and method for recording, processing
and conserving oral account of the past.” Thus, oral history is different from oral traditions.

Paul Thompson, one of the leading figures in oral history, in his book The Voice of the Past: Oral History,
considered “Oral history is a history built around the people.” It can be considered as an alternative source of
historical studies because every people have their own memories of the past. In this context, Carl Becker
argued that ‘Everymen his own historian’. Oral history opened the space for every individual to contribute to
the field of historical studies. History, perhaps, begins with oral interactions, and Samuel Johnson commented
that “all history was at first oral”.

Importance of Oral History as an Alternative Source of History

 Written history often concentrates on great men and big events, and often neglects the marginalised
people, who have also memories about the past. Thus oral history gives “voice to the voiceless.”
 Oral history sources widened the scope of history, historical research and historical studies. It often
provides the basic source for local history, life history, labour history, gender history, subaltern history
and people’s history. Together, it largely contributed to modern social history.
 Oral history can demonstrate the minute peculiarities of the everyday lives of ordinary people, which
are quite absent in textual sources of history. It provides accounts on popular beliefs, practices,
emotions, family relations, agony, etc.
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 Oral history often focuses on unexplored regions, people and themes of study. Hence it widened the
subject matter of history.
 Oral history is a valuable tool to critically analyse the “collective” memory of events outlined in textual
history.
 Oral history provides an understanding on individual’s version of past through his life experience. It
helps us to understand how individuals and communities experienced the past.
 Most of the oral history is in publicly accessible formats. Thus it is a part of public history.
 Oral history can provide total history which combines different aspects of people’s life.

Conclusion
Primary Sources are first-hand documents for historians to re-look at the past. Many sources can be
categorized either as primary or secondary depending on the subject being studied. ‘Without the primary
history does not exist’ is a popular belief in historical studies for a long period. It is generally accepted that
good historical works are built on primary sources.

Secondary Sources
Secondary sources are interpretations of the past, often based on primary sources. A secondary source was
produced by a person who has not participated in the event that he is describing. He obtained his description
from another person or source. These are the sources that indirectly relate to a historical event.

Secondary sources consist of:

 Books/Monographs
 Journal Articles
 Historical dictionaries and encyclopaedias
 Reviews
 Popular articles,
 Essays, and
 Lectures

Secondary sources provide three basic understanding to the historians:

 It provides background information about a topic. Reading secondary sources helps to understand
the present knowledge about a particular topic. Thus it provides a preview, which helps the historian
to initiate his research.
 It provides a sense of historical context. It gives an idea about the period and historical background of
the event discussed.
 It provides a historiographical context. Secondary sources help to understand the theoretical and
methodological approaches used by different historians on a particular topic.

Thus, secondary sources are used for general information, substantiation, description, alternative
interpretations, and understanding of the topic.
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Limitations of Secondary Sources

Though the secondary sources are useful to the historian, relying completely only on secondary sources will
produce a faulty or weak historical research. It is possible that secondary sources contain errors due to
passing of information from one source to another. Secondary sources may be subjective, and often provides
misinterpretation of the facts. Historian has to be extra-cautious while using secondary data. In this context
Prof. Bowley rightly points out that “secondary data should not be accepted at their face value.” Therefore,
before using the secondary data the researchers should validate the authenticity and credibility of the data.

Folklore - A Source of History

William John Thoms who coined the term folklore stated it as “the traditional beliefs and customs of the
common people”. Folklore refers to the oral traditions associated with the early social groups. It is the early
forms of knowledge of the past, which are orally transmitted from one generation to another. The folklores
reveal the body of customs, beliefs, stories, sayings and all other forms of cultural communications associated
with common people.

The early social groups used folklore:

 To entertain or amuse
 To preserve the collective memories
 To educate the younger generations
 To authenticate and validate rituals and beliefs of the people
 To outline a general socio-cultural and religious order

Various kinds of folklore serve as an important source of history to study the life and culture of early societies.
The important categories of folklore are folk literature, proverbs and sayings, performing arts, etc. Thorough
knowledge and a clear understanding of the local languages is a pre-requisite to deal with the folklore.

