Chapter 2 Ecology

• 2.
1 Ecosystem concept
• 2.2 Energy flow through ecosystem
• 2.3 Biogeochemical cycle
• 2.4 Conservation and management
• 2.5 Population Ecology
1
2.0 ECOLOGY
Learning outcomes:
2.1 Ecosystem concept
a) Define ecosystem
b) Describe the lake ecosystem based on:
i. Light penetration (photic and aphotic/profundal)
ii. Distance from the shore (littoral, limnetic)
c) Describe terrestrial ecosystem of tropical rainforest stratification
(emergent, canopy, understory, shrub, ground layer/forest floor)
2.2 Energy flow through ecosystem
a) State the type of ecological pyramids in relation to trophic level

b) Explain the energy transfer in ecological pyramids in
relation to trophic level.
c) Calculate energy loss in each trophic level.
2
Learning outcomes:
2.3 Biogeochemical cycle
a) State biogeochemical cycle components (cycling

pool and reservoir pool)
b) State examples of biogeochemical cycle (nitrogen
cycle, carbon cycle, phosphorus cycle and sulphur
cycle)
c) Explain nitrogen cycle and carbon cycle
2.4 Conservation and management
a) Describe sustainable development

b) Explain threats to biodiversity in Malaysia
c) Describe conservation of biodiversity in Malaysia
3
Learning outcomes:
2.5 Population Ecology
a) Explain biotic potential and environmental resistance

and their effect on population growth
b) Explain carrying capacity and its importance
c) Describe natality and mortality and their effects on
the rate of population growth.
d) Explain population growth curves (state the basic
forms of growth curves):
i) Exponential growth curve – lag phase, log phase
(human population)
ii) Logistic growth curve – lag phase, log phase,
decelerating phase, stationary phase
(Paramecium sp. population)
e) Explain the limiting factors affecting the population size:
i) Density dependent factors
ii) Density independent factors 4
ECOLOGY: A scientific study on the interactions of organisms with other organisms
and their environment
TERMINOLOGY DEFINITION
Niche  The functional role of an organism in its ecosystem.
 How an organism uses materials in its environment as well as how it
interacts with other organisms
Habitat • Place or environment where a population normally lives
Population • All the individuals of a species living within the bound of specified
area.
Community • All the populations of different species living and interacting in an
area
Ecosystem • Community of different species in a given area, interacting with one
another and with their physical environment (matter and energy)
Biomes • Major life zones
• Characterized by vegetation type in terrestrial biomes or by physical
environment in aquatic biomes
• Example: Tropical forest, tundra, grassland, desert
Biosphere • Entire portion of Earth inhabited by life, atmosphere, land
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(lithosphere), freshwaters and oceans (hydrosphere).
Feeding niches for wading birds
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5. The entire part of the earth that is inhabited by life.
Example : Hydrosphere (aquatic), Lithosphere (soil and
rock), Atmosphere (gaseous surround the earth) and
Troposphere (mountain).
4. All of the communities (biotic) and the abiotic

factors
3. All of the organisms of all the species that inhabit a

particular area.
2. A group of individuals of the same species living in

the same local habitat.
1. An individual.
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Definition of ecosystem:
 Community of different species in a given area, interacting with

one another and with their physical environment (matter and
energy)
 E.g.: Lake ecosystem, rain forest ecosystem
Definition of ecosystem according to

Eugene Odum (1969) :
‘The basic functional unit of nature including

both organisms and their non-living
environment, each interacting with the other
and influencing each other’s properties and
both are necessary for the maintenance and
development of the system’
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The components of the ecosystem
A) BIOTIC COMPONENTS
- the living factors in the environment
i. Autotrophs / producers
Make their own organic compounds from

inorganic materials obtained from the
environment
Do not eat or decompose other organisms

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2 types of autotroph:
 Photoautotrophs
- uses light as energy source
- E.g.: green plants, algae that perform

photosynthesis
 Chemoautotrophs
- uses inorganic chemical as energy
source
- E.g.: Nitrosomonas sp. (nitrifying

bacteria) uses ammonium to
perform chemosynthesis
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A) BIOTIC COMPONENTS
ii. Consumers
• Depend directly or indirectly on the
producers for their source of energy
 Require organic compounds
produced by other consumers or producers
• Can be categorized as:

i. Herbivores
• eat plants and other producers
• are the primary consumers
ii. Carnivores
• Eat herbivores or other carnivores
• Secondary consumer or tertiary consumer
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iii. Omnivores
• Eat plants and other animals
iv. Detritivores
• Feed on dead organic matter (detritus) or on
fragments of decomposing organisms or the wastes of
living organisms.
• E.g.: earthworm, maggot, beetles, crabs.
v. Decomposers
• Organism that breakdown dead organic material, converts
them into inorganic materials and use the decomposition
products as a source of energy.
• Example: saprophytic bacteria and fungi
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B) ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
 The non-living factors (physical and chemical) components
of an ecosystem (e.g.: temperature, light, water, nutrients)
 Divided into the :

i. Atmosphere
• air layer
ii. Hydrosphere
• freshwater and marine
iii. Lithosphere
• land; the soil and
sediments
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Description of Ecosystem
• Ecosystem is made of biotic and abiotic component.
• Biotic component consists of producers, consumers and
decomposers.
• Which interact by one way energy flow with their abiotic
environment
• An ecosystem is an open-system and it cannot sustain
itself
• In all ecosystems energy input from the sun and involved
energy and nutrient output.
• Energy cannot be recycled but nutrients are recycled
• The efficiency of energy flow and nutrient flow stabilizes
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Interactions between biotic components
1. Competition
• A relationship in which two or more individual

strive to obtain the same limited resources.
• 2 types:
i. Intraspecific ii. Interspecific competition

