Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Performance of bamboo biochar as partial cement replacement in mortar

Pravina K. Gunasekaran a, Siew Choo Chin b,⇑
a
Faculty of Civil Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26300 Gambang, Malaysia
b
Centre for Research in Advanced Fluid and Processes (Fluid Centre), Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26300 Gambang, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Pyrolysis under limited oxygen conditions at high temperatures is used to produce bamboo biochar. The
Available online xxxx construction industry often utilizes cement, which is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emis-
sions and environmental damage. To decrease the use of cement, this study examines the effectiveness
Keywords: of bamboo biochar as a partial cement replacement in mortar. The study determines the optimal percent-
Bamboo biochar ages of bamboo biochar as a partial replacement and evaluates its mechanical performance in terms of
Cement replacement compressive and flexural strength. The percentages tested include a smaller range of 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%,
Compressive
and 2%, and a higher range of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%. The samples are cured for 7, 14, and 28 days. The
Flexural
Performance
study concludes that 10% is the optimal percentage replacement for compressive strength, while 5% is
Mortar optimal for flexural strength. Additionally, the study finds that according to ASTM C618-19, bamboo bio-
char is best classified as a filler rather than a pozzolan, as it does not meet the class N-pozzolan
requirement.
Copyright Ó 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Engineering Technology
International Conference.

1. Introduction its properties and efficacy in carbon dioxide sequestration, biochar

Building construction relies heavily on Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC), which is a critical component and strategic resource
[1]. However, the production of cement is responsible for a signif-
icant amount, 5% to 7%, of global Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
[2]. CO2 emissions are well-known to contribute to global warming
and climate change, which can have negative effects on people and
the environment [3,4]. Consequently, many researchers worldwide
have focused on developing mitigation plans to decrease CO2 emis-
sions from the cement-producing sector while maintaining the
performance of cement [5]. Cement production uses the calcina-
tion process for raw materials and burning fossil fuels to sustain
high temperatures, both of which can significantly impact the
environment [6]. Nonetheless, it has been reported that green-
house gas emissions can be decreased by reusing and recycling
waste materials [7]. Specifically, biochar has been found to reduce
greenhouse gas and nitrogen leaching [8].
Biochar is produced by pyrolysis of biomass under low or anaer-
obic conditions, similar to most charcoal, and has the potential to
mitigate climate change through carbon sequestration [9]. Due to
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: scchin@ump.edu.my (S.C. Chin).
has become an interesting material for use in the construction
industry [10]. It is considered an environmentally acceptable, eco-
nomically advantageous, and highly effective adsorbent [11]. How-
ever, the content and presence of heavy metals in biochar can
depend on the type of biomass used [12]. Nevertheless, research
[13] has shown that the pyrolysis process can immobilize heavy
metals, ultimately reducing the environmental impact. The many
environmental and technological benefits of biochar, including car-
bon sequestration, chemical stability, low thermal conductivity,
and low flammability, make it an effective material for replacing
cementitious material [14]. The carbon content of biochar is highly
influenced by the biomass feedstock used, such as bamboo, and the
production process [7]. Recent studies have shown that biochar
can be used as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) to
create sustainable concrete [15].
A study was conducted to investigate the impact of various bio-
char process parameters on the mechanical properties of cementi-
tious composites. The results of the study were found to be crucial
as they showed that biochar can be utilized in the creation of eco-
friendly building materials, even if the process parameters are not
ideal [16]. Maljaee et al. [6] conducted research on the effect of
three types of biomass biochar, namely Olive Stone Biochar
(OSB), Forest Wood Biochar (FWB), and Rice Husk Biochar (RHB),

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.06.322
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Engineering Technology International Conference.