Folk literature: It can be classified into two:

 Prose Literature: Prose literature consists of myths, legends, and folk tales. Myths and legends are
interlinked with beliefs on supernatural powers and ritualistic practices of the period. The folktales are
lucid, entertaining, easily intelligible and memorable.
 Poetic literature: It mainly consists of ballads and various forms of songs, like religious songs, festival
songs, working songs, moral songs, etc. Another popular form of a song is historical song. It mainly
focuses on the persons and events of the past.

Proverbs and Saying: Proverbs are short, usually fixed, phrases that summarize some bit of wisdom to be
passed on at appropriate moments. Proverbs are used in ordinary conversation to guide, encourage, praise,
teach, advice and criticize. These share the moral values of a folk group.

Performing Arts: Every folk group has their own performing arts, which were religious and ritualistic in nature.
These performances are mixed with dance, drama, and music. These are unique in costume, dress, colour, and
presentation. These performing arts provide valuable accounts on their cultural life. These are interlinked with
their social gatherings, festivals, medicinal and religious practices, etc.
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Historical Value of Folk Sources

 Folk traditions are the first category of evidences to the study of tribal life and culture.
 It helps to the study of various local languages and dialects.
 It helps to understand the customs, beliefs, values, and attitudes of a particular culture, community or
society in its formative stage.
 Folklore display the characteristics of the time and place in which they are told.
 It reflects the day-to-day life, the joy and sorrow, love and hatred of the common people.
 Folklores are intimately tied up with the dominant ideologies. Thus folktales validate the existing
ideology of society.
 Folklore offers an interdisciplinary lens to study the socio-cultural traditions.

Audio Sources of History

Modernity and its way of life had produced several new types of sources for the reconstruction of the recent
past. The audio sources are one of the prominent categories of this type. The discovery of the technique of
sound recording created an audio source of history. Hence, audio sources are based on the sound and it
includes all the varieties of recorded sound. The popular categories of audio sources are:

 Interviews and Oral histories

 Radio Broadcasting
 Speeches
 Songs and Music

Interviews and Oral Histories: The recorded Interviews and Oral Histories are based on individual memory
and experience. It can provide individual’s version of historical past. Through these, a researcher can listen to
someone's voice. Listening to a person's voice brings a person closer to what they are saying than reading a
transcript. It also helps to a better sense of someone's personality. The oral history recordings are widely
accepted as an alternative source of history.

Radio broadcasting as a Source of History: Radio is one of the early mediums of mass communication of the
modern period. It is a powerful medium, which uses voices to connect people with their past. English historian
Paul Thompson in his work The Voice of the Past: Oral History noted that ‘old radio broadcasts have
themselves become valuable documents for historians of the recent past’. Radio programmes are generally
meant for entertainment, education and to inform. Early radio programmes serve as a useful historical source.

 The entertainment programmes helps to understand the general cultural life of the people.
 Educational programmes helps to infer sources to understand the general pattern of socio-economic
progress.
 The daily news programmes of Radio serves as useful source to understand various events of
international, national and regional importance.
 Talk shows, debates, interviews, and so on provide valuable sources to reconstruct the public life of
the modern period.
 Community development programmes helps to analyse the socio-cultural life of the period.
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Speeches: Recorded speeches are another important category of the audio source. These are mainly political
speeches that help to understand ideological intervention and political movements. Political speeches of early
leaders of the world offer a valuable record to understand global political situations.

Songs and Music: Songs and Music forms an integral part of the cultural life of the people. The lyrics of the
songs often reflect the socio-political, economic and cultural life of the age. The musical instruments and
compositions used in the songs may reflect the likes and dislikes of different generations. Different genres of
music may reflect the aesthetic sense of the different sections of society. Hence, songs and music serves a
valuable source of the historians.