competition
 competition between  competition between
individuals of the same individuals of different
species species
Interspecific competition
 Russian ecologist (George Gause) studies the effects
of interspecific competition in two closely related
species of protist.
From this research, Gause
concluded that:
 The two species are so

similar that they compete
for the same limiting
resources cannot coexist in
the same place for any
length of time
 One species will always be
more efficient and
adaptable in:
 Getting food
 Reproducing
2. Parasitism
• A relationship in which one species (parasite) benefit
and the other (host) is adversely affected.
• Parasite gets its nutrients from its host
• The host is harmed or at least loses some energy or
materials
i. Ectoparasites - feed on the external surface of a
host. E.g.: mosquitoes and aphids
ii. Endoparasites - live within their host. E.g.:
tapeworms, Plasmodium sp.
3. Predation
• A relationship in which one species (predator)

eats another species (prey)
• Occurs when a predator catches,
kills and eats its prey
• Usually, the predator is larger
than its prey
• Presence of predator lowers
prey population size
•E.g.: Didinium sp. (predator) and
Paramecium sp. (prey)
3. Predation
4. Commensalism
• A relationship in which one species (commensal) benefits while the
other species remains unharmed.
• Looser association in which one partner remains relatively unaffected.
• E.g.: Remora fish – shark
5. Mutualism
• Symbiotic relationship that is beneficial to both species.
– Essential for the growth and survival of the participating organism
– E.g.: Lichen (Fungus-Green algae)
 Fungus provide structural support ,water and mineral to the
algae
Fungus obtain organic food materials manufactured by green
algae through photosynthesis.
Lake Ecosystem
• Lakes are standing bodies of freshwater produced by

geologic processes, as when an advancing glacier
carves out the land beneath it.
• Abiotic factors in a lake ecosystem can be describe by :

- sum of light
- type of substrate and habitat
- nutrient
SUM OF LIGHT
How much sunlight can penetrate through the water
The sum of light depends on the:

i. Duration of light
ii. Presence of particles in water
iii. Presence of particles in the air and cloud
Sum of light can cause important phenomena such as

i. compensation point
ii. lake zonation
COMPENSATION POINT
Point of balance between respiration and
photosynthesis, as determined by the intensity of light
at a given temperature.
COMPENSATION POINT
Compensation
point
Lake Ecosystem
 A lake can be divided into

zones based on 2 (two)
physical criteria:
1. Light penetration:
photic and aphotic/
profundal zones
2. Distance from the shore:

littoral and limnetic zones
Compensation point
Lake Ecosystem
1. Based on light
penetration, a lake can be
divided into two main zones:
i. Photic zone
 the upper layer where
light is sufficient for
photosynthesis
 example of organism:
phytoplankton
Lake Ecosystem
ii. Aphotic zone/profundal
 The lower layer (deeper

waters) that receives little
or no light (low
concentration of oxygen)
 Detritus sinks through this
zone to bottom sediments
 Communities of diverse
bacterial decomposers
live in and on bottom
sediments
 And they enrich the water
with nutrients.
Aphotic/Profundal zone
 Also beneath the limnetic zone
 Light does not penetrate effectively to this depth
 Food drifts into profundal zone from the littoral and
limnetic zones.
 Example of organism: bacteria
Lake Ecosystem
2. Based on the distance from shore a lake can be

divided into two main zones:
i. Littoral zone
ii. Limnetic zone

Lake Ecosystem
i. Littoral zone
 Close to shore
 Shallow and well-lit waters
 Rooted and floating aquatic
plants are dominant (due to high
concentration of oxygen)
 With insect larvae, frogs, small
crustaceans and (small) fish
 Diversity is the greatest here
 The most productive zone
 Photosynthesis is greatest
because light is abundant and
receives nutrient input from
surrounding land.
1. Littoral zone
Lake Ecosystem
ii. Limnetic zone
 Away from shore

 Open surface waters beyond
littoral, well-lit
 Extends down as far as sunlight
penetrates to permit
photosynthesis
 Main organisms -
phytoplanktons and
zooplanktons
Lake Ecosystem
Lake also can be devided based on :

Open water (Pelagic zone) or bottom (Benthic zone)
Open water (Pelagic zone)

• The open-water component of aquatic biomes
• The photic and aphotic zones make up the pelagic zone
Lake Ecosystem
Bottom (Benthic zone)
• The bottom surface of an aquatic

environment (whether deep or
shallow)
• Made of sand and organic/
inorganic sediments
• Occupied by:
i. Communities of organisms
collectively called benthos:
clams, snails
ii. Decomposers: bacteria and fungi
• The major source of food for
benthic species is dead organic
matter called the detritus
Terrestrial Ecosystem of Tropical Rainforest
 Tropical rainforest is the most productive ecosystems.
 Located at equatorial region with heavy rainfall (200 –

400 cm annually)
 The average temperature is about 25-290C
 Stratification of a tropical rainforest is vertically

layered into 5 main layers, each with different plants
and animals.
Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Stratification of tropical rainforest
Emergent
Canopy
Understory
Shrub
Ground layer/ forest floor

