Types of Manufacturing Processes 7 aa oe ‘Sand Casting, Permanent Mold ag. Oo “Zxtrusion Molding. Hotueional, oS : x Welamg. soldering. Brazing. Rdneaive Joining, Pastentng (6. COATING eee 8 2Fundamentals of the Mechanical (2&7) 3a Behavior of Materials Fundamental aspects of the mechanical behavior of materials during plastic deformation (bulk deformation processes and sheet-forming processes). Deformation modes, Stresses, Forces, Work of deformation, Effects of rate of deformation and temperature, Hardness, Residual stresses, and Yield criteria Basic modes of deformation: > Tensile > Compression > Shear Strain: The degree of deformation to which material is subjected. For tension or compression, the engineering strain, or nominal strain, is defined as Strain in tension is positive, and in compression it is negative. The shear strain is defined as: a ya b Tensile strains are involved in stretching sheet metal to make car bodies. Compressive strains in forging metals to make turbine disks. Shear strains in making holes by punching. In order to change the shape of the elements, or bodies, Forces must be applied to them, as shown by the arrows. The determination of these forces as a function of strain is an important aspect in the study of manufacturing processes.Types of strains I: ce | feewws f) | When the load is first applied, the specimen elongates proportionately to the load up to the proportional limi this is the range of linear elastic behavior. The material will continue to deform elastically, although not strictly linearly, up to the yield point, Y. If the load is removed before the yield point is reached, the specimen will return to its original length. The modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus, &, is defined as: Baz This linear relationship between stress and strain is known as Hooke's law. The elongation of the specimen is accompanied by a contraction of its lateral dimensions. The absolute value of the ratio of the lateral strain to longitudinal strain is known as Poisson's ratio.v The area under the stress—strain curve up to the yield point, ¥, of the material is known as the modulus of resilience: Modulus of resilience = Y32 — Y= This area nas the units of energy per unit volume and indicates the specific eneray that the material can store elastically.With increasing load, the specimen begins to yield; that is, it begins to undergo plastic (permanent) deformation. The relationship between stress and strain is no longer linear. For most materials the rate of change in the slope of the stress-strain curve beyond the yield point is very sma thus the determination of Y can be difficult. The usual practice is to define the yield stress as the poi t on the curve that is offset by a strain of (usually) 0.2%, or 0.002. As the specimen continues to elongate under increasing load beyond Y, its cross-sectional area decreases permanently and ! uniformly throughout its gage | lensth. i If the specimen is unloaded from i @ stress level higher than Y. the ! curve follows a straight { downward and parallel to the aot sian original elastic slope. —— Stess Elastic Plastic | Ultimate tensile I ia | strength (UTS) |--— — — }- ot I | | Yield Strength (> | | #\ Fracture 5 2. |. Necking | Stress N/m") 7 elongation ~ | | | | | Strain (am) [Se Ductility The strain in the specimen at fracture is a measure of ductility, that is, how large a_ strain the material withstands before fracture. The strain up to the UTS The elongation at fracture is known as the total elongation and is measured between the original gage marks after the two pieces of the broken specimen are Placed together. Two quantities that are commonly used to define ductility in a tension test are e/ongation and reduction of area. called uniform strain.Elongation is defined as: i bp = to Elongation = £— x 100 Necking is a local phenomenon. If we put a series of gage marks at different points on the specimen, pull and break it under tension, and then calculate the percent = elongation for each pair of gage marks, we find that with decreasing gage length, the $e percent elongation increases Asecond measure of ductility is reduction of area, defined as: Ae — Ay Ao A material that necks down to a point at fracture, such as a glass rod at elevated temperature, has a reduction of area of 100%. Elongation ranges approximately between 10% and 60%, and values between 20% and 90% are typical for reduction of area for most materials. Thermoplastics and superplastic materials exhibit much higher ductility. Brittle materials, by definition, have little or no ductility. True Stress and True Strain === Reduction of area = + Because stress is defined as the ratio of force to area, true stress is likewise defined as: oA where A is the actual (hence true) or instantaneous area supporting the load. + The complete tension test may be regarded as a series of incremental tension tests where, for each succeeding increment, the specimen is a little longer than at the preceding stage True strain (or natural or