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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

1 STRESS & STRAIN

1. INTRODUCTION

When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation. Due to
cohesion between the molecules, the body resists deformation. This resistance by which
material of the body opposes the deformation is known as strength of material. Within a certain
limit (i.e., in the elastic state) the resistance offered by the material is proportional to the
deformation brought out on the material by the external force. Also, within this limit the
resistance is equal to the external force (or applied load).

2. STRESS

The force of resistance per unit area, offered by a body against deformation is known as stress.
The external force acting on the body is called the load of force.

P
=
Mathematically stress is written as, A

2.1. Units of Stress

The unit of stress depends upon the unit of load (or force) and unit of area. In M.K.S.
units, the force is expressed in kgf and area in metre square (i.e., m 2). Hence the unit of
stress becomes kgf/m2.
In the S.I. units, the force is expressed in newtons (written as N) and area is expressed
as m2. Hence the unit of stress becomes N/m 2. The area is also expressed in millimetre
square then the unit of force becomes as N/mm 2.
● Newton is a force acting on a mass of one kg and produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2
i.e.

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1 N = 1 (kg) x 1 m/s2.
● The stress in S.I. units is expressed in N/m2 or N/mm2.
● The stress 1 N/mm2 = 106 N/m2 = MN/m2. Thus,
1 N/mm2= 1 MN/m2.
● One pascal is written as 1 Pa and is equal to 1 N/m2.

3. STRAIN

When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some change of dimension of the
body. The ratio of change of dimension of the body to the original dimension is known as strain.
Strain is dimensionless.
Strain may be of following types
(i) Tensile strain: If there is some increase in length of a body due to external force, then
the ratio of increase of length to the original length of the body is known as tensile strain.
(ii) Compressive strain: If due to external force length of the body decreases, then the ratio
of decrease of the length of the body to the original length is known as compressive strain.
(iii) Volumetric strain: The ratio of change of volume of the body to the original volume is
known as volumetric strain.
(iv) Shear strain: The strain produced by shear stress is known as shear strain.

4. TYPES OF STRESSES

4.1. Tensile Stress: The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite
pulls as a result of which there is an increase in length, is known as tensile stress. The
ratio of increase in length to the original length is known as tensile strain.
Let P = Pull (or force) acting on the body,
A = Cross-sectional area of the body,
L = Original length of the body,
dL = Increase in length due to pull P acting on the body,
σ = Stress induced in the body, and
e = Strain (i.e., tensile strain).

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Re sisting force (R) Tensile load (P)

 Tensile stress =  = =
Cross − sec tional area A (∵ P = R)

P
=
Or A

Increase in length dL
e= = .
And tensile strain is given by, Original length L

4.2. Compressive Stress:

The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pushes as shown
in Fig. as a result of which there is a decrease in length of the body, is known as
compressive stress. And the ratio of decrease in length to the original length is known as
compressive strain.
Let an axial push P acting on a body is cross-sectional area A. Due to external push P,
the original length L of the body decreases by dL.

Then compressive stress is given by,

Re sisting Force (R) Push(P) P
= = =
Area(A) Area(A) A
And compressive strain is given by,
Decrease in length dL
e= =
Original length L
4.3. Shear Stress:
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite forces which are
acting tangentially across the resisting section as a result of which the body tends to
shear off across the section, is known as shear stress. The corresponding strain is known
as shear strain.
Shear stress,

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Shear resis tance R

= =
Shear area A

Transversal displacement
=
Dis tance AD
Example: A steel tube of diameter 100 mm is subjected to a load of 200 kN. Determine
the stresses induced in it.
Sol.
𝜋
Area of steel tube = × 1002 = 7853.98 mm2
4
200×1000
Stress in tube = = 25.46 N/mm2
7853.98

5. STRESS STRAIN CURVE

The stress strain curve for mild steel is shown in figure.