Terrestrial Ecosystem
Strata Characteristics Example of Example of
plants animals
Emergent layer • Contain a small number of very large trees Tualang trees Large birds,
(40m and called emergent. eagle
above) • Tree receive the greatest amount of sunlight
but also must endure high temperatures, low
humidity, and strong winds.
Canopy layer • The tree branches are often densely covered Petai plants, Monkeys, birds
(30 to 35m) with other plants (epiphytes) and tied epiphytes
together with vines
Understory • Comprises plant life growing beneath the Palm trees Small Birds,
layer forest canopy without penetrating it to any honeybees
great extent, but above the forest floor.
• Only a small percentage of light penetrates
the canopy so understory vegetation is
generally shade tolerant.
Shrub layer • Contains young trees and leafy herbaceous Ferns Reptiles, ants
plants that need less sunlight.
Ground layer/ • Receives less than 2% of the sunlight Bryophytes Large number
forest floor • Little grows here except plants adapted to of decomposers,
very low light. millipedes,
• Contain decaying plant and animal matter termites
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Terminologies:
Food chain - Transfer of food energy up the trophic

levels from its source in plants (producer) through
herbivores (primary consumer) to carnivores
(secondary, tertiary and quaternary consumer)
Food web - Complex network of interconnected

food chains
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TYPES OF FOOD CHAIN
1. Grazing food chain

2. Detritus food chain
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Terminologies
 Trophic level- levels refer to the organism’s position in the food
chain based on their main source of nutrition.
4th trophic Tertiary consumer

(Top carnivore)
level
Secondary
3rd trophic consumer
level (Carnivore)
•All herbivores
2nd trophic Primary consumer
(Herbivore) – second trophic level and so on
level
1st trophic •All producers

Producer
level – first trophic level
CHAPTER 2.0: ECOLOGY 2.2 : ENERGY FLOW THROUGH ECOSYSTEM
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
A diagram that describes the feeding relationships

and energy transfer through the biotic components
in a more quantitative aspect
3 types:
i. pyramid of numbers
ii. pyramid of biomass
iii. pyramid of energy
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
Pyramid of numbers
 Based on the number of individuals for each trophic level
 Usually, the number of producers at the base of the pyramid

are larger and individuals are smaller sized, while at the top,
individuals are larger-sized and the number is smaller
Shows a progressive
decrease in the number
of organisms at each
successive level.
A pyramid of numbers
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
Inverted pyramid of numbers
• Occurs if:
i. Many small consumers feed on a fewer large
producers; producing an inverted pyramid of
numbers.
 Example:
 A small standing
primary producers
support larger primary
consumers
Forest ecosystem
Typical pyramid of numbers Inverted pyramid with parasites
90
2000
Forest
1 ecosystem
Inverted pyramid of a marine ecosystem Inverted pyramid with large producer

Pyramid of numbers
• Advantages :
– Easy to count the number of
organisms
• Disadvantages :
– Does not indicate the amount of
energy transferred from one level
to another
– Larva/juvenile forms are not taken
into consideration
– Numbers of specific species may
be too great to represent
accurately 47
Pyramid of biomass
• Displays the total biomass at each successive trophic
level at a particular time
• May also be inverted

48
Inverted pyramid of Biomass
• Marine phytoplankton have a shorter life cycle

than their consumers
49
Pyramid of biomass
 Advantages :
Gives a better indication the mass of organisms and
the flow of energy through different trophic levels of
a food chain than a pyramid of numbers
 Disadvantages :
 Problems encountered in determining the
biomass because it involves the killing and drying
of certain organisms
 The biomass may change with time and with
different organisms
 It does not show the productivity.
Pyramid of energy
Indicates the energy content, often expressed

as kilocalories per square meter per year
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Pyramid of energy
 Displays the total quantity of energy flow in

kJm-2yr-1
 The productivity of producers in a given area and

the energy utilized by consumers can be
calculated
 Only ~ 10% of energy within 1 trophic level will
be transferred to the next
 Can NEVER be inverted

Pyramid of energy
Pyramid of energy
 Advantages
 Allows comparison between ecosystems based on
relative energy flow
 Disadvantages
Difficult to obtain energy data
 Energy values for given masses of organisms are
needed
 Sometimes two organisms have the same mass but
they have different amounts of energy.
Energy Transfer
• Producers use light energy (primarily from sun) to

synthesize energy-rich molecules; and energy transfer
occurs as consumers acquire their organic fuels in a
food chain
• Energy is transferred in one direction
• During energy transfer, conversion of energy occurs

and some will be lost as heat
Energy loss and efficiency of energy transfer
• Energy transfer between trophic levels is usually

about 10%
 Mainly loss due to respiration and excretion
• Respiration : Energy is lost as heat
• Excretion : Energy in feces will be consumed by

detritivores and decomposer
ENERGY TRANSFER
The sun is the original source of energy, in the form of

light, for the food chain.
(100,000 Units of Energy)
Plants capture approximately 1% of the available light energy from

the sun for biomass production by way of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis can be described chemically as:
Light Energy + 6C02 + 6H20 = C6H1206 + 602
(1,000 Units of Energy)
Herbivores consume approximately 10% of the plant

biomass produced in a typical food chain. (100 Units
of Energy)
Carnivores capture and consume about 10% of the

energy stored (biomass) by the herbivores.
(10 Units of Energy)
Figure : Model of the grazing food chain showing the movement of energy
through an ecosystem.
Carnivores consume
~10% of the energy stored
(biomass) by the
herbivores.
Herbivores consume
~10% of the plant
biomass
Plants capture ~1% of the
available light energy from the
sun for biomass production
by photosynthesis.
Pyramid of energy
 The study of productivity is known as production

ecology and involves the study of energy flow
through ecosystem
PRODUCTIVITY
 Is the amount of energy incorporated into the
organisms in a trophic level, over a period of time. (Advanced
Biology, Mary Jones, Geoff Jones, Cambridge University Press 1997 -pg 421)
 PRIMARY PRODUCTION
 Energy enters the biotic component of the ecosystem
through the producers
 Primary production is the amount of light energy

converted to chemical energy in the form of organic
compound by autotroph during a given time period
 Determines the total energy flow through the biotic

component of the ecosystem and hence the amount
(biomass) of life which the ecosystem can support
 GROSS PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY (GPP)