Please cite this article as: P.K. Gunasekaran and S.C. Chin, Performance of bamboo biochar as partial cement replacement in mortar, Materials Today: Pro-
ceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.06.322
P.K. Gunasekaran and S.C. Chin
on cement mortar. The study examined different percentages of
biochar replacement (0.5%, 1%, 2%, and 4%) at curing times of 7
and 28 days. The results indicated that the optimal cement replace-
ment for flexural strength development was 2% of OSB and RHB,
while for compressive strength, it was 1% for FWB and RHB, and
2% for OSB. However, replacing cement with 4% of RHB and OSB
resulted in a minor increase in 28-day compressive strength. Thus,
the research suggests that using biochar made from rice husk and
olive stone to replace up to 4% of cement can have positive effects.
Another study by Han [17] focused on peanut biochar’s feasibility
in cement mortar under water curing conditions. The research
revealed that adding 1% or 3% peanut biochar to cement mortar
did not significantly improve its 7-day compressive strength but
did enhance its 28-day compressive strength, suggesting that pea-
nut charcoal can partially replace cement in mortar. Finally, a
recent study by Liu et al. [18] evaluated the effect of bamboo bio-
char as partial cement replacement on mortar at different curing
ages with varying percentages of biochar replacement (0.2%,
0.4%, 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%). The study found that biochar mortars
had higher compressive strength than the control mortar. The
highest percentage for compressive strength was observed with
1% of bamboo biochar replacement, and adding 1–4% increased
the mortar’s compressive strength.
On the other hand, there have been studies that have investi-
gated the use of higher percentages of biochar (>5%) as a cementi-
tious material. For example, Zeidabadi et al. [19] conducted
research on the use of agricultural waste biochar, specifically rice
husk and bagasse biochar, to replace 0%, 5%, and 10% of the cement
in concrete mixes. The results showed that the inclusion of 5% rice
husk biochar and 5% bagasse biochar resulted in the highest com-
pressive strength compared to other concrete mixes and control
concrete. In a similar vein, Gupta & Kua [20] explored the potential
of rice husk biochar as a filler and substitute for silica fume at
40 wt%, as well as its impact at 10–40 wt% under wet curing and
exposure to high temperatures (450 °C) in mortar. The results
showed that the addition of rice husk biochar had minimal effect
on the compressive strength of the cement mortar after 7 and
28 days, but heating the mortar to 450 °C increased compressive
strength retention by 15% to 20%. These studies suggest that the
type of feedstock used to create biochar and the percentage incor-
porated in mortar or concrete can significantly influence the
mechanical properties of the resulting material.
Bamboo, which belongs to the Gramineae family and encom-
passes over 1200 species across 90 genera, is commonly found in
Africa, South America, Asia, and Central counties [21]. In Peninsular
Malaysia, the Gigantochloa Scortechinii species of bamboo is most
prevalent in states such as Kedah, Perak, Kelantan, Selangor, and
Pahang [22]. As a fast-regenerating resource that boasts strength
levels comparable to contemporary structural materials, bamboo
is widely available and easily accessible [23]. While bamboo bio-
char has been utilized as a soil improvement material in various
studies [24,25], only one study by Liu et al. [18] has explored the
use of bamboo biochar as a partial cement replacement in the con-
struction industry. The unique physical and chemical properties of
bamboo biochar make it a promising candidate for use as a partial
cement replacement, which could facilitate sustainable develop-
ment in the future [26].
The primary aim of this study is to decrease the consumption of