OA = Limit of proportionality
B = Elastic Limit
C1 = Upper yield point
C2 = Lower yield point
C2D = Plastic zone and it is called as yield plateau.
DE = Strain hardening region
EF = Area of section decreases drastically hence it is called necking region.
Note:
(i) In mild steel, points A, B and C are closed to each other, However C > B > A i.e. mild steel
may be called linear elastic metal. Thus, elastic and yield stresses are taken as equal,
σe = σy = 250 N/mm2
(ii) The elastic strain is close to yield strain which is equal to ϵy = 0.12%
(iii) The slope of OA is constant which is equal to

y 250
E= = = 2.1  105 N/mm2
y 0.12/100

Here, E is known as Young’s modulus of elasticity.

(iv) The plastic strain in mild steel is 10 to 15% times that of elastic strain.
(v) Due to rise in temperature the yield point decreases.

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Actual stress strain curve for mild steel is different from the engineering curve because actual
cross-sectional area will be lesser than initial area.

5.1. Stress Strain Curve for different Materials:

Note:
1
Ecast iron = E
2 Steel
1
EEluminium = E
3 Steel
1 1
Econcrete = to
10 20
1 1
Ewood = to of ESteel
8 20
5.2. Properties of Metals
(i) Ductility: It is that property of material due to which a metal piece can be drawn into
wires of thin section under tensioning effect. Ductile materials are those which have 5%
past elastic strain before fracture.
(ii) Brittleness: It is the lack of the ductility. Such metals don’t show necking before
fracture.
(iii) Malleability: It is that property of metal due to which a metal can be drawn into a
thin sheet of negligible section by pressing/forging through the compression process.

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(iv) Proof stress: A proof stress is a level of stress at which a material undergoes plastic
deformation. More specifically, the proof stress is often defined as the point when the
material undergoes an amount of plastic deformation equal to 0.2 percent.

(v) Resilience: Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is

deformed elastically, and release that energy upon unloading. Proof resilience is defined
as the maximum energy that can be absorbed up to the elastic limit, without creating a
permanent distortion. The modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum energy that
can be absorbed per unit volume without creating a permanent distortion.

(vi) Toughness: It is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform
without fracturing. One definition of material toughness is the amount of energy per unit
volume that a material can absorb before rupturing.
(vii) Modulus of toughness: The modulus of toughness is the amount of strain energy
per unit volume (i.e. strain energy density) that a material can absorb just before it
fractures. The modulus of toughness is calculated as the area under the stress-strain
curve up to the fracture point.

Modulus of toughness,
𝑣𝑡 = 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝜖𝑅
𝜎0 + 𝜎𝑦
𝑉𝑡 = ( ) 𝜀𝑅
2

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Where,
σ0 = ultimate stress
σy = yield stress
(viii) Hardness: Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to local plastic
deformation achieved from indentation of a predetermined geometry indenter onto a flat
surface of metal under a predetermined load.
(ix) Creep: Creep (sometimes called cold flow) is the tendency of a solid material to
move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of persistent mechanical
stresses. It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are
still below the yield strength of the material. Factors affecting creep are
(i) Magnitude of load
(ii) Type of loading (static or dynamic)
(iii) Time or age
(x) Fatigue: Fatigue strength is the highest stress that a material can withstand for a
given number of cycles without breaking. Fatigue strength is affected by environmental
factors, such as corrosion. The maximum stress that can be applied for a certain number
of cycles without fracture is the fatigue strength.
(xi) Endurance limit: An endurance or fatigue limit which is defined as the maximum
stress below which the steel could presumably endure an infinite number of cycles without
failure. A simple rule of thumb calculation for the fatigue limit is one-half of the ultimate
tensile strength.

(xii) Elasticity: It is that property of metals due to which original dimensions will be
recovered and offer loading within elastic limits the stress-strain curve may be linear or
nonlinear.
Most of the metals represent the same loading and unloading curve within the elastic
limit.

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Elastic rubber represents the same loading & unloading curve within elastic limits. Even
though the entire strain is released on loading. Such a phenomenon is called Hysteresis
(Energy lost due to heating)

5.3. Type of Metal Behaviour

5.4. Types of Failure

(i) Tension Failure in Ductile Materials: In ductile material shear strength is less than
tensile strength which is less than or equal to compressive strength. Shear strength is of
the order of 57% of tensile strength.
Ductile materials in tension test show necking (reduced area of critical section) and during
failure. Cup and cone are formed. Before fracture and this is called cup cone failure. Such
a failure is due to shear and failure surface (Cup-surface) of 45° to the longitudinal
direction of loading.

