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Pnas 201410229
Pnas 201410229
Edited by W. G. Ernst, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, and approved August 12, 2014 (received for review June 2, 2014)
Convection in an isolated planet is characterized by narrow layer that sink back into the interior (Archimedes’ principle).
downwellings and broad updrafts—consequences of Archimedes’ Buoyant differentiated material, the dross that collects at the
principle, the cooling required by the second law of thermodynam- surface, becomes unstable as it cools and/or undergoes phase
ics, and the effect of compression on material properties. A mature changes such as basalt-eclogite. Residual refractory material, the
cooling planet with a conductive low-viscosity core develops a result of radial zone refining during accretion, forms the in-
thick insulating surface boundary layer with a thermal maximum, trinsically dense lower mantle. The effects of cooling and pressure
a subadiabatic interior, and a cooling highly conductive but thin results in irreversible stratification (13). The net result of density
boundary layer above the core. Parts of the surface layer sink into sorting during high-temperature accretion and during subsequent
the interior, displacing older, colder material, which is entrained by cooling (e.g., delamination, crustal foundering, recycling) is a con-
spreading ridges. Magma characteristics of intraplate volcanoes are centrically zoned differentiated planet (14) with a chemically
derived from within the upper boundary layer. Upper mantle features stratified mantle and subadiabatic thermal gradients between
revealed by seismic tomography and that are apparently related to boundary layers. Buoyant material in the outer reaches of the planet
surface volcanoes are intrinsically broad and are not due to unre- includes volatiles, magma, and refractory olivine-rich harzburgite.
solved narrow jets. Their morphology, aspect ratio, inferred ascent The Earth overall is stably stratified, with the densest and most
rate, and temperature show that they are passively responding to refractory material at the base of the silicate shell and the lightest
downward fluxes, as appropriate for a cooling planet that is losing
and most volatile material in the crust and exosphere. Core for-
more heat through its surface than is being provided from its core or
mation occurred early (9, 15), producing heat that dissipated over
from radioactive heating. Response to doward flux is the inverse
time. Radioactive elements were concentrated in the crust and
of the heat-pipe/mantle-plume mode of planetary cooling. Shear-
uppermost mantle (7, 13) at that time. The entire planet cooled
driven melt extraction from the surface boundary layer explains vol-
substantially from its initial state and is still cooling; heat is being
canic provinces such as Yellowstone, Hawaii, and Samoa. Passive
lost from the core because of mantle cooling.
upwellings from deeper in the upper mantle feed ridges and near-
From the second, quite different, perspective, the concepts of
ridge hotspots, and others interact with the sheared and metasom-
atized surface layer. Normal plate tectonic processes are responsible
primordial matter and slow accretion of the planets, with long
both for plate boundary and intraplate swells and volcanism. drawn-out periods of crustal, core, and atmospheric growth (8, 16),
strongly influence modern canonical models of geochemistry. In
mantle convection | geochemistry
Significance
EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC,
whole-mantle convection and that the core cools primarily by ex- unresolved narrow features (1, 2). Some early studies (25, 26),
traction of heat through narrow heat pipes to the surface. These using near-vertical rays, mapped broad near-vertical low-velocity
models are known for mass–balance and energy–balance anoma- regions, but these were nevertheless interpreted as “mantle
lies, i.e., the helium, helium heatflow, and Pb paradoxes, and the plumes.” All of these features are so large that they must be pas-
necessity for “stealth” or hidden reservoirs. When analyzed in sively rising rather than ascending rapidly due to focused excess
detail, they also violate the first and second laws of thermody-
namics because they require noncooling boundaries and external
sources of energy, material, and information (e.g., Maxwell
demons); that is, the model planets are not closed, isolated, self-
organizing systems living off of their own resources (13, 18, 19).
Gravity and seismic data show that the mantle is characterized
by large-scale structures arranged in a shell-like fashion about a
central core; a layered planet and large-scale features are consis-
tent with expectations from fluid dynamics, secular cooling, in-
ternal heating, and compression (12–14). Surface plates, their
motions, and their return to the mantle via subduction are imposed
on this first-order structure, and these control mantle dynamics and
heterogeneity. Ultimately, it is the cooling of the Earth, modulated
by internal heating, that provides the energy for convection.
