Types of attention – arousal / focused

Selective – dichotic listening / models of selective attention

Divided

Sustained

Executive / alternative?

It refers to focusing and processing information from our surroundings. While it

involves our tending to facets of our environment, the nature of our attention can
vary from event to event.

Focalization, concentration of consciousness are of its essence. It implies withdrawal

from some things in order to deal effectively with others.

Implied in this description is the idea that we seem to have a limited capacity for
information processing, and that we can only attend to or be consciously aware of a
small amount of information at any given time.

Attention in the context of this type of search task refers to the level of sustained
attention or vigilance one can maintain. In contrast, divided attention tasks allow us
to determine how well individuals can attend to many sources of information at
once. Spatial attention refers specifically to how we focus on one part of our
environment and how we move attention to other locations in the environment.
These are all examples of different aspects of attention, but an implied element of
most of these ideas is the concept of selective attention; some information is
attended to while other information is intentionally blocked out.

Selective attention
Selective attention is the ability to select certain stimuli in the environment to
process, while ignoring distracting information. One way to get an intuitive sense of
how attention works is to consider situations in which attention is used. This
situation highlights an interesting set of observations. We have an amazing ability to
select and track one voice, visual object, etc., even when a million things are
competing for our attention, but at the same time, we seem to be limited in how
much we can attend to at one time, which in turn suggests that attention is crucial in
selecting what is important.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/attention-models.html
http://detsndt.ac.in/nmeict-files/nmeict-los/edupsycho/ep17/17.9.1/

Models of Selective Attention - Broadbent’s Filter Model. 1958

Dichotic Listening Studies

Treisman
’s Attenuation Model - (1960) speech shadowing method

Late Selection Models – Deutsch and Norman 1963

Multimode Model Johnston and Heinz (1978)

The multimode model addresses this apparent inconsistency, suggesting that the
stage at which selection occurs can change depending on the task. Johnston and
Heinz (1978) demonstrated that under some conditions, we can select what to
attend to at a very early stage and we do not process the content of the unattended
message very much at all. Analyzing physical information, such as attending to
information based on whether it is a male or female voice, is relatively easy; it occurs
automatically, rapidly, and doesn’t take much effort. Under the right conditions, we
can select what to attend to on the basis of the meaning of the messages. However,
the late selection option—processing the content of all messages before selection—
is more difficult and requires more effort. The benefit, though, is that we have the
flexibility to change how we deploy our attention depending upon what we are
trying to accomplish, which is one of the greatest strengths of our cognitive system.

This discussion of selective attention has focused on experiments using auditory

material, but the same principles hold for other perceptual systems as well. Neisser
(1979) investigated some of the same questions with visual materials by
superimposing two semi-transparent video clips and asking viewers to attend to just
one series of actions. As with the auditory materials, viewers often were unaware of
what went on in the other clearly visible video. Twenty years later, Simons and
Chabris (1999) explored and expanded these findings using similar techniques, and
triggered a flood of new work in an area referred to as inattentional blindness.

Divided attention - We know that with extensive practice, we can acquire skills
that do not appear to require conscious attention. As we walk down the street, we
don’t need to think consciously about what muscle to contract in order to take the next
step. Indeed, paying attention to automated skills can lead to a breakdown in
performance, or “choking”
We use divided attention while simultaneously paying attention to two or
more tasks. This ability is also called Multitasking. Divided attention uses
mental focus on a very large scale. Nonetheless, this does not allow the
brain to fully focus on any task. Therefore, this type of attention does not
last for long.
A related research area looks at task switching and how well we can switch back and
forth among different tasks [e.g., Monsell, 2003]. It turns out that switching itself is
cognitively demanding and can impair performance.)
Distracted Driving