logarithmic strain), e, can be defined as: “at _ (4 =f Tas For small values of engineering strain, we have e € since in(1 + e) = « For larger strains, however, the values rapidly diverge. Somparison of Engineering and True Strains in Tension O69 La is BaThe volume of a metal specimen remains constant in the Plastic region of the test. Thus, the true strain wi can be expressed as: = im(E) =m 2) = ("= 2 mC) Once necking begins, the true strain at any point between the gage marks of the specimen can be calculated from the reduction in the cross-sectional area at that point. Thus, by definition, the largest strain is at the narrowest region of the neck. the uniform elongation range The relationship between engineering and true values for stress and strain, respectively, can now be used to construct true stress—true strain curves from a curve. A typical true stress—true strain curve is shown in the following figure: 100, Leg + n=025 True strees (6.9 MPa) om oO 1 Lig Tnestan) True strain (e) Rewriting the previous equation: logo = logk + nloge The slope n is known as the strain-hardening exponent, and k is known as the strength coefficient. Note that K is the true stress at a true strain of unity. Values of K and nr for a variety of engineering materials are given in the following Table Y¥y is known as the flow stress and is defined as the true stress required to continue plastic deformation at a particular true strain, €;. For strain hardening materials, the flow stress increases with increasing strain.Toughness Ability to absorb energy up to fracture. + The area under the true stress—true strain curve is known as toughness and can be expressed as: Toughness = Sil ade where e; is the true strain at fracture. = Note that toughness is the energy + a e per unit volume (specific energy) strain that has been dissipated up to the point of fracture. + Units: The energy per unit volume, e.g. J/m3 . It Can be measured by an impact test. Types of stress—strain curves “SSS "ll! r with 1. Aperfectly elastic material displays linear beha slope E. A rigid, perfectly plastic material has, by definition, an infinite value of E&. 3. The behavior of an elastic, perfectly plastic materi a combination of the first two: It has a finite elastic modulus and its undergoes elastic recovery when the load is released. 4. Arigid, linearly strain-hardening material requires an increasing stress level to undergo further strain. An elastic, linearly strain-hardening curve. Various types of idealized Pu." stress-strain curves Lis. Sbess @= = Hardness Hardness of a material is generally defined as its resistance to permanent indentation; it can also be defined as its resistance to scratching or to wear. Hardness is a measure of a material's resistance to localized plastic deformation (a small dent or scratch). Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed where a small indenter is forced into the surface of a material. The depth or size of the indentation is measured, and corresponds toa hardness number. The softer the material, the larger and deeper the indentation (and lower hardness number) Several techniques have been developed to measure the hardness of materials using various indenter geometries and materials Hardness is not a fundamental property because resistance to indentation depends on the shape of the indenter and the load applied. The most common standardized hardness tests are described next and summarized in the following Figure. Relationship between P=. hardness and strength Since hardness is the resistance to permanent indentation, hardness testing is equivalent to performing a compression test on a small volume of a material’s surface We would then expect some _ correlation between hardness and yield stress, Y, the form of Hardness = cY where c is a proportionality constant.Stress amplitude, S (MPa) Fatigue — = Gears, cams, shafts, springs, and tools and dies are typically subjected to rapidly fluctuating (cyclic or periodic) loads. These stresses may be caused by fluctuating mechanical loads (such as gear teeth, dies, and cutters), or by thermal stresses (such as a cool die coming into repeated contact with hot workpieces) Under these conditions, the part fails at a stress level below which failure would occur under static loading. This phenomenon is known as fatigue failure and is responsible for the majority of failures in mechanical components. Fatigue tests repeatedly subject specimens to various states of stress, usually in a combination of tension and compression, or torsion. The test is carried out at various stress amplitudes (S) and the number of cycles (V) to cause total failure of the specimen or part is recorded. Stress amplitude is the maximum stress, in tension and compression, to which the specimen is subjected. 60 s00}- e 1 § 507 400 ® sok s 300F 2 sof S 200+ & ook 100+ 8 toh 6 olLyt_i, 1. 1 0 L 1 103 10% 105 108 107 108 10° 101° 10? 