The scale of convection and the sizes of plates are controlled by
fluid-dynamic, solid-state, and other scaling parameters (Ray-
leigh, Prandtl, and Grüneisen-like numbers), dimensions of the
planet and continents, and thicknesses of various layers. Classical
and self-consistent theories of mantle physics (7, 9–15, 17) take
into account energetics, scaling relations, thermal history, and the
effects of compression on material properties and of stress on
surface volcanism. A cooling mantle and core are implied. Ac-
cretion of the Earth resulted in high initial temperatures,
degassing, and radial zone refining (RAZOR), with radioactive Fig. 1. The plate tectonic cycle in a mantle that is internally heated and
and crustal elements being sweated out to the shallowest levels of cooling with time. Convection is composed of narrow downwellings and broad
the planet (7, 20, 21). During accretion, and for a short while upwellings, the precise opposite of assumptions in the mantle plume and
geochemical models. Region B is a sheared conductive BL with a superadiabatic
afterward, a heat pipe, or plume-like mechanism, removed ac-
thermal gradient and decreasing seismic wavespeeds with depth. Most of the
cretion superheat from the deep interior (22). underlying mantle has a subadiabatic gradient, giving high positive wavespeed
An isolated planet, with no external inputs of energy or matter gradients. Cold upwellings, triggered by spreading and subduction, can
after its accretion, continues to cool gradually with time via narrow originate in the transition region because of the subadiabatic nature of the
cold downwelling and broadly distributed passive updrafts (Fig. 1). geotherm and the cooling effect of slab trapping in the transition region. The
Compression, internal heating, and a strong long-lived surface slab flux into the mantle is balanced by about 20 broad updrafts.
EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC,
to the core–mantle boundary or to the large structures in the deep are the same as those of primitive MORB along deep portions of
mantle. Volcanoes in the Pacific, including Hawaii, appear to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (49, 50). If inferred excess temperatures
overlie neutral density ambient mantle or broad passive upper- are several hundred degrees (less if there are volatiles), melting is
mantle upwellings, similar to those under some ridge segments, inevitable, but melt–matrix reactions can seal off continuous per-
which are best interpreted as normal results of plate tectonics (38, meability to the surface, and melts can be trapped in shear pockets
39). There is no seismic evidence for secondary plumes arising beneath the base of the moving plate (18, 19). Besides this, the term
from upper mantle superswells or lower mantle superplumes (35, “excess” presupposes that the subridge mantle is ambient, or nor-
40, 41). Furthermore, the regions in the Pacific with the lowest mal, whereas subplate mantle, where it is sampled beneath volca-
wavespeeds are far from hotspots and swells and are often near noes, is anomalous. Tomography, heat flow, and subsidence rates
plate boundaries (2, 5). The majority of hot spots occur on or near indicate that the hotspot mantle is actually typical for the Pacific,
broad low-wavespeed regions associated with spreading, past and i.e., it is ambient mantle, and ridge mantle has a temperature deficit.
present (5), but this is expected from plate tectonics and the effects Thus, lateral dimensions of inferred upwellings are thousands and
of spreading on mantle flow (42). We should now be considering not hundreds of kilometers (1–6), inferred rates of upwelling even
their origin primarily in terms of the properties of ambient mantle at Iceland (51) are the same as normal plate tectonic rates (centi-
or broad passive updrafts rather than hypothetical narrow and meters per year and not meters per year) (52–55), and inferred
undetected hot spinoffs from them. It is significant that the so- intraplate temperatures are not localized.
called “plume generation zones” at the CMB fall in the band be- Mass balance calculations show that about 20 hypothetical
tween large low- and high-wavespeed regions of the lower mantle (unresolved) narrow conduits (52–55) can provide much of the
and most actually fall in the median wavespeed area, e.g., the surface heat flow and can comprise the return flow that matches
second quartile or no-anomaly band (36). Statistical correlations, either that of diffuse sinking of the mantle or that of narrow slabs.