cement in construction and address the environmental impact
caused by its production [27]. The substitution of cement with
bamboo biochar may help mitigate the environmental concerns
related to cement production by reducing its usage and facilitating
carbon sequestration [9,28]. The goal of this research is also to pro-
mote the use of bamboo biochar in the construction industry as a
partial replacement for cement, which is a more organic material
with a lower environmental impact compared to cement produc-
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Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
Table 1
Range of percentages of biochar used as cementitious material.
Biochar Percentages (%) Days of curing Reference
OBS, FWB, RHB 0.5, 1, 2, 4 7, 28 [6]
Peanut 1, 3 7, 28 [17]
Bamboo 0.2, 0.4, 1, 2, 3, 4 7, 14, 28, 40 [18]
Rice husk, Sugar bagasse 5, 10 28 [19]
Rice husk 10, 20, 30, 40 1, 7, 28 [20]
Coconut, wood waste 5 1, 7, 28 [30]
tion [29]. The increased use of bamboo biochar in construction
can encourage sustainable and eco-friendly development, thereby
preserving natural resources for future generations. The use of
bamboo biochar as a partial replacement for cement can have a
positive impact on the agricultural sector as well. The rise in
demand for bamboo biochar can lead to increased bamboo planta-
tions in Malaysia, which could benefit various other industries like
furniture and textiles [30].
The aim of this research is to identify the most effective propor-
tion of bamboo biochar as a partial cement replacement, assess the
mechanical properties of mortar with bamboo biochar partial
replacement, and determine if bamboo biochar can act as a poz-
zolan in cementitious materials. Since only one study has been
found that uses bamboo biochar as a partial replacement in mortar
[18], this paper delves further into the performance of bamboo bio-
char as a partial cement replacement in mortar. This study evalu-
ates the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of bamboo
biochar for 7, 14, and 28 days of water curing. Two different ranges
of percentages were used in this study: lower percentages (0, 0.5,
1.0, 1.5, 1.5 wt%) and higher percentages (5, 10, 15, 20 wt%). The
optimal percentage of bamboo biochar for compressive strength
was found to be 10%, while the optimal percentage for flexural
strength was 5% when partially replacing cement-mortar. The
selected percentages were based on the range of percentages used
in previous studies [6,10,17,19,20,31,32], as shown in Table 1. This
study also confirms that the bamboo biochar used in this study is a
non-pozzolanic material.
2. Methodology
The source of the bamboo used in this study was from the
Tadom Hill Resort in Banting, Selangor. The biochar was produced
through pyrolysis in a retort with limited oxygen for a duration of
5 h at a temperature of up to 600 °C, and subsequently shredded
into small pieces. The Los Angeles Abrasion Machine was used to
grind the biochar, which was then sieved to a size of 45 lm using
a sieve plate.
The cement-to-sand mix ratio of 1:2.75 was adopted from
Gupta et al. [33], with a density of Portland cement of 2400 kg/
m3 and a density of sand of 1920 kg/m3. The mortar mix design
for various percentages was based on ASTM C305 [34] is shown
in Table 2. The water/cement ratio was set at 0.4, as determined
by the flow table test in accordance with ASTM C1437 [35]. The
flow percentage was 5.4% for a water/cement ratio of 0.4, com-
pared to 4.8% for a ratio of 0.35.
2.1. Cement and Sand used
The mortar samples were prepared using Type I Portland
cement in accordance with ASTM C270 [36]. Portland cement par-
ticles typically have an average size of 1 to 50 lm [37]. To prevent
any impact from moisture content, the sand used in the study was
sieved and oven-dried prior to use.
P.K. Gunasekaran and S.C. Chin Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 2
Mix design of mortar for various percentages.