 Total amount of light energy that is converted to
chemical energy in organic materials during
photosynthesis per unit time
 NET PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY (NPP)

 Between 20-50 % of the GPP is used by plant in the
simultaneous respiration and photorespiration,
leaving a net gain known as the net primary
productivity (NPP) which is stored in the plant
 It is this energy which is potentially available to the
next trophic level
NPP = GPP – Plant respiration

Net primary production efficiency = NPP x 100%

GPP
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Energy transfer through a food chain

• Energy in materials stored in the biomass is
transferred from one trophic level to the next
through feeding
 SECONDARY PRODUCTION
 The rate at which energy is used to make new
consumer tissue is called secondary production. (Advanced
Biology, Micheal Kent, 2000-pg 511)
 The energy remaining in heterotrophs after losses

through egestion, excretion and respiration is
available for production, that is growth, repair and
reproduction
Food consumed = growth + respiration + egestion+ excretion

SECONDARY PRODUCTION
Input energy
Energy lost through
excretion & egestion
Assimilated energy
respiration
Production = Net secondary

(Total biomass) production
(g/m2/yr) (J/m2/yr)
66
% energy loss = initial energy - final energy x100

initial energy
 Measure the efficiency of animals as energy

transformers by using the equation:
Production = Net secondary production x 100%

Efficiency Assimilation of primary production
 Production efficiency = percentage of energy stored

in assimilated food that is NOT used for respiration.

 Net secondary production is the energy stored in

biomass represented by growth and reproduction
 Assimilation of primary production consists of the total

energy taken in, used for growth, reproduction and
respiration (not including losses in feces)
 energy lost as undigested material in feces
does not count toward assimilation
Example : Calculate the production efficiency for caterpillar


 Calculate the production efficiency for caterpillar.

 Net secondary production = 33 kJ
 Assimilation of primary production = total energy taken

in that is used for growth, reproduction and respiration
(not including losses in faeces)
Answer:
Production = 33 x 100%
Efficiency 100
= 33%
Generally, about 10% of energy in one trophic level is

transferred to the next trophic level, called trophic
efficiency. (Advanced Biology, Micheal Kent 2000-pg 511)
Some herbivores eating large amounts of indigestible

plant material have a trophic efficiency of less than
1% whereas zooplanktons feeding on phytoplanktons
may have a trophic efficiency of up to 40%. (Advanced
Biology, Micheal Kent 2000-pg 511)
71
Calculating energy transfer
The transfer of energy between two different trophic

levels energy is called the Trophic Level Transfer
Efficiency.
Trophic Level Transfer Efficiency

= energy at present trophic level X 100%
energy at previous trophic level
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Example: FIGURE below shows a pyramid of energy

for an ecosystem.
Calculate the percentage of energy transferred from
primary consumer to tertiary consumer
50
643
7084
97115
Percentage of energy transferred

= energy at present trophic level X 100%
Energy at previous trophic level
= 50 / 7084 x 100%
73
= 0.71%
Figure 1 : Energy flow through a grazing food chain, such as a grazed pasture
Why is the number of trophic levels less than five.

 The energy becomes lesser when transferred from one
trophic level to another.
 Energy is lost in respiration, excretion, transpiration and

death
 Energy is also lost through heat to environment
 Only a small quantity of energy left in the fifth trophic level,

so is insufficient to support the next trophic level
 This limit the number of members in the higher trophic

level and making the ecosystem to be unstable
 The need for energy increases as the trophic level

increases.
CHAPTER 2.0: ECOLOGY 2.3 : BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
2.3 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
 Definition: Biogeochemical cycles are the movement of chemical element

between living and nonliving components of the biosphere
 Biogeochemical cycles is the second major function of ecosystem (along with
energy flow)
 Nutrient circuits involve both biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem
 2 components of a biogeochemical cycle:
i. Reservoir pool ii. Cycling pool
 The chemical element is in large  The chemical element is in smaller
quantity quantity
 Is the abiotic component of ecosystem  Involves the biotic components of the
ecosystem
Reservoir Cycling
pool pool
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2.3 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
 Examples of biogeochemical cycles:
Biogeochemical Reservoir pool Recycling pool
cycle
Carbon cycle  Fossil fuel, soil, sediments of  Biomass of plants and
aquatic ecosystem, volcanoes, animals
oceans (dissolves carbon
compound), atmosphere and
sedimentary rocks (limestone)
Nitrogen cycle  Atmosphere, soils, sediments of  Biomass of living
lakes, rivers and ocean, surface organisms
water and ground water
Phosphorus cycle  Sedimentary rocks of marine origin,  Biomass of organisms
soils, oceans (dissolves carbon
compound),
Sulphur cycle  Oceans (as sulphate anions),  Organic molecules
dissolved hydrogen sulfide gas, and  Plants and animal
elemental sulfur, atmospheric (decomposition/urea)
sulphur, volcanoes and sedimentary
rocks 77
CARBON CYCLE
• Series of processes by which carbon compounds are interconverted in

the environment
• Involving the incorporation of carbon dioxide into living tissue by
photosynthesis
• And its return to the atmosphere through respiration, the decay of
dead organisms, and the burning of fossil fuels
• Major reservoirs of carbon :
1) In fossil fuel reserves (coal, oil, gas and peat)
2) Ocean bed sediments
3) Earth’s rock (mantle and crust)-released to the atmosphere and
hydrosphere by volcanoes and geothermal systems.
4) Atmosphere
As carbon dioxide
5) Surface waters
CARBON CYCLE
Carbon enters the ecosystem:
 Carbon absorbed by plants, algae, and cyanobacteria as CO2