however, are low compared with the correlation of hotspots with Twenty is about that number of broad regional upwellings beneath
upper mantle low-velocity zones. ridges and midplate regions, and the same mass balance calcula-
tion shows that neither their average rate of ascent nor their
Upwelling and Downwelling: Bearing on Temperature temperatures need be extreme. Normal rates of mantle convective
According to Archimedes, upwelling and downwelling are flip sides and plate motion fall in the range of 1–10 cm/y. High ascent speeds,
of the same coin; displacement and replacement is the key. Slabs on the other hand, are a unique attribute of the mantle plume
displace mantle, which ascends, partially melts, and forms new ocean hypothesis; these rates must be in the range of meters per year if
crust and lithosphere (Fig. 1). Slabs apparently bottom out in the the hypothesis is to be viable (52–55). Features designated as
transition zone (TZ) (43–45), and this is where passive updrafts plumes in unsmoothed seismic images, in addition to being of large
probably originate (46). The regions above slab graveyards are fluxed lateral extent, are tilted, discontinuous, and distorted (3, 31, 38),
with volatiles from the slabs (32), have low seismic wavespeeds, and which indicates that they have either neutral buoyancy (zero ascent
are often geoid lows, e.g., low wavespeeds are not plume diagnostics. rate) or are passive, slowly rising features; they are not fast-rising
The upper portions of the Earth behave like a waterbed; nar- jets that ascend vertically and independently of mantle flow be-
row sinkers or depressions of the surface depressions cause broad, cause of their large excess thermal buoyancy (36, 52).
compensating swells. This linkage is the precise opposite of the The low-wavespeed regions that may feed hotspots (and ridges)
Morgan hypothesis in which narrow ascending plumes are com- continue to be large in lateral dimensions throughout the upper
pensated by uniform (passive) sinking of the rest of the mantle. mantle (2, 6, 18, and references therein). If they were much smaller,
EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC,
ratios in such magmas often exceed the average values found in temperatures that are more consistent with experimental petrology
MORB (after filtering or correcting for plume influence) and that and actual eruptive temperatures of basalts than with expectations
high 3He/4He ratios are evidence for high intrinsic 3He concen- based on the temperatures required of rapidly ascending narrow
trations and a deep undegassed source (73, 74). The problems with plumes. Passive upwellings do not need to have thermal buoyancy, but
these inferences are self-evident but are developed in ref. 19 and in slowly rising features will warm as they rise due to internal heating,
SI Text. Shallow sources of ancient gases and high 3He/4He ratios resulting in a subadiabatic, or even negative, thermal gradient.
are consistent with the model developed here (13). The isotopic Plate- and slab-driven flow, plus melting that is primarily re-
ratios are indigenous and need not be recent imports from the stricted to the upper mantle, requires reconsideration of the
deep mantle. Broad, passive upwellings tend to be very high in total sources of both the enriched and depleted end members of oce-
helium compared with midplate volcanoes, and this overwhelms anic basalts, with the likely implication that both sources may be
the high-3He/4He/low-He materials that may exist near ridges. ultimately and intimately comingled within the same melting
This is why high 3He/4He generally occurs at midplate locations or domains. Such mélanges can form by shear in the thick surface
at the onset of spreading but not in basalts at mature ridges. boundary layer, as well as by vigorous convection in the convecting
mantle and in the basal mélange next to the core. The patterns of
Shear-Driven Melt Extraction isotopic enrichment and deepening of melt sources with plate age
The thermal overshoot that characterizes thermal boundary layers are consequences of plate aging, cooling, and thickening, coupled
(58) and the subadiabatic gradient at greater depths explain the with buoyant and shear-driven migration of small and enriched
general topology of seismic profiles with depth. Concentration of partial-melt packets to permeability barriers. Aggregated small
melt in the shearing region beneath plates and at the tops of the partial melts can then erupt, even in large volumes, whenever stress
large, low-velocity regions of the upper mantle accounts for fractures the plate. The tilting and stretching of lamellae by shear
the observed minimum seismic wavespeeds in the LVZ and of the explains the patterns of anisotropy and shear-wave splitting, which
localization of volcanism (Fig. 1). The elongate arrangement of are alignments in the direction of plate motion rather than in the
those regions in the direction of Pacific Plate motion controls the radial pattern predicted for a plume-like upwelling (75) or along
distribution and orientation of linear island chains. A combination the trends of island chains. The azimuthal dependence of surface
of bending and shear stresses acting on the plate (for which Samoa wave velocities is controlled by melt-zone structure rather than by
may be the most obvious example), buoyancy forces of aggregated the orientation of olivine crystals.
melts, magma fracture, fracture zones, and shear all cause or allow
melt to leak out, with the leading edges of this activity comprising ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The paper was critically reviewed and improved by
the zero-age ends of the island chains. No seismic evidence yet Warren Hamilton, Don Turcotte, Gillian Foulger, and several anonymous reviewers.
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