Dealing with audio sources

 Patient hearing of the recorded sound is necessary to evaluate and interpret the audio source.
 Who created the recording and for what purpose? Who was the intended audience? Was the sound
recording meant to entertain, inform, encourage, or propagate? These questions are to be asked.
 Must be aware of the technical aspects of sound recording and processing and the issues of
manipulation of audio clips.

Visual Sources of History

Visual sources are one of the most popular categories of historical sources for the study of the modern period.
There is an old saying that ‘’camera doesn’t lie’’. People still consider that “seeing is believing”. Thus, it is
considered that the visual sources are more accurate. The popular categories of visual sources are: paintings,
photographs, maps, cartoons, posters and banners, and films. These sources can help us “be there” in the
past, and also helps us to interpret the past in new ways.

Paintings

Paintings form the first category of visual evidence. It ranges from the cave paintings of the people of early
cultures to the digital paintings of the contemporary periods. Cave paintings are the principal evidences for
the study of pre-historic cultures. The most important examples of cave paintings found in Altamira (Spain),
Lascaux (France) and Bhimbetka (India). The earliest paintings portray the geographical sceneries, animals,
individuals and their different aspects of life, etc. The renaissance paintings are the major source for analysing
the cultural development of the period. Modern paintings emerged as the cultural expression of a society,
which helps the historian to infer valuable clues of the period.

Photographs

Photographs may offer more accurate visual image than paintings. There is a popular saying ‘a picture is worth
a thousand words’. However, the interpretation and analysis provided by the researcher brings meaning to
the photographs. The photographs of individuals, crowds, geographical sceneries, events and movements are
of great use to researchers. These provide insights into the mind and world of the artist and the times. The
composition of crowds at events may offer unique glimpses of different cultures.
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Maps

Maps are the diagrammatic representation of a terrain. Maps are useful for understanding a place in a
particular time, within a particular context. Historical maps are an inevitable source for historical research. It
helps to understand the political boundaries, landscapes, trade routes, passages, cultural and social trends of
a particular period, and so on. In the modern period, GIS (Geographical Information System) map is a popular
tool to represent geo-physical in a dynamic and interactive way.

Cartoons

A cartoon is a drawing that may be satirical or humorous. Cartoons offer an insight into public opinion at the
time they were published. Political cartoons constitute an important source of history. These are created to
provide a humorous or critical opinion about political events at the time of its creation. Political cartoons
often give an idea of opposing ideologies and its conflicts. Cartoons carry hidden meanings, which can be
found through the analysis of its context of publication.

Film as a Source of History

Film is the most popular example of visual source used for historical analysis. Robert Rosentone’s considered
“film is a disturbing symbol of an increasingly post-literate world, in which people can read but won’t”. The
popularity of historical films beats books. Film is a powerful tool for seeing and hearing the history. Films can
both visualise and document the past. Film reflects the people’s life of a period in which it was produced.
History in film is always told as a story, with a beginning, middle and, end.

Hayden White and the Concept of ‘Historiophoty'

Hayden White, the American postmodern historian, coined the term ‘historiophoty’ to describe the
representation of history in visual images. The concept of historiophoty refers to the ‘representation of
history and our thought about it in visual images and filmic discourse’. Currently, the term is used by
historians to understand how films produce interpretations of the past. Both the historian and the filmmaker
construct their version of a historical document. The historian interprets and constructs the written word
from facts. Similarly, the filmmaker interprets the written word into a visual representation.

Historical Films and Mainstream Films

Rosenstone, a professor at the California Institute of Technology divides films into two categories: history as a
document – the documentary film, and history as drama - the mainstream film. Both the historical films and
mainstream films, directly and indirectly, serve as a source of history.