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(ii) Tension failure in brittle materials: In brittle material tensile strength is less than
shear strength and shear strength is less than compression strength. Metals fail in tension
fracture without much change in cross sectional area during axial loading. Failure surface
is rough surface at 90° to the direction of loading.

(iii) Compression failure in ductile materials: Long compression members fail in

buckling and short members fail in compression yielding. Due to axial compression lateral
dimension increases and the compression plane is at perpendicular to the direction of
loading.

(iv) Compression failure in Brittle Metals: In compression test the short members
fails in shear and shear cracks are at 45° to the direction of loading.

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6. HOOKE’S LAW AND ELASTIC MODULI

Hooke’s Law states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is proportional
to the strain produced by the stress. This means the ratio of the stress to the corresponding
strain is a constant within the elastic limit. This constant is known as Modulus of Elasticity or
Elastic Moduli.
6.1. Modulus of Elasticity (or Young’s Modulus)
The ratio of tensile stress or compressive stress to the corresponding strain is a constant
within elastic limit. This ratio is known as Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity and is
denoted by E.

Tensile stress Compressive stress

E= or
Tensile strain Compressive strain


E=
e
6.2. Modulus of Rigidity of Shear Modulus
The ratio of shear stress to the corresponding shear strain within the elastic limit, is
known as Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus. This is denoted by C or G or N.

Shear stress 
C(or G or N) = =
Shear strain 

7. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN

7.1. One-Dimensional Stress System

The relationship between stress and strain for a unidirectional stress is given by Hooke’s
law, which states that when a material is loaded within its elastic limit, the normal stress
developed is proportional to the strain produced. This means that the ratio of the normal
stress to the corresponding strain is constant within the elastic limit.

Normal stress 
= Cons tan t =E
Corresponding strain or e

Where,
σ = Normal stress,
e = Strain and
E = Young’s modulus
7.2. Two-Dimensional Stress System
When a body is subjected to an axial tensile load, there is an increase in the length of the
body. But at the same time there is a decrease in other dimensions of the body at right
angles to the line of action of the applied load. Thus, the body is having axial deformation
and also deformation at right angles to the line of action of the applied load.
(i) Longitudinal strain:

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The ratio of axial deformation to the original length of the body is known as longitudinal
(or linear) strain.
L = Length of the body,
P = Tensile force acting on the body,
δL = Increase in the length of the body in the direction of P.
Then,

L
longitudinal strain = L .

(ii) Lateral strain:

The strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain. Let a
rectangular bar of length L, breadth b and depth d is subjected to an axial tensile load P.
The length of the bar will increase while the breadth and depth will decrease.
δL = Increase in length,
δb = Decrease in breadth, and
δd = Decrease in depth.

L
=
Then longitudinal strain L

b d
or
Lateral strain = b d

(iii) Poisson’s ratio:

The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is a constant for a given material, when
the material is stressed within the elastic limit. This ratio is called Poisson’s ratio and it is
generally denoted by μ. Hence mathematically,

Lateral strain
=
Poisson’s ratio, Longitudinal strain

(iv) Relationship between stress and strain:

Consider a two-dimensional figure ABCD, subjected to two mutually perpendicular
stresses σ1 and σ2.

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Let,
σ1 = Normal stress in x-direction
σ2 = Normal stress in y-direction
The stress σ2 will produce strain in the direction of y and also in the direction of x. The

2
strain in the direction of y will be longitudinal strain and will be equal to E whereas the

2
– 
strain in the direction of x will be lateral strain and will be equal to E .

Let,
e1 = Total strain in x-direction
e2 = Total strain in y-direction
Now total strain in the direction of x due to stresses σ1 and σ2

1 
e1 = − 2
E E

2 
e2 = − 1
E E
7.3. Three-Dimensional Stress System

Consider the strain produced by each stress separately.