104 108 108107 Number of cycles, N Number of cycles, N The fatigue test can also be performed on a rotating shaft with a constant downward load. The maximum stress to which the material can be subjected without fatigue failure, regardless of the number of cycles, is known as the endurance limit or fatigue limit. The fatigue strength for metals has been found to be related to their ultimate tensile strength, UTS.For steels, the endurance limit is about one-half their tensile strength. Although most metals, especially steels, have a definite endurance limit, aluminum alloys do not have one and the S-N curve continues its downward trend. For metals exhibiting such behavior (most face-centered cubic metals), the fatigue strength is specified at a specific number of cycles, such as 107. In this way, the useful service life of the component can be specified. Creep Di Creep is the permanent elongation of a material under a static load maintained for a period of time It is a phenomenon of metals and some nonmetallic materials, such as thermoplastics and rubbers, and it can occur at any temperature Creep is especially important in high-temperature applications, such as gas turbine blades and similar components in jet engines and rocket motors. High pressure steam lines and nuclear-fuel elements are also subject to creep. Creep deformation also can occur in tools and dies that are subjected to high stresses at elevated temperatures during metalworking operations such as hot forging and extrusion. A creep test typically consists of subjecting a specimen to a constant tensile load (hence constant engineering stress) at a certain temperature, and measuring the change in length over a period of time. A typical creep curve usually consists of primary, secondary, and tertiary stages. The specimen eventually fails by necking and fracture, as n the tension test, which is called rupture or creep rupture. As expected, the creep rate increases with temperature and the applied load. A typical creep curve Ea Rupture Primary -— Seconaary ——| Instantancous dotormation TimeMetal Casting Lecture No. 3 Casting rf... It is one of the earliest metal-shaping methods. It means pouring of molten metal into a refractory mold and allowing it to solidify. When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from refractory mold. The solidified object is called casting. Advantages of metal casting ©! The most intricate of shapes, external or internal may be cast. Some metals like cast iron, can only be cast since they can not be hot worked. Construction may be simplified. Metal casting is highly adaptable to the requirements of mass production. Versatile process (no limit on shape, size and intricacy). High degree of reproducibility. Extremely large and heavy metal objects may be cast. Some engineering properties are obtained in cast metals. % Machinability and vibration damping capacity. > Uniformity. > Strength and lightness. > Good bearing quality.Basic steps in making sand castings 4. Pattern making 2. Core making 3. Mold making 4. Pouring and melting 5. Cleaning Outline of a typical sand - =z casting operation = Pattern making: Molelin Core making ~ Gating system cor [> [wee | cing of L {| Pouring Costing weet Inspection Furnaces Solidification Shakeout Additional heat Defects Removal of risers ent Prenat tines Pattern Making + Pattern allowances - Types of patterns - Considerations in pattern making + A pattern is replica of the part to be cast with some modifications. > The addition of pattern allowances. > The provision of core prints. > Elimination of fine details which can not be obtained by casting. * Model of casting with some allowances, constructed in such a way that it can be used to form impressions or prepare mold cavity.Is pattern same as the P=. casting? The pattern is slightly larger in every dimension — shrinkage allowance. Sufficient extra dimensions to get required surface finish — machining allowance. Pattern horizontal section is the largest at the parting line — draft. Provisions to support the cores — core prints. Small tapped holes, slots etc. are not provided on the pattern to get the required accuracy. Patterns are generally made in two or more than two parts. The pattern is generally made of different material other than cast material. Pattern allowances Shrinkage allowance Machining allowance Draft allowance Shake allowance Distortion allowancevv Shrinkage allowance SEE Types of shrinkage Shrinkage allowance for common metals Calculation of solid shrinkage Simple problem green paxguensncreene TEMPERATURE TE Machining allowance Importance of machining allowances. They are included in pattern dimensions They depend on the type of casting and increase with the size and section thickness of castings. Allowances usually range from about 2 to 5 mm for small castings to more than 25 mm for large castings. Es Draft allowance A small draft (taper) is typically provided in sand-mold patterns to enable removal of the pattern without damaging the mold. Drafts generally range from 5 to 15 mm/m Depending on the quality of the pattern, draft angles usually range from 0.5° to 2°. The draft angles on