Historical Films

These are consciously produced histories, which represent ‘film as a document’. It carefully recreates the past
in great detail. A film in this category often relied on oral history and other historical sources. The popular
types of historical films are:
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 Historical documentaries: These were produced on a particular theme with a view to document our
history and tradition. These are the result of well-designed research work.
 Biopics: These types of films focus on the life of an individual with a view to document his
contributions.
 Propaganda films: These are intended to propagate different ideologies, especially used for political
propaganda.
 ‘Period’ films: These types of films recreate a particular historical period with its unique aspects of
people’s life.
 Costume dramas: These films focus on the display of various costumes of different cultures rather
than the people.

Mainstream Films

Pierre Sorlin, a Professor of Sociology in Audio-visual Media, asserts that feature films could be considered a
more important source of history than historical documentaries. Mainstream films shoot outdoor, thus, it
records history unintentionally. Feature films can display social relations, urban or rural life, geographical
features, means of transport, clothes, monuments, street, architecture, onlookers, and all other aspects of
public life. All this comprises valuable source material for history.

Film as an Alternative Source of History

 Films can display the emotions that written history cannot express. Films often highlight systemic
exploitation, the underworld, slavery, the emotional trauma of women, or problems of migrant
labourers and the unemployed.
 Films help the viewers ‘be there’ in the past and allow experiencing the past. This brings history to life.
 Film integrates and connects all the aspects of history such as politics, religion, economics, geography,
and social structure, whereas written texts often centred around one particular aspect of history.
 Films can display the daily life of people and groups in great detail.

Thus, films can provide alternative sources which a written text cannot give. Visual sources can be easily
manipulated. Hence, the knowledge about the technology and tools of various visual media is essential for a
historian, who uses visual sources.

Digital Sources of History

The rapid growth of information technology based on computers and the internet produced several new types
of sources of historical research. These sources are collectively known as digital sources. These are varied in
their type, content, and form. Digital sources like images and audio-visual sources can give new ways of
understanding the past. The popular categories of digital sources are:

1. Digitised copies of books and other rare text documents: Digitisation of the printed documents gave way
to the new method of its preservation. There are a number of online collections of books that are easily
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accessible from all over the world. Further, a number of online archives share the collection of rare
primary documents.
2. Web Resources: The internet-based knowledge sharing system has produced numerous academic
websites. These web sites provide access to online journals, newspapers, books, popular articles and
other academic resources. Examples: Internet Archive, Jstor, Shodhganga, etc.
3. Digital images, Audio and Visual Recordings: The widespread use of digital cameras enabled to visually
document almost everything. These visual sources provide a better understanding of different aspects of
people’s life.

Advantages of Digital Sources

 Digital sources are easy to preserve, access, share and store

 Digitization has made it possible to preserve rare documents.
 Web resources can be accessed from anywhere at any time.
 Digital sources are easy to share through online.
 Digital files can be stored in digital devices, which can be easily carried.
 Digital sources like maps, graphs and statistical records are easy to verify and analyse.

Problems with Digital Sources

 The bulk of online resource creates difficulty in the selection of sources.

 A thorough knowledge about the technological aspects in the making of digital sources is necessary.
 The web resources are undergoing frequent correction, edition, and modification. Therefore it is
difficult to find out the original version.
 Digital sources can be easily manipulated. There are several free tools for modification and alternation
of digital files.

Methods of Data Collection

After the selection of a research problem and identification of source materials, collection of relevant data is
the next important stage of historical research. The popular data collection methods in historical research are:

 Collection of data from primary and secondary sources through systematic note taking method
 Interview Method
 Field visits
 Surveys, and
 Personal observation

Note Taking Methods and Techniques

Systematic note taking from the source materials is an important part of the research work. It helps to arrange
and organise the project report in a detailed manner. Notes must contain all the relevant points from all
available sources. After the collection of all the raw material or historical data, they has to be properly
processed. Various points relating to a particular topic or sub topic have to be brought together and co-
related in rational way.