The stress σ1 will produce strain in the direction of x and also in the directions of y and z.

1
The strain in the direction of x will be E whereas the strains in the direction of y and z

1
−
will be E .

2 
− 2
Similarly the stress σ2 will produce strain E in the direction of y and strain of E in

the direction of x and y each.

Total strain in the direction of x due to stresses σ1, σ2 and σ3 is
𝜎1 𝜎2 𝜎3
𝑒1 = −𝜇 −𝜇 .
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

Similarly, total strain in the direction of y due to stresses σ1, σ2 and σ3 is

𝜎2 𝜎3 𝜎1
𝑒2 = −𝜇 −𝜇
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

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and total strain in the direction of z due to stress σ 1, σ2 and σ3 is
𝜎3 𝜎1 𝜎2
𝑒3 = −𝜇 −𝜇
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
Bulk Modulus: When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular like and equal
direct stresses, then the ratio of direct stress to the volumetric strain is termed as bulk
modulus.
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∆𝑃
𝐾= =
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑉
𝑉

7.4. Inter relationship of Elastic Constants

E = 3K(1 – 2 μ)
E = 2G(1+ μ)
9KG
E=
3K + G
3K − 2G 1
= =
6K + 2G m
Here,
m = modulator ratio, m = 1/μ
Example: A string has a diameter of 1 cm and the original length of 2 m. The string is
pulled by a force of 200 N. Determine the change in length of the string if Young’s modulus
of the string = 5 x 103 N/mm2
Sol.
200
Stress = 𝜋 = 2.55 N/mm2
×(10)2
4

Strain in the string will be

𝜎 2.55
e= = = 5.1×10-4
𝐸 5×103

Change in length will be

∆𝐿 = 5.1 × 10−4 × 2 = 1.02 × 10−3 𝑚 = 1.02 𝑚𝑚

Example: A bar of length 4m and cross-sectional area of 0.2m 2 is subjected to a

longitudinal load of 400 kN. Determine the longitudinal and lateral strain in the bar if
young’s modulus of material is 3×103 N/mm2 and Poisson ratio of material is 0.25. Also
determine the modulus of rigidity and bulk modulus.
Sol.
400×1000
Stress in material = = 2 N/mm2
0.2×106
𝜎 2
Longitudinal strain = = = 6.67 × 10−4
𝐸 3×103
𝜎
Lateral strain = −𝜇 = −0.25 × 6.67 × 10−4 = 1.67 × 10−4
𝐸
𝐸 3×103
Modulus of rigidity = = = 1200 N/mm2
2(1+𝜇) 2(1+0.25)

𝐸 3×103
Bulk modulus K = = = 2000 N/mm2
3(1−2𝜇) 3(1−2×0.25)

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8. ANALYSIS OF STRESSES IN DIFFERENT BARS

8.1. Analysis of Bars of Varying Sections

A bar of different lengths and of different diameters (and hence of different cross-
sectional area). Let this bar is subjected to an axial load P.

Each section is subjected to the same axial load P, yet the stresses, strains and change
in lengths will be different. The total changes in length will be obtained by adding the
changes in length of the individual section.
Let,
P = Axial load acting on the bar,
L1 = Length of section 1,
A1 = Cross-sectional area of section 1,
L2, A2 = Length and cross-sectional area of section 2,
L3, A3 = Length and cross-sectional area of section 3, and
E = Young’s modulus for the bar.
Then stress for the section 1,

Load P
1 = =
Area of sec tion 1 A1

Similarly stresses for the section 2 and section 3 are given as,

P P
s = and 3 =
A2 A3

The strain in different sections are as follows

∴ Strain of section 1,

1 P
e1 = =
E A1E

Similarly the strains of section 2 and of section 3 are,

2 P  P
e2 = = and e3 = 3 = .
E A2E E A3E

Change in length of sec tion 1

=
But strain in section 1 Length of sec tion 1

dL1
e1 =
L1

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PL1
where dL1 = change in length of section 1=e1L1 =
A1E
Similarly changes in length of section 2 and of section 3 are obtained as:
Change in length of section 2,

PL2
dL2 = e2L2 =
A2E
and change in length of section 3,

PL 3
dL3 = e3L3 =
A3E
∴ Total change in the length of the bar,

PL1 PL2 PL3 P L L L 

dL = dL1 + dL2 + dL3 = + + =  1 + 2 + 3
A1E A2E A3E E  A1 A2 A3 

8.2. Analysis of Uniformly Tapering Circular Rod

A bar uniformly tapering from a diameter D1 at one end to a diameter D2 at the other and
Let P = Axial tensile load on the bar
L = Total length of the bar
E = Young’s modulus.

