SERIES

Increasing & Decreasing Sequences

• Let 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , … , 𝑢𝑛 , … be a sequence of terms.
• We find expressions for 𝑢𝑛 and 𝑢𝑛+1
• If 𝑢𝑛+1 > 𝑢𝑛 , then the series is increasing
• If 𝑢𝑛+1 < 𝑢𝑛 , then the series is decreasing
 SERIES
Increasing & Decreasing Sequences
• Example
𝑛2 −1 (𝑛+1)2 −1
• 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢𝑛+1 =
𝑛 𝑛+1

• We solve 𝑢𝑛+1 > 𝑢𝑛 or 𝑢𝑛 < 𝑢𝑛+1

𝑛2 −1 (𝑛+1)2 −1
• <
𝑛 𝑛+1
 SERIES
Increasing & Decreasing Sequences
(𝑛−1)(𝑛+1) (𝑛+1)2 −1
• <
𝑛 𝑛+1
(𝑛−1) (𝑛+1)2 −1
• <
𝑛 (𝑛+1)2
(𝑛−1) 1
• <1−
𝑛 (𝑛+1)2
 SERIES
Increasing & Decreasing Sequences
(𝑛−1) 1
• <1−
𝑛 (𝑛+1)2
1 1
•1 − < 1 −
𝑛 𝑛+1 2
1 1
•− < −
𝑛 𝑛+1 2
1 1
• > 2 Decreasing sequence
𝑛 𝑛+1
 SERIES
Increasing & Decreasing Sequences
𝑛𝑛
• 1 𝑢𝑛 =
𝑛!
1.3.5……(2𝑛−1)
• 2 𝑢𝑛 =
2.4.6………(2𝑛)
2𝑛
• 3 𝑢𝑛 =
3𝑛+1
 SERIES
Increasing & Decreasing Sequences
5𝑛−2
• 4 𝑢𝑛 =
4𝑛+1
3𝑛
• 5 𝑢𝑛 =
1+3𝑛
𝑛!
• 6 𝑢𝑛 =
2𝑛
 SERIES
Increasing & Decreasing Sequences
𝑛
• 7 𝑢𝑛 =
2𝑛
•
 SERIES
•Convergent & Divergent Series
• A series in which the sum (𝑆𝑛 )of 𝑛 terms of the
series tends to a definite value, as 𝑛 → ∞, is
called a convergent series.
• If 𝑆𝑛 does not tend to a definite value as 𝑛 → ∞,
the series is said to be divergent.
 SERIES
•Convergent & Divergent Series
• Example
1 1 1 1
•1 + + + + +⋯
3 9 27 81
1
• This is a GP with 𝑎 = 1 𝑟 =
3
3 1
• 𝑆𝑛 = (1 − 𝑛 )
2 3
 SERIES
•Convergent & Divergent Series
3
• lim 𝑆𝑛 =
𝑛→∞ 2
• Convergent Series
 SERIES
•Convergent & Divergent Series
• Example
• 1 + 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 + ⋯
• This is a GP with 𝑎 = 1 𝑟 = 3
3𝑛 −1
• 𝑆𝑛 =
2
 SERIES
•Convergent & Divergent Series
3𝑛 −1
• lim 𝑆𝑛 = =∞
𝑛→∞ 2
• Divergent Series
 SERIES
•Test for Convergence
• A series cannot be convergent unless its terms
ultimately tend to zero.
• If lim 𝑢𝑛 = 0, the series is convergent
𝑛→∞
• If lim 𝑢𝑛 ≠ 0, the series is divergent
𝑛→∞
 SERIES
•Examples
∞ 1
• σ𝑛=1
2𝑛(2𝑛+1)
1
• lim =0
𝑛→∞ 2𝑛(2𝑛+1)
• The series converges
 SERIES
•Examples
∞ 𝑛
• σ𝑛=1
𝑛+2
𝑛
• lim = 1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+2
• The series diverges
 SERIES
•Test for Convergence (Ratio Test)
𝑢𝑛+1
• If lim < 1, the series is convergent
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛
𝑢𝑛+1
• If lim > 1, the series is divergent
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛
𝑢𝑛+1
• If lim = 1, inconclusive
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛
 SERIES
•Test for Convergence (Ratio Test)
• Example
∞ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1
• σ𝑛=1 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢𝑛+1 =
𝑛+2 𝑛+2 𝑛+1 +2
• We solve
𝑢𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑛 2
• lim = lim / = lim 1 + >1
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+3 𝑛+2 𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 +3𝑛
• The series diverges
 SERIES