Before taking notes from a particular source, the researcher has to consider the following aspects:
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 Verify the authenticity of a source. The details of a book such as, author, title, publishing house, place
of publication, year, etc. must be verified.
 Verify the credibility of the content through the method of internal criticism.
 Various topic or sub topics have to be divided before taking notes. This will help the researcher to take
notes separately for different themes.
 The knowledge of the documentation of a source is also essential for taking notes systematically.

There are four methods of note taking:

 Book method
 File method
 Card system
 Computer oriented file and folder method

Book Method

In this method, notebooks are to be used to take notes. Taking notes of different topics in one note book may
cause confusion. Then the researcher has to separate the notes into topic or sub topic wise. To avoid this,
different notebooks are to be used to take notes on different topics and sub topics. Thus, at the end, there
would be many notebooks on different topics. This method is not satisfactory, because separating the notes
on topic or sub topics wise, will be a difficult task for the researcher. The researcher also has to carry all the
notebooks with him at the time of note taking.

File Method

In this method, separate foolscap sheets are to be used to take notes. The advantage here is that the
researcher now able to detach the notes separately to arrange it in any format. But this method is not enough
to solve the issue. The main problem is that one sheet of paper may contain notes from different sources. This
will create difficulty to the researcher to give references to the consulted source.

Card System or Slip Method

This is an ideal method for note taking. This is also known as the slip method. Here, cards of equal size are to
be used to take notes. The two most important feature of this method are the totality and detachability of
each cards. On each slip only one point is noted; the point is complete in itself. Each slip is detachable and can
be placed anywhere. Slips can be arranged topic wise, sub topic wise, section wise or any other format.

Each card must contain:

 the details of the source

 the name of the chapter or section or sub-section for which the notes taking
 note or a point
 page number from which the point is noted

After taking notes in cards, the researcher can arrange it into any format suitable for the preparation of
research report.
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Computer Oriented File and Folder Method

Use of computers in research activity brought new methods in the collection and organisation of data. In this
method, separate word files are to be used in taking note in typed format. Like the card system, it uses one
file to store the data about one particular theme. Again the different files of a particular topic can be grouped
into one folder. This helps the researcher to prepare his research report in any format suitable for his
research. It is an ideal method if the research work carries a number of diagrams, charts, statistical tables,
pictures and other such data. For a better use of this method, the researcher has to do the following:

 Name files and folders appropriately to easily identify it, and avoid duplication.
 Set a hierarchy of folders by designing a folder structure with topics and sub-topics.
 Keep the back-up copy of files.

The proper knowledge of computer applications and standard method of file and folder organisation is
necessary in using this method. Further, total dependency of computers in organising the research may lead
to mere ‘cut and paste’ of data.

Other Methods of Data Collection

Interview Method: Personal interviews are useful method for the collection of sources relating to biographical
studies, life histories, tribal studies, people’s history and the histories of marginalised people. Interview
method helps to get alternative views on a particular topic. Interview method allows the researcher to
personally ask questions to the source and get answers directly from his/her source of research.

Field Visit: Field reports are valuable data in historical research. It is the prime method for the collection of
data relating to the research on a geographical terrain, human settlement, cultural or religious monuments
and studies relating to local history. This method of data collection helps the researcher to personally observe
and analyse the peculiarities of the area of study.

Surveys: Survey method is primarily used to the study relating to the socio-economic development of a
particular social group. The contemporary research on the social history, economic history, human
development, demographic studies, diaspora studies and labour history are mainly relied on surveys. The
term Cliometrics or econometrics is used in history to the technique of analysis and interpretation of
statistical data.

Personal Observation: This is the prime method for the historical documentation and research on the
performing arts and other visual cultural outputs. Observation method helps to personally experience the
visual performance and also serve a first-hand record of it for further analysis. Observation method is useful in
many ways – to assess the peculiarities of a geographical terrain, to analyse a cultural performance, to analyse
the physical features and life pattern of an individual or social group, and so on.