Consider a small element of length dx of the bar at a distance x from the left end. Let the
diameter of the bar be Dx at a distance x from the left end.
Then

 D − D2  D1 − D2
Dx = D1 −  1 x where k =
 L  = D1 – kx L

Area of cross-section of the bar at a distance x from the left end,

 2 
Ax = Dx = (D1 − k.x)2.
4 4

Now the stress at a distance x from the left end is given by,

Load P 4P
x = = = .
Ax  (D1 − k.x)2
(D1 − k.x)2
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The strain ex in the small element of length dx will be

Stress x = 4P 1 4P
ex = = 2
 =
E E (D1 − k.x) E E(D1 − k.x)2

Extension of the small elemental length dx = Strain×dx = exdx

4P
= .dx
E(D1 − k.x)2

Total extension of the bar is obtained by integrating the above equation between the
limits O and L.

L 4P.dx 4P L −2
dL = 
0 E(D1 − k.x)2
=
E 0 1
(D − k.x) .dx

4P L (D1 − k.x)−2  (− k)
= E
E (− k)
.dx
[Multiplying and driving by (– k)]

L L
4P  (D1 − k.x)−1  4P  1 
  =  
E  (−1)  (− k) 0 Ek  (D1 − k.x) 0
=

4P  1 1 
 − 
=
E  D1 − k.L D1 − k  0 

4P  1 1
 − 
=
Ek  D1 − k.L D1 

D1 − D2
k=
Substituting the value of L in the above equation, we get

Total extension,
4𝑃𝐿
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑑𝐿 =
𝜋𝐸𝐷1 𝐷2

8.3. Analysis of Uniformly Tapering Rectangular Bar

∴ Total extension,

PL a
= loge .
Et(a − b) b

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8.4. Analysis of Bars of Composite Sections

For the composite bar the following two points are important:
● The extension or compression in each bar is equal. Hence deformation per unit length
i.e., strain in each bar is equal.
● The total external load on the composite bar is equal to the sum of the loads carried
by each different material.
Let,
P = Total load on the composite bar,
L = Length of composite bar and also length of bars of different materials,
A1 = Area of cross-section of bar 1,
A2 = Area of cross-section of bar 2,
E1= Young’s Modulus of bar 1,
E2 = Young’s Modulus of bar 2,
P1 = Load shared by bar 1,
P2 = Load shared by bar 2,
σ1 = Stress induced in bar 1, and
σ0 = Stress induced in bar 2.
Now the total load on the composite bar is equal to the sum of the load carried by the
two bars.
P = P1 + P2

Load carried by bar 1

The stress in bar 1 =
Area of cross − sec tion of bar 1

P1
1 = or P1 = 1A1
A1

Similarly stress in bar 2,

P2
2 = or P2 = 2 A2
A2

Substituting the values of P1 and P2 we get,

P = σ1A1 + σ2A2

But strain in bar 1 = Stress in bar 1 

= 1.
Young' s modulus bar 1 E1

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2
Similarly strain in bar 2 = .
E2

But

strain in bar 1 = Strain in bar 2 = 1 = 2

E1 E2

9. THERMAL STRESSES

Thermal stresses are the stresses induced in a body due to change in temperature. Consider a
body which is heated to a certain temperature.
Let,
L = Original length of the body,
T = Rise in temperature,
E = Young’s Modulus
α = Co-efficient of linear expansion.
dL = Extension of rod due to rise of temperature.

Case A: If the rod is free to expand

If the rod is free to expand, then extension of the rod is given by dL = α. T.L.