•Test for Convergence (Ratio Test)
• Example
∞ 1 1 1
• σ𝑛=1 2 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑢𝑛+1 =
𝑛 +1 𝑛2 +1 (𝑛+1)2 +1
• We solve
𝑢𝑛+1 1 1 𝑛2 +1
• lim = lim 2 / 2 = lim 2 <1
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 +2𝑛+2 𝑛 +1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 +2𝑛+2
• The series converges
 SERIES
•Power Series
• It is often convenient to represent a function as
a series of ascending powers of the variable.
• There are many occasions when we have need to
express a function of 𝑥 as an infinite series of
powers of 𝑥.
 SERIES
•Power Series
• Consider the function
2 3 4 5
• 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑓𝑥 + ⋯
• Put 𝑥 = 0. Then 𝑎 = 𝑓(0)
• Differentiate
′ 2 3 4
• 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑥 + 3𝑑𝑥 + 4𝑒𝑥 + 5𝑓𝑥 + ⋯
 SERIES
•Power Series
• Put 𝑥 = 0. Then 𝑏 = 𝑓′(0)
• Differentiate
• f′′ 𝑥 = 2𝑐 + 6𝑑𝑥 + 12𝑒𝑥 2 + 20𝑓𝑥 3 + ⋯
𝑓′′(0)
• Put 𝑥 = 0. Then 𝑐 =
2!
 SERIES
•Power Series
• Differentiate
2
• f′′′ 𝑥 = 6𝑑 + 24𝑒𝑥 + 60𝑓𝑥 + ⋯
𝑓′′′(0)
• Put 𝑥 = 0. Then 𝑑 =
3!
• Differentiate
• 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 𝑥 = 24𝑒 + 120𝑓𝑥 + ⋯
 SERIES
•Power Series
𝑓𝑖𝑣 (0)
• Put 𝑥 = 0. Then 𝑒 =
4!
• We put the expressions for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, … . . back into the
original series to get
2 𝑓′′(0) 3 𝑓′′′(0)
• 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓′(0) + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +
2! 3!
𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (0)
𝑥4 +⋯
4!
 SERIES
•Power Series
• Find the Power Series expansion of cos𝑥 .
Let𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑓 0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1
′ 𝑥
𝑓 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓′ 0 = 0
′′ 𝑥 ′′ 0
𝑓 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑓 = −1
𝑓′′′ 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓′′′ 0 = 0
 SERIES
•Power Series
𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑓 ′𝑣 0 = 1
𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓 𝑣 (0) = 0
𝑓 𝑥
𝑓′′(0) 𝑓′′′(0)
= 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓′(0) + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥3
𝑖𝑣
2! 3!
𝑓 (0)
+ 𝑥4 +⋯
4!
 SERIES
•Power Series
2 4 6
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 1 − + − + ⋯
2! 4! 6!
 SERIES
•Power Series
• Find the Power Series expansion of ln(1 + 𝑥)
Let𝑓 𝑥 = ln(1 + 𝑥) 𝑓 0 = 𝑙𝑛1 = 0
′ 𝑥 −1
𝑓 = (1 + 𝑥) 𝑓′ 0 = 1
′′ 𝑥 −2 ′′ 0
𝑓 = −(1 + 𝑥) 𝑓 = −1
−3
𝑓′′′ 𝑥 = 2(1 + 𝑥) 𝑓′′′ 0 = 2
 SERIES
•Power Series
𝑓 ′𝑣 𝑥 = −6(1 + 𝑥)−4 𝑓 ′𝑣 0 = −6
𝑣 −5 𝑣
𝑓 (𝑥) = 24(1 + 𝑥) 𝑓 (0) = 24
𝑓 𝑥
𝑓′′(0) 𝑓′′′(0)
= 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓′(0) + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥3
𝑖𝑣
2! 3!
𝑓 (0)
+ 𝑥4 +⋯
4!
 SERIES
•Power Series
2 3 4 5
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − + − ⋯
2 3 4 5