which is incorporated into organic molecules in photosynthesis.
 These organic material is then eaten by primary consumers and
they serve as a carbon source for the higher level consumers.
 CO2 dissolve in seawater, the CO2 is converted into
bicarbonate.
 Fix with calcium by certain sea life to produce calcium
carbonate.
 Atoms present in the complex molecules of an organism at its
time of death are returned as simpler compounds to the
atmosphere, water, or soil by the action of decomposers
 Decomposition replenishes the pool of inorganic nutrients that
plants and other autotrophs use to build new organic matter.
79
CARBON CYCLE
 CO2 can also be locked away for a long time when :

i. Marine organisms form carbonate shells that later
forms carbonate rocks such as limestone
ii. Decomposition of organic matter generates new fossil
fuel deposits.
 However, increased burning of wood and fossil fuel (coal

and petroleum) steadily rises the level of CO2 in the
atmosphere.
 This leads to significant environmental problems such as

global warming
80
Carbon cycle 81
CARBON SEQUESTRATION
What is carbon sequestration?

 Refer to a process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and
depositing it in a reservoir
 Example: carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is removed from fuel gases, such as
in power stations, before being stored in underground reservoirs
 Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of carbon

dioxide or other forms of carbon to lessen the effect of global
warming.
 As a way of managing the excessive amount of carbon dioxide
released into atmosphere by combustion of fossil fuels.
 Some sequestration techniques exploit these natural processes,
while some use entirely artificial processes.
82
Natural carbon sequestration
 Tree planting programs have been initiated for carbon

dioxide sequestration benefits. Plants take in carbon
dioxide during photosynthesis.
 All organic life on this planet is carbon based and when

plants and animals die, much of the carbon goes back into
the ground.
83
 Artificial carbon sequestration refers to a number of processes
whereby carbon emissions are captured at the point of product and then,
well buried
(1) Ocean sequestration

 Carbon dioxide is injected deep into the ocean, forming lakes of CO2
 In theory, the carbon dioxide will stay down deep due to the pressure and
temperature of the surrounding water; gradually dissolving into that water
over time.
(2) Geological sequestration

 Where the carbon dioxide is pumped into underground chambers that are
unable to be mined.
(3) Mineral sequestration

 Carbon dioxide is injected into areas rich in Magnesium or Calcium. The
carbon dioxide will react with those elements and combine to form
calcium carbonate (limestone) and magnesium carbonate (magnesite).84
Carbon Exchange
 Emissions trading, or cap and trade, is a government-
mandated, market-based approach in controlling
pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving
reductions in the emissions of pollutants.
 A central authority sells a limited number of permits to

discharge specific quantities of a specific pollutant
per time period
 Polluters are required to hold permits in amount equal to

their emissions. Polluters that want to increase their
emissions must buy permits from others willing to
sell them.
86
Carbon Exchange
87
Nitrogen cycle
1 1
2
3
88
Nitrogen cycle
 The main reservoir pool of nitrogen is the
atmosphere, (80%) in the form of free nitrogen
gas (N2)
 Other reservoirs of organic and inorganic
nitrogen compounds are
 soils and sediments of lakes, rivers, and
ocean
 surface water and groundwater
 biomass of living organisms
89
Nitrogen cycle
1 Nitrogen fixation
Conversion of N2 into a form that can be used
to synthesize organic nitrogen compound
(a) Electrical discharges that occur during

lightning can cause nitrogen in atmosphere to
be oxidised into nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
• NO2 then dissolves in rainwater to form nitrous

acid and nitric acid which react with other
compound to form nitrate salt in the soil 90
Nitrogen cycle
(b) Biological nitrogen fixation
Involved nitrogen fixing bacteria carry on
nitrogen fixation in soil and aquatic
environments.
Mutualistic nitrogen fixing bacteria: Rhizobium
sp. found in the root nodules of legumes.
Non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria:
Azotobacter sp.
91
Nitrogen cycle
(c) Industrial fixation

 Nitrogen from atmosphere is combined with
hydrogen to form ammonia through Haber process.
 Ammonia produce is then used for fertilizers.
92
Nitrogen cycle
2 Ammonification
Involve the conversion of organic nitrogen

compounds into ammonia and ammonium
Nitrogen-containing waste (urea) from organisms
and the dead organisms are decomposed by
saprophytic bacteria and fungi
Releasing the nitrogen into the abiotic environment
as ammonia (NH3)
Involve ammonifying bacteria
93
Nitrogen cycle
3 Nitrification
Is the conversion of ammonia or ammonium to nitrate

(that can be absorbed by plant roots)
Nitrifying bacteria (soil bacteria) are responsible for

two-step process of nitrification:
 Nitrosomonas sp. convert ammonia to nitrite
 then the Nitrobacter sp. oxidises nitrite to nitrate.
94
Nitrogen cycle
4 Assimilation
 Root absorb ammonia, ammonium or nitrate and
incorporate the nitrogen into proteins, nucleic acid and
chlorophyll
 When animals consume plants, they assimilate nitrogen
from plants
5 Denitrification
 Is the reduction of nitrate to gaseous nitrogen
 Involve denitrifying bacteria
 This process returns nitrogen to the atmosphere as
nitrogen gas 95
96
CHAPTER 2.0: ECOLOGY 2.4 : CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
‘Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’
(according to the Rio Summit)
What is Rio Summit?
 The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also
known as the 'Earth Summit', was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 3-14 June 1992
 The primary objective of the Rio 'Earth Summit' was to produce a broad agenda and a
new blueprint for international action on environmental and development issues that
would help guide international cooperation and development policy in the twenty-first
century.
• Development may continue but must be planned / managed to minimise
environmental damage
• E.g.:
i. sustainable forestry
ii. sustainable agriculture
iii. sustainable fishery 97
(i) Sustainable forestry
 Involves the sustained yield of trees without causing

permanent damage to the forest
 Methods :
1) Reforestation (plant new trees to replace felled ones)
2) Establish forest reserves (maintain ecosystems)
3) Strip cutting - a system with alternating uncut strips of
forest left between clear-cuts).
4) Cutting limits - only certain selected trees will be cut.
98
(ii) Sustainable agriculture
 Sustainable agriculture is the production of food, fibre, or

other plant or animal products using farming techniques that
protect the environment, public health, human communities,
and animal welfare.
 Some of the sustainable farming practices are:

1) Crop Rotations
2) Row planting
3) Biological control
4) Control of pesticide use
5) Control and use of fertilizers
(1) Crop rotation
 Growing a different crop each year on the same piece of

ground
 To avoid depleting the soil, help reduce erosion and increase
soil fertility
(2) Row Planting
 Grows different crops each

in its own strip / a system of
growing crops in blocks or
strips of 2 or more rows
 Importance:
 The ground is
completely covered
hence reducing erosion
problem
 Each plant needs
different nutrients
hence it will reduced
the loss of nutrients.
(3) Sustainable fishery
Continually collect marine organisms especially fish and

leaving some to reproduce without endangering any
species to become extinct.
Over fishing  involves fish being caught before
reproductive age (unprofitable)
Way to control  allow the young fish to continue
developing in the sea, so that it may be harvested at a
later time
Other techniques:
 setting quotas
 limiting the areas for fishing
 introducing closed seasons
Sustainable fishery
Example of Sustainable fishery – Tagal system in Sabah

(practice where river is closed for fishing and only opened once
a year to allow the fish to mature)
Threats to Biodiversity In Malaysia
 Caused by:
 Habitat loss due to human alteration of habitat:

agriculture, urban development, forestry
 The felling of trees in the absence of sustainable concept for
agriculture, aquaculture and development of new townships
 Forest exploitation in the logging industry
 Overharvesting – human harvesting of wild organisms at
rates exceeding the ability of population to rebound
 Pollution - Large plantation in Malaysia tend to use excess
fertilizer causing soil and water pollution
Threats to Biodiversity In Malaysia
 Uncontrolled hunting activities

 Exploitation in tourism industry
 Exploitation in leather-based goods industry
 Global change:
 human induced climate change, acid rain
 alters migratory species pattern and increasing coral
bleaching
 New species introduced into an ecosystem – establish the
spread of organisms outside their normal distribution
area
106
1. The implication of losing biodiversity can be summarized

as follows :
a) forest destruction would cause the loss of water
catchment's areas
b) disturbed ecological equilibrium would reduce the
quality of environmental conditions due to acid rain,
green house effect, flood and land slides,
c) the loss of biological resource especially in the form of
genetic data/information.
 If a certain species became extinct, it cannot be
recreated and it means that the next generation
would receive a reduced natural resource.
107
Slipper orchid
 An endemic species -
one that is only found in that
region and nowhere else in the
world, not widespread and
may be confined to only one or
two protected areas
Milky stork
 An endangered species -
species categorized by the
International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
Red List as likely to become
extinct
Leatherback
turtle
- Critically
endangered
109
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
1. The conservation of biodiversity includes two main aspects :
a) restore – refers to the human efforts to increase the number

of individual species of organisms facing extinction/
endangered so that the population can revert to its normal
size and able to maintain the biological equilibrium in its
natural environment.
b) sustain – refers to human efforts to sustain the species of

organisms endangered or on the brink of extinction by taking
steps to ensure that the population and its livelihood is not
disturbed.
110
1. In-situ Conservation
 Protect and conserve the diversity of biological species

in Malaysia
 Function: maintain plants and animals in their original

habitats
 E.g.:
1) National Park: Taman Negara, Pahang
2) Marine Park: Labuan, islands in Peninsular Malaysia
111
Top 5 National Park in Malaysia
Mulu Cave National Park

Bako National Park
Taman Negara
Pahang
112
Tunku Abdul Rahman National Park Kinabalu Park
2) Ex-situ Conservation
 Maintains species outside their original

habitats in facilities
 E.g.:
1) Zoo : National Zoo, Ampang
2) Botanical Garden : Penang
 Animals are being maintained in zoo, rehabilitation

centers and captive breeding centers.
113
CHAPTER 2.0: ECOLOGY 2.5 : POPULATION ECOLOGY
POPULATION ECOLOGY
Study of population and their environment

Explores how biotic and abiotic factors influence the
density, distribution, size and age structure of a
population
Studies the structure and dynamics of a population
114
Population Growth
 ‘The change (increase/decrease) in the number of
individuals/population size’
 The number of organisms in a population changes
over time because of :
birth Increases the size of the population
immigration
deaths
emigration Decreases the size of the population
115
Population Growth
Every population has the tendency to grow exponentially
when there are enough resources
116
Population Growth
Population growth is affected by:

»(1) birth rate (natality)
»(2) death rate (mortality)
»(3) immigration
»(4) emmigration
Population growth depends on:

1. Biotic/ reproductive potential of the organisms
2. Environmental resistance
117
Biotic Potential (r)

 Definition: Maximum reproductive capacity of an organism under
optimum environmental conditions (unlimited environmental
resources).
 Varies among populations

 When conditions are optimal and there are no limitations, a
population can grow at its maximum biotic potential (r- max)
 Depends on several factors:

 the beginning age of reproduction
 how often reproduction occurs
 how many offspring are born at a time
118
Environmental resistance
 Definition: Environmental resistance is a combination of
biotic and abiotic factors that limit the growth of the
population (limiting factors)
 When populations become large, they tend to run out of

some limiting resources:
 External factors  predation, food, water, light,
space etc.
 Internal regulatory mechanism  intraspecific
competition and behavioral adaptations
119
Environmental resistance
 As a result of Graph showing environmental resistance
environmental resistance,
population growth slows
and population size tends
to stabilize.
 Population growth rate
may become zero
 Described by an
S-shaped growth
curve
The effect of environmental resistance on population growth. 120