Percentage Replacement Cement (g) Sand (g) W/C (g) Biochar (g)
Control (0%) 2925 6435 1185 –
0.5% biochar 2910.36 6435 1185 9.84
1.0% biochar 2895.75 6435 1185 19.65
1.5% biochar 2881.11 6435 1185 29.49
2.0% biochar 2866.5 6435 1185 39.3
5% biochar 2779 6435 1185 146.25
10% biochar 2632.5 6435 1185 292.5
15% biochar 2486.25 6435 1185 438.75
20% biochar 2340 6435 1185 585

2.2. Water/Cement ratio
A flow table test was conducted on the mortar according to BS
1881:105:1984 [38] to determine the Water/Cement ratio (W/C
ratio). Both 0.35 and 0.4 W/C ratios were tested, and it was found
that the 0.4 W/C ratio resulted in a higher flowability percentage of
110% compared to 75% with 0.35 W/C ratio. Therefore, a W/C ratio
of 0.4 was used for this study.
were cast in this study, as shown in Table 3 and Table 4, respec-
tively. Table 3 illustrates the number of cubes cast for the compres-
sive strength test for both lower and higher percentages of bamboo
biochar replacement at 7, 14, and 28 days. Table 4 shows the num-
ber of prisms cast for the flexural strength test for both lower and
higher percentages of bamboo biochar replacement at 7, 14, and
28 days.