Objectivity in History and its Critique

Objectivity can be considered as the founding principle of historical writing. It denotes the
representation of past without bias and prejudices. Peter Novick, in his book That Noble Dream: The
“Objectivity Question” and the American Historical Profession, pointed that ‘The objective historian’s
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role is that of a neutral, or disinterested, judge; it must never degenerate into that of an advocate or,
even worse, propagandist.’ Objectivity is the balanced assessment of evidences.

Auguste Comte and Scientific Method

Auguste Comte, the French positivist philosopher introduced the idea of positivism. He introduced
the scientific observations into the study of history and thereby popularised the concept of
objectivity. He also claimed scientific status for the humanities. In the 19 th century a group of
historians called the Positivists emerged. They believed in the positivist philosophy of Auguste Comte
and argued that the duty of a historian is (a) Ascertaining facts (b) Framing general laws.

Contributions of Ranke

Ranke laid the foundation of objective historical tradition. He clearly distinguished history from
literature and philosophy. He gave primacy to evidences over the interpretations. For him, the
historians’ job is to investigate the past on its own terms and to show to the readers ‘how it
essentially was’. He argued for the critical examination and strict analysis of the sources to determine
its authenticity. Ranke outlined the hierarchy of the sources and gave priority to the primary sources.
He also emphasized the importance of providing references. Ranke believed that objectivity can be
attainable by mirroring of the facts.
Subjective Conditions in Historical Research

While, interpreting the sources, a historian may be guided by following conditions, which may reflect
in his interpretation.

 A historian has no direct contact with the past. It is, therefore, difficult for them to be
objective in the representation of the past.
 It can be said that ‘all the facts of the past are constructed facts’, hence the facts itself is a
subjective representation of the past.
 The lack of evidence sometimes necessitates the use of imagination to fill the gap between the
facts.
 The very selection of the topic may be determined by the social position of a historian hence
the research starts from a biased position.
 Nationality is a crucial element which influences a historian while writing about his nation and
others.
 The personal likes and dislikes of the historian will reflect in his interpretations. His
perspectives, emotions, ideologies, existing social positions, all will influence his thoughts.
 The use theories to interpret historical sources may lead to one partial way of thinking,
because there are several conflicting theories.

W. H. Walsh points that “Every history is written from a certain point of view and makes sense only
from that point of view”. Thus history represents the subjective account of the past.
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Is Total Objectivity Possible?

Objectivity is a basic principle to be followed by historians. It is necessary to strike a balance between

objectivity and subjectivity. Historians should try to overcome extreme subjectivity biases, prejudice,
personal likes and dislikes, and political and ideological connections. At the same time, no two
historians can agree on what really happened in one particular historical moment. Therefore
objectivity - subjectivity is an unresolved issue. To conclude, as Eileen Power points “Objectivity is an
illusion… but it is a necessary and beneficial illusion.”

Generalisation in History

Generalisation is a process of outlining general statements, framing principles, theories, and concepts
by establishing relation between facts. Though historians have different opinions regarding the role
of historical generalisation, it is widely accepted as an inevitable part of historical research. In the
words of Lord Acton “History is a generalized account of the personal stories of men united in bodies
for any public purposes whatever”. E.H. Carr points that like scientists, historians seek generalizations
that help to broaden the understanding of one's subject.

Lower and Higher Levels of Generalisation

There are two levels of generalisations: Lower and Higher.

 A lower level generalisation is a descriptive statement about the past conveyed by the
historian after the verification of his sources. In the presentation of a research work, a
historian makes several general statements about the past, which he/she thinks are correct.
 Higher level generalisation aims to formulate general principles, theories and concepts about
the past by establishing relations with the facts.

In the development of historiography, several historians tried to find out general laws or principles in
explaining historical process. Thucydides combined historical facts in order to construct general
principles based on morality and ethics. St. Augustine formulated his providential philosophy of
history to present the historical progress. Positive philosophers formulated new principles and
generalizations on a scientific basis. Many philosophers of history like Gibbon, Carlyle, Mill, Kant,
Hegel, Buckle, Spengler, Marx, Toynbee, and so on used history to draw generalizations to explain
historical events.