Sustained attention - We often use sustained attention for tasks that take
a long time or require intense focus. This type of attention allows one to
consistently perform a certain mental activity. For example, when children
study for an exam, they need to read and acquire the information in a
textbook for several hours.
Sustained attention (or vigilant attention) denotes simple
stimulus detection or discrimination via cognitive or motoric
responses with no other attention (e.g., selecting between overt
responses, perceptual discrimination) or executive control
Effort, like arousal, is subject to task demands and available capacity.
It is regarded as being mobilized in response to such demands,
although the degree of voluntary control of effort is limited. Effort is
not simply to be equated with the amount of work required by a task.
Much mental activity takes place without the investment of a large
amount of conscious effort.
Habituation and Novelty - If sustained attention can facilitate
processing speed in habituation tasks.
Attention distinguishes between two modes of processing
information: controlled search and automatic detection. Controlled
search is highly demanding of attentional capacity and is usually serial
in nature. It is easily established and is largely under the individual’s
control in that it can be readily altered or even reversed. It is strongly
dependent on the stimulus load. It has been suggested that it
uses short-term memory. By contrast, automatic detection, or
automatic processing, operates in long-term memory and is dependent
upon extensive learning.
Memorizing is not simply a matter of repetition; attention plays a role
in organizing material in ways that can influence its later recall.
two types of attention can be characterized as focal and automatic.
Someone who is focally attentive is highly aware, consciously in
control, and selective in handling sensory phenomena. A person in
such a state also uses the brain for short-term storage. (Indeed, some
focal attention is almost certainly necessary for storing information in
the memory at all.
rehearsal. In this sense rehearsal means the mental repetition of
incoming information. One consequence of rehearsal is that input
items spend an extended period of time in the short-term memory
store. It is also generally the case that what is attended to and
rehearsed eventually ends up being stored in long-term memory.
The process of habituation occurs when a person’s response to
novelty wanes with the repeated and regular presentation of the same
signal. Habituation represents a progressive loss of behavioral
responsivity to a stimulus as its lack of adaptive significance is
recognized. The unchanging repetition of the signal facilitates this
recognition and confirms the inappropriateness of deploying further
attention upon the signal. Generally, a shorter time interval between
signals means a more rapid drop in responsiveness. If, however, the
signals hold special significance for the individual, they will continue
to be attended to and responded to even though they may be
repetitive. For example, a person who counts the ticks of the clock to
check its accuracy will not become habituated to the ticking sound. In
other circumstances where stimuli have special signal properties,
habituation may take place but only very slowly. Other factors, such as
loudness, brightness, or intensity, can affect the magnitude of
response to a signal and the rate at which habituation takes place

vigilance

attention must be maintained over time.

there is a distinction between sustaining attention in a detection task,
where the overall workload is high, and sustaining it when little is
happening except for the occasional looked-for events. Under both
conditions performance can decline over time.
The frequency of task-relevant events holds a significant influence on
vigilance performance.
If a signal occurs after an atypical interval, it is less likely to be
detected. Performance can be improved (up to a point) by increasing
task complexity, and in some vigilance situations the introduction of a
secondary task can actually improve performance on the primary task.
Performance is also enhanced when the individual receives feedback
on the vigilance effort.

Executive attention / Alternating Attention

Executive attention is particularly good at blocking out unimportant features of the
environment and attending to what really matters. It is the attention we use when we
are making steps toward a particular end.

Alternating attention is the ability to change the focus of your attention and switch
between different tasks. In this type of attention, mental flexibility is required so
that one task does not limit the performance of others.

classification of Ross.
(a) Non-volitional or Involuntary Attention:
This type of attention is aroused without the play of will. Here we
attend to an object or condition without making any conscious effort,
e.g. a mother’s attention towards her crying child, for example,
attention towards the members of the opposite sex, and towards bright
colours, etc.

The attention which is aroused by the instincts is called “enforced non-

volitional attention”. A young man when we remark on his sex instinct
or his curiosity, he becomes quite attentive in his task.

The other subtype of non-volitional attention, produced by the

sentiments is called “spontaneous non-volitional attention”. It is the
result of properly developed sentiment, towards the object, or idea of a
person around which our sentiments are formed with.

(b) Volitional or Voluntary Attention:

When the ‘exercised will’ is called upon, it becomes volitional
attention. Because it demands the conscious efforts on our part it is
least automatic and spontaneous like that of non-volitional attention.
Attention payed at the time of solving an assigned problem of
mathematics, answering question in an examination hall and so on
comes under volitional attention category.

Volitional attention is further subdivided into two

categories:
i. A single act of volition is sufficient to bring about attention in the
case of implicit attention, e.g. for single act of will can arouse
attention.

ii. In explicit volitional attention we need repeated acts of will to

sustain it, e.g. here attention is obtained by repeated acts of will.
Factors influencing attention –
1. External factors or condition

2. Internal factors

I. External Factors or Condition:

These conditions are generally those characteristics of outside
situation or stimuli which make the strongest aid for capturing our
attention.