Decrease in length 𝛼𝑇𝐿

Then compressive strain = = = 𝛼. 𝑇
Original length 𝐿

As the rod is free to expand, stress in the rod will be zero.

Case B: If the expansion of rod is prevented

If the expansion of rod is prevented, the stress in the rod is given by

Stress = Strain × E = α.T.E.

Load or thrust on the rod = Stress × Area = α.T.E × A

Extension prevented
∴ Thermal strain, e =
Original length

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𝑑𝐿 𝛼.𝑇.𝐿
= = = 𝛼. 𝑇
𝐿 𝐿

Thermal stress is also known as temperature stress.

And thermal strain is also known as temperature stress,

Case C: Stress and Strain when the Supports Yield

If the supports yield by an amount equal to δ

Then,

Actual expansion = Expression due to rise in temperature – δ = α.T.L – δ.

Actual exp ansion (.T.L – )

∴ Actual strain = =
Original length L

And,

(.T.L – )
Actual stress = Actual strain × E =  E.
L

9.1. Thermal Stresses in composite Bars

Let the composite bar be heated through some temperature. If the members are free to
expand then no stresses will be induced in the members. But the two members are rigidly
fixed and hence the composite bar as a whole will expand by the same amount. As the
co-efficient of linear expansion of brass is more than that of the steel, the brass will
expand more than the steel. Hence the free expansion of brass will be more than that of
the steel. But both the members are not free to expand, and hence the expansion of the
composite bar, as a whole, will be less than that of the brass, but more than that of the
steel.

Example: A steel tube of 30 mm external diameter and 20 mm internal diameter encloses

a copper rod of 15 mm diameter to which it is rigidly joined at each end. If, at a
temperature of 10°C there is no longitudinal stress, calculate the stresses in the rod and
tube when the temperature is raised to 200°C. Take E for steel and copper as 2.1 × 10 5
N/mm2 and 1 × 105 N/mm2 respectively. The value of co-efficient of linear expansion for
steel and copper is given as 11 × 10–6 per °C and 18 × 10–6 per °C respectively.
Solution:
Given

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Diameter of copper rod = 15 mm

Ac =  152 = 56.25 mm2
Area of copper rod, 4
𝜋
Area of steel tube, 𝐴𝑆 = (302 − 202 ) = 125𝜋 𝑚𝑚2
4

Rise of temperature T = (200 – 10) = 190°C

E for steel, Es = 2.1 × 105 N/mm2
E for copper, Ec = 1 × 105 N/mm2
Value of α for steel, αs = 11 × 10–6 per °C
Value of α for copper, αc = 18 × 10–6 per °C
As the value of α for copper is more than that of steel, hence the copper rod would expand
more than the steel tube if it is free. Since the two are joined together, the copper will
be prevented from expanding its full amount and will be put in compression, the steel
being put in tension.
Let,
σs = Stress in steel
σc = Stress in copper.
For equilibrium of the system,
Compressive load on copper = Tensile load on steel
σc Ac = σs As

As 125
c = s  = s  = 2.22  s
Ac 56.25 …(i)

We know that the copper rod and the steel tube will actually expand by the same amount.
Now actual expansion of Steel = Free expansion of steel + Expansion due to tensile
stress

s
= s  T.L + L
Es

But,
Actual expansion of steel = Actual expansion of copper

s 
s  T.L +  L = c  T  L − c  L
Es EC

s 2.22s
11  10−6  190 + 5
= 18  10−6  190 −
or 2.1  10 1  105

s 2.22s
5
+ 5
= 18  10−6  190  11  10−6  190
or 2.1  10 1  10

s + 2.1  2.22s
= 5  10−6  190
or 2.1  105

or σs + 4.662 σs = 5 × 10–6 × 190 × 2.1 × 105

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or 5.662 σs = 199.5

199.5
s = = 35.235 N/mm2. Ans.
∴ 5.662

Substituting this value in equation (i), we get

σc = 2.22 × 35.235 = 78.22 N/mm2. Ans.