inside surfaces are typically twice this range; they have to be higher than those for outer surfaces because the casting shrinks inward toward the core Patern——y WAShake allowance Sas Before withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical faces to enlarge the mold cavity slightly which facilitates its removal. Since it enlarges the final casting made, it is desirable that the original pattern dimensions should be reduced to account for this Increase. There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance since it is highly dependent on the foundry personne! and practices involved It Is a negative allowance and is to be applied only to those dimensions which are parallel to the parting plane. One way of reducing this allowance Is to increase the drart which can be removed during the subsequent machining. Distortion allowance Ee ————— A metal when has just solidified is very weak and therefore is likely to be distortion prone, This is particularly so for weaker sections such as long flat portions, V. U sections or in a complicated casting Which may have thin and long sections connected to thick sections The foundry practice should be to make extra material provision for reducing the distortion Alternatively, the shape of pattern itself should be given a distortion of equal amount in the opposite direction of the Kely distortion direction This can be done by trial and error basis to get the distortion amount. SS Required Shape Distorted Cambered of Casting Casting Pattern Selection of Pattern Material Size of casting Shape of casting Dimensional accuracy Quantity of castings required Molding processPattern Material kX Characteristics s Machinability Wear Resistance Strength mI0000 Resistance to Corrosion(c) TommmavM m vOUTMT mmnggamrgd m vov0M (0 ESSedier [eeeess | Ee esr | b As a factor in operator fatigue © By water Types of patterns a + Single piece pattern /solid pattern (flat-back pattern) + Split patterns or two piece pattern * Gated pattern * Cope and drag pattern * Match plate patterns * Loose piece patterns * Follow board pattern * Sweep pattern * Skeleton pattern Single piece pattern Lacan! + Itis inexpensive and the simplest type of pattern. + It is used only in cases where the job is very simple and does not create any withdrawal problem. - It is used in small scale production or in prototype development. + One of the surface is expected to be flat which is used as parting plane + Gating system is made by hand cutting.Spit pattern It is mostly used for intricate castings When the contour of the casting makes its withdrawal difficult from the mold or depth of the casting is too high, then the pattern is split into two parts so that one part is in the drag and other part is in the cope. The split surface of the pattern is the same as parting plane of the mold. Dowel pins are used for proper al the cope half of the pattern. Gating system is made by hand-cutting. InMent of drag half to Gated pattern It is an improvement of the ungated pattern. Gating and runner systems are integral with the pattern. This wi the mold. It helps to improve productivity of molder. Gated pattern contd... aes eliminate hand cutting of runners and gates in Patterns Gate G@) Gated pattern castings > Gating systemCope and drag pattern These are similar to split pattern. In addition to the split pattern, the cope and drag halves of the pattern along with runners and gating system are attached to the metal or wooden plates separately. Plates are matched properly by alignment pins. The cope and drag molds may be produced using these pattern separately by two molder but they can be assembled to form a complete mold. This type of patterns are used for castings, which are heavy and inconvenient in handling as well as for continuous production. Cope Pattern Riser Patiern-Match plate pattern Lia These are extension of cope and drag pattern. The cope and drag portion of the pattern are mounted on opposite sides of a wood or metal plate. Gating systems are attached to the match plate Match plate patterns are used for small castings with higher dimensional accuracy and large production. Drag side Block casting Fst plate . Loose piece pattern ————— This type of pattern is used when the contour of the part is such that withdrawing the pattern from the mold is not possible. During the molding, the obstruction part of the contour known as a loose piece is held by a wire. When ramming is over, first the main pattern is removed and then the loose pieces are recovered through the gap generated by the main pattern. It is a highly skilled job and should be avoided wherever possible. Loose piece Ion in the mold after pattern removal (b)Follow board pattern Lie It is adopted for those castings where there are some portions which are structurally weak and if not supported properly are likely to break under the force of ramming. Hence, bottom board is modified to a follow board to closely fit the contour of the weak portion and support it during the ramming of the drag. No follow board