The Process of Historical Generalisation

 The process of generalisation begins with the grouping of the facts. Facts must be grouped,
arranged and organised according to its similarities and dissimilarities.
 The next stage is reasoning and interpretation of the facts, which helps the researcher to
organise his facts in a defined manner.
 Establishing a connection or relation between the facts is the next stage of generalisation. This
factual connection enables the researcher to outline general statements or theories.
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Features and Importance of Generalisation

 Generalization helps to learn lessons from history.

 It explains the fundamental forces that crated events in the past.
 Generalisation helps to explain the processes and events we experience.
 Generalisation often explains cause and its effect.
 Generalisation describes two or more concepts and relationships among them.
 Generalizations links facts and concepts and summarize human experiences.

Debate on Historical Generalisation

The idea of historical generalisation was rejected by many historians. They argue that history deals
with unique events, hence it is not possible to draw generalisation. Another view holds that
generalisation is possible because historical events are repetitive in nature similar. History can offer
broad principles and generalizations to explain historical events.

Causation in History
The search for causes is crucial in historical analysis. E.H. Carr argued that ‘history is first and
foremost is a study of causes’. It is generally considered that the historian’s role in historical research
is to find out the answers to the questions like What, When, How and Why. While approaching the
questions of ‘how’ and ‘why’, historians apply causation. The answer to a ‘why-question’ is typically a
causal statement. While studying an event, historians try to explain why a particular event or
phenomenon did or did not occur. Thus the theory of causation focuses on the relation between
cause and its effects. To Carr, the organisation of causes is the highest stage of historical
investigation.

The term ‘cause’ is derived from the Latin world ‘Causa’ which means ‘a relation of connectedness
between events’. A cause is that which produces an effect. It is one of the factors which help to
explain why a historical event took place.

Nature and Types of Cause

The causes are considered as a set of conditions under which particular events take place. Causes are
generally necessary to explain a phenomenon. It is generally considered that Montesquieu laid the
foundations for modern causal history. He outlined ‘general causes’ which can be applied in history.
Louis Gottschalk considered that the duty of historian is to identify long and short term causes of
events. There are several types of causes in history such as, immediate causes, principal causes,
essential causes, sufficient causes, real or actual causes, general causes, secondary causes,
advantageous causes, necessary causes, efficient causes, etc. Historical changes may occur as a result
of multiple causes.
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Causative Factors in History

From the beginning of historiography, historians tried to find out causes behind the occurrence of
historical events. The popular causative factors identified are:

Role of Divine Will: Many historians, particularly the Christian historiographers attributed the causes
of history to the divine will. They believed in the providential philosophy of history to explain
historical progress. They firmly believed that the prime force of historical events is the Divine will.

Role of Individuals: Writers like Carlyle, Nietzehe and Spengler considered that the individual hero as
the ultimate factor in historical movement. The heroes of history are the makers of the past, the
present and the future. They may serve as the force or spirit of the age.

Role of Ideas: Many historians consider the ideas as the causative factor in historical change. R.G.
Collingwood defines history as the history of thoughts because historical events cannot be separated
from the historian’s mind. Historians used various ideas, theories and concepts to explain historical
phenomena.
Importance of Causation in History

 Causation provides answer to the one of the most important questions of historical research –
‘why’
 Helps to discover the connection between one event and the other
 Causation helps to establish relationship between facts.
 Causation links events and issues to one another.
 Without an adequate grasp of causation, history merely becomes a collection of facts and
events.
 Causation helps to outline generalization.

Criticism of Causation

Eighteenth century philosopher David Hume argued that the cause and effect relationship could not
be proven. The postmodern historians Hayden White and Keith Jenkins have criticised the subjective
nature of causal selection and interpretation. They argued that causal explanations are not concerned
with the past. They are battles between historians for the primacy of position and interpretation.
However, majority of the historians have accepted that causation has an important role to play.