Carrying capacity (K)

• Definition: Maximum number of individuals that a particular
environment can support throughout the year without causing
damage to the animals or the habitat
• Condition when population growth slows and population size tend
to stabilize near to a maximum value/steady level .
121
122

 Described by the stable Stationary phase of the
S-shaped growth curve
 Limiting factors (energy, shelters, refuges from predators, soil

nutrients, water and suitable nesting sites) will limit the
population growth and bring about death rates that equal the
birth rates. 123

Importance
Limit population size
124
Factors that affect population growth
Factors that
affect the rate
of populations
growth
1. 2.
Natality Mortality
125

1. Natality (Birth rate)
The rate at which a particular species @ population
produces offspring.
2. Mortality (Death rate)

 The rate at which a particular species @ population
dies (the percentage / number died per per year)
 Better environmental conditions, good supply of food,

water and other resource and less disease will lower
the mortality rate.
126
• If natality > mortality, population size increases
• If mortality > natality, population size decreases
• If natality = mortality, population is stable
127
POPULATION GROWTH CURVES
The curve that indicates the trend in the growth of

population/change in population size in a given time
1. Exponential
Growth Curve
TWO types of (Human)
population growth
curves
1. Logistic Growth
Curve
(Paramecium sp.)
128
1. Exponential growth 2. Logistic growth

(J-shaped curve) (S-shaped curve)
N
E.g.: Human population

•Population growth rate accelerates
N
t
Eg: Paramecium sp.
129
1. Exponential growth curve

J-shaped
The population increase under ideal condition
Resources are unlimited
Growth is exponential
Shows a rapid increase of individuals over a short
period of time.
 population increases slowly at first (lag phase)
and then increases rapidly (log phase)
 When a population is exhibiting exponential growth,
the population is growing at / near their biotic
potential. 130
Exponential Growth
131
1. Exponential Growth Curve

• E.g.: human population growth
•Plague is a bacterial
infection found mainly in  Human population growth was in
rodents and their fleas. a lag phase until 1800’s
•Famous of all was the  From the 1800’s on, the human
Black Death, a
population went into an
medieval pandemic that
swept through Asia and exponential growth phase
Europe. It reached  Human reproducing much faster
Europe in the late than dying
1340s, killing an
 Likely due to:
estimated 25 million
people. The Black  Increase food production
Death lingered on for  Increased hygiene and
centuries, particularly in medical
cities.
 care
 Industrial and scientific
revolutions
132
1. Exponential Growth Curve

• E.g.: human population growth
133
2. Logistic growth curve

 The logistic growth curve
(S-shaped curve) shows the
effect of a limiting factor
(that is the carrying capacity
of the environment)
 E.g.: Population growth of
Paramecium sp. in the lab
 Growth can be
divided into 4 phases
134
• Consists of:
Lag phase
Exponential/log phase
Decelerating phase
Stationary phase
135

Lag phase
– During this phase, the organism
prepares to grow, cell division
and differentiation of tissues
occur during this time.
– Organism absorbs nutrients,
synthesize enzymes and prepare
for cell division
– Organisms do not increase in
number 136

Exponential/log phase
• Organisms (E.g.: Paramecium sp.)
are dividing rapidly, producing new
organisms (number of organisms
doubles with each generation time)
and growing to take advantage of
fresh medium.
• Growth rate is greatest as
resources are still unlimited
• Brief period unless the culture is
maintained by a constant addition
of nutrients and frequent removal
of waste products 137

Decelerating phase
• During this phase growth
slows down because of
limited nutrients (effect of
environmental resistance)
Environmental resistance
starts to take effect as
population approaches the
carrying capacity
138

Stationary phase
• The nutrients in the medium
are used up and the
concentration of toxic waste
products from the metabolizing
organism builds up
• So, rate of cell division slows
• The birth of new organism and
death of old ones is in
equilibrium.
• Population becomes stable 139
2. Logistic Growth Curve (Paramecium sp.)
E.g.: Population growth of Paramecium in the lab shows the Logistic Growth Curve
140
141
Exponential Growth vs logistic growth
Figure 7 142
Limiting Factors Affecting Population
Size/Population Density
143
The Limiting Factors Affecting Population Size
Population density is the number of individuals per unit

area of a chosen habitat.
2 factors affect population density :

1. Density dependent factors
2. Density independent factors.
144

• Any factor limiting the size of a population whose
effect is dependent on the number of individuals in the
population
• When numbers of individual in population increase,

density dependent factors cause a decline in
population
• Tend to slow down population growth
145

Causing an increase in the death rate and/or a decrease
in the birth rate
Example:
1. Predator-prey Relationship
2. Habitat
3. Territorial Behaviour
4. Competition
5. Diseases
6. Parasitism
7. Food and water supplies
8. Accumulation of toxic waste
146
1. Density dependent factors (Example)
1. Predator-prey Relationship
Relationship in which the predator

catches and feeds on the prey
When the population size/number
of prey increases, the population size/number of
predator will follow and vice versa
If the predator is eliminated, the number of prey will
increase tremendously
So, in a population the number of prey must be enough
for the predators
147
2. Habitat
Function : required for shelter, living activities,

protection, reproduction and other activities
When the population increases, overcrowding occurs/

space will be limited, some will die and some will
migrate in order to survive
148
3. Territorial Behaviour
Territorial: an area with all the needs for animals to survive
 Individuals / groups select and defend a territory that provide

food, nesting sites for the reproducing adults and their young
 The size of the territory depends on resources available and the
animals aggressiveness
 The larger and more productive the territory, the more food
will be available for the adults and their young so the
population growth will also increase.
 This behaviour will also cause their size and distribution of a

population remain unchanged for a long time
149

4. Competition for resources (Interspecific or
intraspecific competition)
Occurs when the population density is high
 Resources will be limited, and competition will
occur
Reproductive rate is reduced
One population may increase and the other may decrease
(interspecific competition)
Example (Paramecium sp.):
 When Paramecium caudatum is cultured with Paramecium
aurelia, the Paramecium caudatum always dies
150