2.4. Flowability test

2.3. Detail specimen
For the compressive strength test, cube-shaped moulds with
dimensions of 50 mm  50 mm  50 mm were used, as per the
ASTM C39 standard [39]. Similarly, for the flexural strength test,
prisms measuring 40 mm  40 mm  160 mm were used, as per
the ASTM C78 standard [40]. These moulds are depicted in Fig. 1
(a) and Fig. 1(b), respectively. A total of 81 cubes and 81 prisms
To confirm the Water/Cement ratio (W/C ratio) for cement mor-
tar, a flow table test was conducted following the ASTM C1437
[35]. Initially, the top of the flow table was cleaned and dried,
and three layers of the mould, each about 25 mm thick, were posi-
tioned in the middle of the table. Subsequently, a tamping rod was
used to tamp each layer 25 times with just enough pressure to fill
the mould evenly. Then, a straight edge was drawn across the

Fig. 1. Mould used for casting (a) 50 mm  50 mm  50 mm cube and (b) 40 mm  40 mm  160 mm prism.

Table 3 Table 4
Total number of cubes for compressive strength test for 7 days, 14 days and 28 days. Total number of cubes for flexural strength test for 7 days, 14 days and 28 days.

Cubes Days Total cubes Cubes Days Total cubes

7 14 28 7 14 28

Control Sample 3 3 3 9 Control Sample 3 3 3 9

0.5% 3 3 3 9 0.5% 3 3 3 9
1.0% 3 3 3 9 1.0% 3 3 3 9
1.5% 3 3 3 9 1.5% 3 3 3 9
2.0% 3 3 3 9 2.0% 3 3 3 9
5% 3 3 3 9 5% 3 3 3 9
10% 3 3 3 9 10% 3 3 3 9
15% 3 3 3 9 15% 3 3 3 9
20% 3 3 3 9 20% 3 3 3 9

3
P.K. Gunasekaran and S.C. Chin
tabletop to remove the extra mortar and create a flat surface that
was flush with the top of the mould. After that, the table top was
cleaned, and the mould was lifted. The table was then quickly
dropped 25 times in 15 s through a height of 12.5 mm. The flow
table test used is depicted in Fig. 2, and the diameter of the sample
was measured using a measuring tape.
2.5. Physiochemical and mechanical test
Particle morphology, size and element contents were obtained
through Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis and X-ray
Fluorescence (XRF). The oxide content of biochar was analyzed
using X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. The compressive strength
test was performed according to ASTM C349, while the flexural
strength test was conducted in accordance with ASTM C348. To
carry out the compressive strength test, the debris and dust were
removed from the base of the machine, as shown in Fig. 3(a). The
mortar cubes were then placed in the centre of the machine, and
the test was initiated. The machine displayed the results on its
screen once the test was completed. The flexural strength test
Fig. 2. Flow table with tamping rod and measuring tape.
Fig. 3. (a) Compressive strength test machine (b) Flexural strength test machine.
4
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
was performed using the machine illustrated in Fig. 3(b). The plat-
form of the machine was cleaned of debris and dust, and the mor-
tar beams were positioned in the centre of the machine. The test
was initiated, and the results were obtained. of the machine. The
test was started and the result was obtained.
3. Result and discussion
3.1. Scanning electron Microscope (SEM)
Fig. 4 shows scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of
bamboo biochar particles prior to grinding, which were used to
study their surface porous structure and morphology. The biochar
particles in Fig. 4(a) had an irregular shape and a relatively smooth
surface, consistent with the findings of other researchers
[18,41,42]. While most biochar from different feedstocks also has
an irregular shape [18,31,43], the length of bamboo biochar parti-
cles before grinding was around 200 lm, with fewer particles
observed at around 100 lm, contradicting the conclusions of Liu
et al. [18]. The irregular shape of the biochar particles in Fig. 4(a)
makes them suitable to serve as interlocking agents. The pores
shown in Fig. 4(b) were formed during the pyrolysis process due
to the emission of volatiles and organics, which can absorb water
and have a self-curing effect on both concrete and mortar [18].
According to Ji et al. [41], the SEM images of bamboo biochar sug-
gest that the textural and porous structures of the adsorbent are
generally conducive to CO2 capture. The honeycomb-like pore
structures visible on the surface of the biochar in Fig. 4(c) were also
created due to the release of volatiles from the feedstock or inher-
ited from the biological capillary structure in the case of bamboo
[43]. These honeycomb-like structures are mostly observed in Rice
Husk biochar as well [20,44].
3.2. Chemical composition
The chemical composition of bamboo biochar is presented in
Table 5. According to the table, bamboo biochar contains a high
mass of carbon, accounting for 69.9% of its composition, while oxy-
gen is the second highest component at 25.2%, indicating that the
biochar is highly stable. These properties result in improved fuel
characteristics, as less energy is lost during combustion and there
is reduced smoke and water vapor emissions [18]. The biochar also
contains 2.25% SiO2, 0.0674% Al2O3, and 0.106% Fe2O3. For a mate-
rial to be classified as class N pozzolan, the total of these oxides
P.K. Gunasekaran and S.C. Chin Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 4. (a) bamboo particles with irregular shapes; (b) bamboo biochar particles with pores; (c) bamboo biochar particles with honeycomb-like structure.