1. Nature of the stimulus:

All types of stimuli are not able to bring the same degree of attention.
A picture attracts attention more readily than words. Among the
pictures, the pictures of human beings invite more attention and those
of human beings related to beautiful women or handsome men, who
attract more attention. In this way an effective stimulus should always
be chosen for capturing maximum attention.

2. Intensity and size of the stimulus:

In comparison with the weak stimulus, the immense stimulus attracts
more attention of an individual. Our attention become easily directed
towards a loud sound, a bright light or a strong smell, and also a large
building will be more readily attended to, than a small one.

3. Contrast, change and variety:

Change and variety strike attention more easily than sameness and
absence of change, e.g. we do not notice the ticking sound of a clock
put on the wall until it stops ticking, that is any change in the attention
to which you have been attracted immediately capture your attention.
The factor, contact or change is highly responsible for capturing
attention of the organism and contributes more than the intensity, size
or nature of the stimulus.

4. Repetition of stimulus:
Repetition is the factor of great importance in securing attention.
Because one may ignore a stimulus at first instance, but if it is
repeated for several times it captures our attention, e.g. a miss-spelled
word is more likely to be noticed, if it occurs twice in the same
paragraph than, if it occurs only once. While giving lecture the
important aspects of the speech are often repeated so that the
attention of the audience can be easily directed to the valuable points.

5. Movement of the stimulus:

The moving stimulus catches our attention more quickly than a
stimulus that does not move. We are more sensitive to objects that
move in our field of vision, e.g. advertisers make use of this fact and
try to catch the attention of people through moving electric lights.

II. Internal or Subjective Factors:

These factors predispose the individual to respond to objective factors,
to attend to those activities that fulfill his desires and motives and suit
his interest and attitude. It is the mental state of the perceiver.

1. Interest:
Interest is said to be the mother of attention. We attend to objects in
which we have interest. We would like to watch a movie or a serial in
TV because we are interested in the subject around which the movie or
serial revolves. In any get-together if any subject of our interest is
discussed that attracts our attention easily and makes us to participate
in the discussion. In our day-to-day life we pay attention to the
stimulus we are interested in.

2. Motives:
Our basic needs and motives to a great extent, determine our
attention, thirst, hunger, sex, curiosity, fear are some of the important
motives that influence attention, e.g. small children get attracted
towards eatables.

3. Mind set:
Person’s readiness to respond determines his attention. If we are
expecting a stimulus, occurrence of that stimulus along with many
other stimuli may not come in the way of attending to that particular
stimulus. At a time when students are expecting the examination time
table by the end of the semester the time table put out on the notice
board along with other notices would attract their attention easily.

4. Moods and attitudes:

What we attend to is influenced by the moods and attitudes. When we
are disturbed or in angry mood, we notice the smallest mistake of
others very easily. Likewise our favourable and unfavourable attitudes
also determine our attention. After discussing subjective and objective
factors, we realize that these factors are interrelated. How much or in
what way we attend to a stimulus depends on subjective as well as
objective factors.

Disorders of attention –

Given the importance of attention to sensory and cognitive processing, it is not surprising that
attentional disorders are among the most common and most devastating neurological conditions.
The main attentional disorders are confusional states, partial (domain-specific) attentional
syndromes, and hemispatial neglect.

Confusional states

A confusional state (or delirium) is a global change in mental status wherein the principal
cognitive deficit is a change in the overall attentional tone. It is the most common disturbance of
mental status seen by physicians. Associated symptoms can include incoherent thinking,
distractibility, perceptual disturbances including illusions or hallucinations, dyscoordination,
delusions, impaired judgement, reduced insight and agitation. Some of these disturbances may
arise because of the attentional disorder while others may arise separately

Patients in a confusional state are usually disoriented and their memory is impaired. They may
appear to have mild-to-moderate associated cognitive deficits such as an anomia, dysgraphia,
dyscalculia, or constructional difficulties. When neurological signs occur, they may include a
coarse tremor, myoclonus or asterixis as an indicator of the patient's underlying metabolic
disarray2. Focal neurological signs may be seen, however, when the confusional state arises
because of intrinsic central nervous system disease (e.g. stroke). focal anatomical regions
associated with a confusional state include the parahippocampal-fusiform-lingual gyri in either
cerebral hemisphere, and right-sided lesions of the posterior parietal and inferior prefrontal
cortex.