4. Competition for resources (Interspecific)
 When cultured together P. aurelia has
a competitive advantage over P.
caudatum
 P. aurelia has a higher reproductive

rate, is more efficient in feeding and
more resistant to toxic waste
products
 From the 5th day onwards, the

population of P. caudatum drops and
by the 24th day, it has been
competitively excluded 151
5. Diseases
If individuals in a population live close together, then
each will have higher probability of catching diseases
than the individual that have been living farther apart
6. Parasitism
When population density is high, members of a
population encounter one another more frequently,
increase chance to transmit the parasite
E.g.: Ectoparasite (mosquito) and Endoparasite
(tapeworm)
152
7. Food and water supplies

 Required to generate energy
 When population size increase, while food and water
supplies decrease, causing a decrease in population
growth
8. Accumulation of toxic waste

 As populations grow, waste products from metabolic
reaction accumulate
 Become toxic to members of the population
153
2. Density independent factors

 Any factors limiting the size of a population whose
effect is not dependent on the number of individuals
in the population
 Usually abiotic and are typically weather or climatic

factors
 Example:
- Climate and weather - Pesticides
- Natural Disaster - Human activities
154
2. Density independent factors (Example)
Climate and weather

 In some climate, weather
(temperature, light etc.) may
change from time to time
 An extreme weather factors

may change survival and
reproduction rate of one
species
155
Natural Disaster (Flood, earthquake, tsunami etc.)
 Causes a large population to become a small
 New populations will arise from immigration or from

survived organisms
156
tsunami fire
157
logging flood
Pesticides (Influenced by humans)
 Use of unlimited pesticides can cause changing of land,

water and atmosphere composition
 Will inhibit the producers (plants) from maximizing their

function and causes low productivity.
158
POPULATION 1. Exponential growth curve
ECOLOGY Described by (human)

POPULATION (Paramecium sp.)
GROWTH
Density
Regulated/ independent
affected by factors
Factors that reduce Ability of population to
population growth rate achieve max growth 1. Climate and weather
2. Natural disaster
Density e.g.: flood, drought
Environmental Biotic 3. Insecticides
dependent 4. Human Activities
resistance Potential factors
Until population stop to Determined by 1. Predator-prey Relationship

2. Habitat
grow, reach equilibrium 3. Territorial Behaviour
4. Competition
Natality 5. Diseases
Carrying 6. Parasitism
Mortality 7. Food and water supplies
capacity, K 8. Accumulation of toxic waste
159
Factors limiting size and
Described by
math models population distribution
N
Population
dN
r Ecology
dt
Population growth
t
Basic forms of growth curve

Exponential Logistic
growth growth Factors effecting:
(J-shaped) (S-shaped) Population Growth: Growth rate:
Environmental • Mortality
resistance (limiting • Natality
factors: food, water,
160
light, oxygen, space)

Chapter 2 Ecology

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Chapter 2 Ecology

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• 2.

2.1 Ecosystem concept

2.2 Energy flow through ecosystem

a) State the type of ecological pyramids in relation to trophic level

2.3 Biogeochemical cycle

a) State biogeochemical cycle components (cycling

2.4 Conservation and management

a) Describe sustainable development

2.5 Population Ecology

a) Explain biotic potential and environmental resistance

4. All of the communities (biotic) and the abiotic

3. All of the organisms of all the species that inhabit a

2. A group of individuals of the same species living in

 Community of different species in a given area, interacting with

 E.g.: Lake ecosystem, rain forest ecosystem

Definition of ecosystem according to

‘The basic functional unit of nature including

Make their own organic compounds from

Do not eat or decompose other organisms

- E.g.: green plants, algae that perform

- E.g.: Nitrosomonas sp. (nitrifying

• Can be categorized as:

 Divided into the :

• A relationship in which two or more individual

i. Intraspecific ii. Interspecific competition

 The two species are so

• A relationship in which one species (predator)

• Lakes are standing bodies of freshwater produced by

• Abiotic factors in a lake ecosystem can be describe by :

The sum of light depends on the:

Sum of light can cause important phenomena such as

 A lake can be divided into

2. Distance from the shore:

 The lower layer (deeper

2. Based on the distance from shore a lake can be

ii. Limnetic zone

ii. Limnetic zone

 Away from shore

Lake also can be devided based on :

Open water (Pelagic zone)

Bottom (Benthic zone)

• The bottom surface of an aquatic

 Tropical rainforest is the most productive ecosystems.

 Located at equatorial region with heavy rainfall (200 –

 The average temperature is about 25-290C

 Stratification of a tropical rainforest is vertically

Ground layer/ forest floor

Food chain - Transfer of food energy up the trophic

Food web - Complex network of interconnected

1. Grazing food chain

4th trophic Tertiary consumer

1st trophic •All producers

A diagram that describes the feeding relationships

 Usually, the number of producers at the base of the pyramid

Typical pyramid of numbers Inverted pyramid with parasites

Inverted pyramid of a marine ecosystem Inverted pyramid with large producer

• May also be inverted

Inverted pyramid of Biomass

• Marine phytoplankton have a shorter life cycle

Indicates the energy content, often expressed

 Displays the total quantity of energy flow in

 The productivity of producers in a given area and