10. ELONGATION OF A BAR DUE TO ITS OWN WEIGHT

Figure shows a bar AB fixed at end A and hanging freely under its own weight.

Let,

L = Length of bar,

A = Area of cross-section,

E = Young’s modulus for the bar material,

w = Weight per unit volume of the bar material.

Consider a small strip of thickness dx at a distance x from the lower end.

Weight of the bar for a length of x is given by,

P = Specific weight × Volume of bar up to length x = w × A × x

Weight acting on element w  A  x

Now stress on the element = = = wx
Area of cross- sec tion A

Stress w  x
= =
Strain in the element E E

wx
∴ Elongation of the element = Strain × Length of element =  dx
E

Total elongation of the bar is obtained by integrating the above equation between limits zero

and L.

L wx w L
∴
L = 
0 E
dx =  x.dx
E 0

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L
w  x2  w L2
=   = 
E  2 0 E 2
…(1.17)

𝑊𝐿
= (∵ 𝑊 = 𝑤 × 𝐿) …(1.18)
2𝐸

11. IMPACT LOADING

The dynamic action of a moving load is called impact. if the body falls from a certain height,

the potential energy that the body has lost or the kinetic energy gained by the body will be

converted into strain energy in the member. Such a loading where there is a transfer of kinetic

energy into strain energy is termed as impact loading.

(i) Stresses due to impact load:

Let a rod of length l and cross-sectional area A is rigidly fixed as shown in figure. A block of

weight W falls on the rod from a height h producing maximum deformation in bar equals to δ.

Then the work done by load will be equal to strain energy stored in the bar.
𝜎2
𝑊(ℎ + 𝛿) = 𝐴𝐿
2𝐸
2𝑊 2𝑊𝐸ℎ
𝜎2 − 𝜎− =0
𝐴 𝐴𝐿

Let,
𝑊
= 𝜎𝑠𝑡
𝐴

Where,
𝜎𝑠𝑡 is the stress in bar W has been applied gradually, the above equation can be written as
2𝐸ℎ
𝜎2 − 2𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑡 − 𝜎 =0
𝐿 𝑠𝑡

Which gives,

2𝐸ℎ 𝑊 2𝐸ℎ𝐴
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑠𝑡 [1 + √1 + ] = [1 + √1 + ]
𝐿𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐴 𝐿𝑊

For suddenly applied load, h=0

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So,
2𝑊
𝜎=
𝐴

Load deformation curve for sudden loading will be as shown below

Strain energy stored in the rod due to suddenly applied loading is equal to area of load
deflection curve.
2𝑊𝐿 2𝑊 2 𝐿
𝑈=𝑊× =
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸

12. PROBLEMS

Problem 1: A circular copper bar having length 900mm consists of 200mm long bar of 40 mm
diameter,500 mm long bar of 15 mm diameter and 200mm long bar of 30mm diameter. If the
bar is subjected to a tensile load of 60kN, Find the total extension of the bar. Take the value
of E=100GPa.
Ans. 1.963 mm
Problem 2: An alloy bar 2m long is held between two supports at a temperature of 30˚C. Find
the stress developed in the bar, when the temperature is increased to 100˚C if both the ends
(i) do not yield (ii) yield by 1 mm. Take the value of E and α for the alloy as 120 GPa and
24x10-6/˚C.
Ans. (i) 201.6 N/mm2 (ii) 141.6 N/mm2
Problem 3: A prismatic bar is fixed between two rigid supports as shown in figure. Determine
the reaction on the supports.

Ans. 45.56 kN, 23.14 kN

Problem 4: A cylindrical bar of steel having diameter 100 mm and 200 mm long is subjected
to an axial compressive force of 500 kN. The change in volume if the bulk modulus of steel is
1.7×105 N/mm2 and Poisson ratio is 0.28.
Ans. 0.196 cm3
Problem 5: A metal bar 40mm×40mm section, is subjected to an axial compressive load of
480 kN. The contraction of a 200 mm gauge length is found to be 0.4 mm and the increase in
thickness 0.04 mm. Find Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s ratio.
Ans. E= 1.5×105 N/mm2, µ = 0.5
****

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