These functional imaging studies are consistent with the concept of a network of brain regions
contributing to attention. Damage to any part of this network may produce a confusional state,
although some regions (e.g. temporoparietal cortex) appear to be more critical than others

Partial attentional syndromes

Attentional impairments can also present more focally as domain-specific or ‘partial’ attentional
syndromes. These syndromes are not well defined because partial attentional impairments tend not
to present as separately definable syndromes, rather they are manifest as reduced performance in
one or more cognitive domains. For example, changes in visual-based attention could result in
reduced detection of stimuli in the environment, while changes in language-based attention could
present as reduced verbal fluency. In both these examples, the clinician must be alert to the
possibility of an attentional disruption rather than a visual disorder or an aphasia, respectively.

Domain specific attention deficits have been produced in normal individuals using tasks based on
the concept of inattentional stimulus processing. Such tasks present subjects with stimuli, which
they either attend or ignore. By examining the difference between the attend and ignore
conditions, the effects of attention on domain specific processing can be observed. Continuous
Performance Test (CPT) as the primary measure of attention.

Hemispatial neglect
the inability of the patient to orient towards, respond to, or report on, stimuli on the contralesional
side of space. Neglect is a multimodal deficit and may affect any or all sensory modalities, motor
behaviours or even the internal representations of memories and other thoughts. Most often, the
left hemispace is neglected, as the disorder is more frequent and severe following right hemisphere
injury. Clinically, the patient's head and eyes may be directed entirely towards the ipsilesional space
(usually right). When there is an accompanying motor deficit, the patient may deny any problem
 with the affected limb (anosognosia), may say they are moving the limb normally as it hangs limply
at their side, or may fail to recognize the affected limb as their own. Patients with neglect may fail
to groom themselves properly on the neglected side, or may fail to eat food on the neglected side
of the dinner plate. When reading, the patient may start towards the middle of a line rather than on
the left.

Note - It is important to note that basic sensory or motor disorders are not part of the neglect
syndrome, although they may be present.

Extinction is diagnosed by the patient being able to detect stimuli presented separately to either
side of space, but only detecting one of the stimuli (usually right) when they are presented
simultaneously. At times, the deficits associated with neglect are less dramatic and may only be
apparent when the patient is asked to perform more specific tests such as bisecting lines or
searching for targets among a set of irrelevant stimuli.

Lesion sites causing neglect have been found throughout the network of cortical and subcortical
areas responsible for attention. These regions include the posterior parietal cortex/temporoparietal
junction, frontal eye fields, cingulate and supplementary motor cortex, basal ganglia, thalamus,
midbrain and superior colliculus. Typically, the lesions are on the right.

ADD / ADHD
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a disorder marked by an ongoing
pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with
functioning or development.

 Inattention means a person wanders off task, lacks persistence, has difficulty
sustaining focus, and is disorganized; and these problems are not due to defiance
or lack of comprehension.
 Hyperactivity means a person seems to move about constantly, including in
situations in which it is not appropriate; or excessively fidgets, taps, or talks. In
adults, it may be extreme restlessness or wearing others out with constant activity.
 Impulsivity means a person makes hasty actions that occur in the moment without
first thinking about them and that may have a high potential for harm, or a desire
for immediate rewards or inability to delay gratification. An impulsive person may
be socially intrusive and excessively interrupt others or make important decisions
without considering the long-term consequences.
 Risk Factors

Researchers are not sure what causes ADHD. Like many other illnesses, several
factors can contribute to ADHD, such as:

 Genes
 Cigarette smoking, alcohol use, or drug use during pregnancy
 Exposure to environmental toxins during pregnancy
 Exposure to environmental toxins, such as high levels of lead, at a young age
 Low birth weight
 Brain injuries

ADD
Attention deficit disorder (ADD) is a neurological disorder that causes a range of behavior problems such
as difficulty attending to instruction,

Schiz - Impaired attention is commonly observed among schizophrenia patients

and those at genetic risk for the disease . there is an extensive literature
concerned with deficits in selective attention and distracribility in schizophrenia.

Delirium –

Assessment of attention –