should be at least 70% as per ASTM C618-19 [45]. However, the demonstrated that bamboo biochar is not classified as class N poz-
total for these three oxides in this bamboo biochar is only zolan. Although some studies have reported a sum of oxides of up
2.423%, which is much lower than the required threshold of 70%. to 68.53% for bamboo biochar, close to the threshold of 70% for
Therefore, the bamboo biochar cannot be considered as a suitable classification as class N pozzolan, others have shown that bamboo
partial cement replacement but can be used as a filler in cementi- biochar does not possess pozzolanic properties. This suggests that
tious material. Zhang et al. [46] also conducted a study that several factors, such as environmental and weather conditions, as
well as the species of bamboo used, may contribute to the varying
pozzolanic properties observed in biochar. Furthermore, some bio-
Table 5 chars obtained from different feedstocks, such as waste peanut
Chemical composition of bamboo biochar. shell [47], olive stone, forest wood, and rice husk [6], have been
Element Weight (%)
found to exhibit pozzolanic properties despite having low summa-
tion of oxides.
C 69.9
O2 25.2
Na2O 0.0146 3.3. Compressive strength
MgO 0.164
Al2O3 0.0674 The results of the compressive strength tests for various per-
SiO2 2.25
P2O5 0.178
centages of bamboo biochar are presented in Fig. 5. The figure
SO3 0.395 shows that the strength at 7 and 14 days is higher than at 28 days,
K2O 1.4 indicating enhanced early strength due to the addition of biochar.
CaO 0.286 This increase in early strength can be attributed to the fine particle
MnO 0.0126
size and water retention capacity of the biochar, which can cause a
Fe2O3 0.106
CuO 0.0015 filler effect and lower the local water-cement ratio around biochar
ZnO 0.0036 particles, respectively. Gupta and Kashani [47] reported similar
Br 0.0024 enhanced early strength due to the addition of biochar on 1 and
Rb2O 0.0038 3 days, with 0.5% biochar addition showing the highest early
SrO 0.0004
ZrO2 0.0003
strength (excluding the control sample). Restuccia and Ferro [48]
suggested that potassium-rich biochars can interact with cement
5
P.K. Gunasekaran and S.C. Chin
Fig. 5. Compressive strength of smaller percentages of biochar replacement for 7, 14, and 28 days of curing.
particles during the hydration process through a potassium salt
reaction, which acts as an alkali activating agent and speeds up
the hydration process and the mechanical properties’ evolution
of cementitious composites. Generally, the trend for biochar for
all percentages increases at 14 days of curing. However, the
strength is noted to drop at 28 days of curing, which may be due
to the lesser amount of C-S-H gel in the cement mortar caused
by the lower percentage of bamboo biochar added. This can also
be attributed to internal biochar curing caused by water held in
the pores, and this internal curing effect of biochar contributes to
moisture redistribution and enhanced hydration, which is a com-
plex phenomenon due to the vast range of pore sizes and pore hier-
archies [31]. The control sample, in contrast, shows an increasing
trend from 7 days up to 28 days of curing.
Overall, the compressive strength of mortar decreases at 1.0%
biochar replacement and increases at 1.5% onwards for 7, 14, and
28 days. The control sample exhibits the highest compressive
strength at 7 days curing and 28 days curing with 26 MPa and
42 MPa, respectively. However, for the 14 days of curing, 2.0%
shows the highest compressive strength, 36 MPa, and the
second-highest for 7 days and 28 days of curing with 25 MPa
and 27 MPa. Compared to the control sample, all samples with dif-
ferent percentages of bamboo biochar showed a decrease in com-
pressive strength at 28 days, with the lowest being observed in
the 1% bamboo biochar sample. For all samples containing bamboo
biochar, the compressive strength at all three curing ages was
lower than that of the control sample.
The compressive strength of mortar with higher percentages of
bamboo biochar added is presented in Fig. 6. A consistent increase
in strength was observed for all samples with biochar content sim-
ilar to the control sample at 7, 14, and 28 days. The sample with
10% bamboo biochar had the highest compressive strength at
28 days, with a value of 67 MPa, which represents a 56% increase
compared to the control sample, which had a strength of 42 MPa.
Similar findings were reported by Zeidabadi et al. [19] who found
that 10% and 5% of unpretreated bagasse biochar and pretreated
bagasse biochar have higher compressive strength than the control
sample. The diluting effect (lower cement content) and packing
effect of fine fillers have an impact on the strength development
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Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
of cementitious composites with fillers [49], which may be the rea-
son for the higher strength in samples with biochar.
The percentages of biochar generally increased from the control
sample to 10% biochar replacement and decreased at 15% and 20%
biochar replacement for all curing ages. The compressive strength
of biochar using hardwood also showed similarities in 15% and 20%
cement replacement where the compressive strength reduces as
the curing days increase [50]. The control sample had the highest
strength at 7 days of curing, with a value of 26 MPa. At 14 days
of curing, 5% replacement of biochar had the highest strength, with
a value of 32 MPa, and at 28 days, 10% biochar had the highest
strength, with a value of 67 MPa. However, Moosberg-Bustnes
et al. [49] claim that biochar can replace up to 5 wt% of cement
without having any effect on the strength development. For 15%
and 20% biochar replacement, the strength was the least compared
to all other percentage replacements. According to Foong et al.
[51], the diluting effect may be the cause of the compressive
strength reduction with increasing waste ash percentage. This sug-
gests that higher percentage ranges have more C-S-H gel filled in
the mortar. Therefore, 10% biochar replacement is considered the
optimum percentage for mortar due to its highest strength com-
pared to all other percentages.
Upon comparing Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, it is evident that while 2%
bamboo biochar replacement for lower percentages of biochar
replacement exhibits favorable outcomes when compared to other
percentage replacements, it is still lower than the control sample.
However, for the higher percentage category, the most efficient
percentage for optimal performance is found to be 10% bamboo
biochar replacement.
3.4. Flexural strength
Fig. 7 shows a graph of flexural strength in relation to the per-
centage of bamboo biochar content. The results reveal an increase
in flexural strength from 0.5% to 2.0% compared to the control sam-
ple at all ages. This may be attributed to the elevated heterogeneity
in the tensile plane of mortar due to the significant proportion of
inert materials, as explained in reference [6]. However, the overall
graph shows a mixed trend of increase and decrease, with a
P.K. Gunasekaran and S.C. Chin Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 6. Compressive strength of higher percentages of biochar replacement for 7, 14, and 28 days of curing.