is required for preparation of the cope because the sand is already compacted in the drag which will support the fragile portion. SSS =F SSssss Sweep pattern = It is used to complete mold by means of a plane sweep. These are used for generating large shapes which are axi-symmetrical in nature like bell shaped or cylindrical ornaments. It greatly reduces the cost of a three dimensional pattern. bens (@ make top mold {@) make bottom mold (@) assembly sand boxesSkeleton pattern el + A skeleton of the pattern made of strips of wood is used for building the final pattern by packing sand around the skeleton. - After packing the sand, the desired form is obtained with the help of a strickle_ + This type of pattern is useful for very large castings, required in small qua ‘Ss where large expense on ddDiced Pattern colour code Objective: Patterns have some identifier such as colors on them, each of which has different meaning and represent different treatment & requirements for the pattern. “ Mould maker can understand clearly the various functions need to be further performed. Patterns are normally painted with different colors in such a way that mold maker would be able to understand the how to treat that particular surface. 41. Red or Orange on surfaces indicates that the surface of the material would not to be finished and would be left as it is after casting. 2. Yellow indicates that the surface needs machining. 3. Black indicates that the surface needs core and shows the position of the sand core. 4. Yellow strips on black on core prints for machined openings. 5. Green on seats of and for loose piece and loose core prints. 6. Diagonal black strips with clear varnish on to strengthen the weak pattern or to shorten the casting aCore making Ee * Cores are the objects used for making internal cavities and hollow projections, which can not normally be produced by the pattern alone. + Cores are also used on castings to form external features such as > Lettering on the surface of a casting > Deep external pockets on castings. Few Characteristics of Core: + In molds, the cores must withstand the severest abuse. + In spite of being submerged in hot metal, the core must resist erosion, breakage, thermal shock and metal penetration. + It should retain its dimensional location and produce defect free casting. + Core should not be so permanent that their removal from the casting becomes difficult. The desired characteristics of a core are the following: > Green strength: A core is made of green sand should be strong enough to retain the shape till it goes for baking. > Dry strength: Adequate dry strength for resisting metal pressure. > Refractoriness: Core material should have higher refractoriness. > Permeability’ Higher permeability to escape generated gas from the mold. > Collapsibility: (ability to decrease in size) it should have good collapsibility. > Eriability: (ability to crumble) it should have good friability. > Smoothnes: surface of core should be smooth enough to provide good surface finish to the casting. > Low gas emission: It should allow only a minimal amount of gas to be evolved such that voids in the casting can be eliminatedCore Materials: Core sand, Metal, Ceramics. Core sand ingredients: Sand grains, orga additives. Core making process: 4. The core box is filled with core sand, rammed and struck off. 2. Then the core is transferred to a core plate for baking. 3. This is done by placing the plate over the core box, both, and drawing the core box away from the core. binder, other inverting CHAPLETS. DRAG Core Prints: + Acore consists of two portions > The body of the core > One or more extensions called prints. + The prints are necessary to support the core in the mold + They also conduct the heat (and gases produced by a sand core) to the mold. Core Print Pe Various features of Core Prints: > The print is an extension of the core body, usually along its axis. > The print design depends on the direction of core axis and the number of openings. » Each opening corresponds to a separate print for core support. =Design Rules for Core Print: 4. The print must balance the body, so that the core stays in place during the mould assembly. 2. The print must not shift during mould filling. The print should minimize the deflection of the core. 3. Unsymmetrical holes should have foolproof prints to prevent Incorrect assembly. Design Rules for Core Print: 4. The print should maximize the heat transfer from the core to the mould. 5. The print should allow the internal gases generated in the core to escape to the mould. 6. The prints of adjacent cores may be combined into one. Chaplets: > They are metallic supports kept inside the mold cavity to support the cores. > They are of same composition as that of the pouring metal > They should fuse with parent metal during solidification process of casting, » They should be clean of any dirt, I, grease or moisture.Various Types of Chaplets Pa TTT ees ss 2 EE 1 Welded Riveted Double-head chaplets s = = Cast chaptets —— a | Ss a5 7"