Fig. 7. Flexural strength of smaller percentages of biochar replacement for 7, 14, and 28 days of curing.

decrease in flexural strength observed for 0.5% up to 1% biochar
content from the control sample, followed by an increase for
1.5% and 2%. Similar findings were reported by Ferro et al. [52].
Conversely, Khushnood et al. [53] found an increase in flexural
and toughness with 1 wt% of peanut and hazelnut. At 28 days,
2% biochar content demonstrated the highest flexural strength of
1.31 MPa, followed by the control sample with 1.29 MPa. This
aligns with the study conducted by Sirico et al. [54], which sug-
gested that 2 wt% and 2.5 wt% of biochar by cement is the optimal
percentage for flexural strength, showing an increasing trend for
early strength up to 28 days. Therefore, 2% biochar replacement
is the most promising option for smaller percentages in terms of
flexural strength, possibly because carbonaceous particles are
coarser in size and can fill a smaller percentage of the matrix’s lar-
ger pores, thus improving the mechanical properties of cementi-
tious composites [52].
Fig. 8 illustrates the graph of flexural strength as a function of
bamboo biochar content in higher percentages. All percentages
ranging from 5% to 20% exhibit an increasing trend for all ages
compared to the control samples, similar to the control beam.
However, only 5% bamboo biochar is comparable to the control
beam at all ages, while other percentages demonstrate a lower
flexural strength, with reductions of 16.3% for 10% and 15%, and
28.3% for 20% biochar content compared to the control sample.
The decrease in flexural strength can be attributed to the creation
of air voids in the tensile plane caused by adding excessive biochar,
which reduces the effective cross-sectional load-bearing area and
increases stress concentration [55]. Nonetheless, some studies

7
P.K. Gunasekaran and S.C. Chin
Fig. 8. Flexural strength of higher percentages of bamboo biochar replacement for 7, 14, and 28 days of curing.
have shown improved flexural strength with biochar content
higher than 5% [56–58]. Sundarakanna et al. [57] mentioned that
the flexural strength depends on the number, size, and distribution
of particles, all of which influence the material’s properties. The
author suggested that the minimum addition of biochar content
might enhance flexural strength by improving adhesion between
the polymer matrix. At all ages, 20% replacement demonstrated
the least effective replacement compared to other percentage
replacements and the control sample, with 0.75 MPa, 0.90 MPa,
and 0.92 MPa. Overall, there are limited studies using biochar con-
tent higher than 5% for flexural strength as cementitious material
[48,53,56–58]. Based on the results obtained, 5% bamboo biochar
content shows promising results in terms of flexural strength.
4. Conclusion
The following conclusions can be drawn based on the obtained
results:
i) The optimal percentage of bamboo biochar for compressive
strength is 10% replacement. At 28 days, the samples with
10% bamboo biochar exhibited the highest compressive
strength of 67 MPa, a 56% increase compared to the control
sample. This may be attributed to the diluting effect and
packing effect of fine fillers, which have an impact on the
strength development of cementitious composites with fil-
ler. For flexural strength, 5% replacement of biochar is
observed to be the optimum, as adding more than 5% bio-
char decreases flexural strength. This decrease may be
caused by the creation of air void in the tensile plane, result-
ing in smaller effective cross-sectional areas and increased
stress concentration.
ii) Mechanical properties show an increasing trend for a higher
range of percentages, with the highest strength value in
terms of compressive (10% with 22, 28, 67 MPa) and flexural
(5% with 1.17, 1.23, and 1.28 MPa) for 7, 14, and 28 days,
respectively, compared to smaller percentages.
iii) The chemical composition results indicate that the oxidation
chemicals of bamboo biochar do not meet the requirements
of class N-pozzolan for concrete according to ASTM C618-19,
8
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
as the sum of oxides was only 2.423%. Therefore, it can be
concluded that bamboo biochar is more suitable as a filler
than pozzolan in cement-based materials.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Pravina K. Gunasekaran: Investigation, Methodology, Data
curation, Formal analysis, Software, Writing – original draft, Writ-
ing – review & editing. SiewChoo Chin: Conceptualization, Investi-
gation, Visualization, Formal analysis, Supervision, Writing –
review & editing.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dato’ Lai Yeng Fock from
Tadom Hill Resort for supplying bamboo biochar for this research.
Masters Research Scheme (MRS) scholarship from Universiti
Malaysia Pahang (UMP) has provided funding for Pravina K Guna-
sekaran as a component of the Cendekia Bitara research award
granted to Jolius Gimbun. Additionally, the research has been
financially supported by UMP Internal Grant RDU 223014.
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