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Reproduction
Inquiry question: How does reproduction ensure the continuity of a species?
Students:
● explain the mechanisms of reproduction that ensure the continuity of a species, by analysing
sexual and asexual methods of reproduction in a variety of organisms, including but not limited to:
– animals: advantages of external and internal fertilisation
– plants: asexual and sexual reproduction
– fungi: budding, spores
– bacteria: binary ssion
– protists: binary ssion, budding
● analyse the features of fertilisation, implantation and hormonal control of pregnancy and birth in
mammals
● evaluate the impact of scienti c knowledge on the manipulation of plant and animal reproduction
in agriculture

Cell Replication
Inquiry question: How important is it for genetic material to be replicated exactly?
Students:
● model the processes involved in cell replication, including but not limited to:

created by
– mitosis and meiosis
– DNA replication using the Watson and Crick DNA model, including nucleotide composition,
pairing and bonding
● assess the effect of the cell replication processes on the continuity of species

Asa Bayhadron
DNA and Polypeptide Synthesis
Inquiry question: Why is polypeptide synthesis important?
Students:
● construct appropriate representations to model and compare the forms in which DNA exists in
eukaryotes and prokaryotes

Adam Bagherdow
● model the process of polypeptide synthesis, including:
– transcription and translation
– assessing the importance of mRNA and tRNA in transcription and translation
– analysing the function and importance of polypeptide synthesis

at Enhane Education
– assessing how genes and environment affect phenotypic expression
● investigate the structure and function of proteins in living things

Genetic Variation
Inquiry question: How can the genetic similarities and differences within and between species be
compared?
Students:
● conduct practical investigations to predict variations in the genotype of offspring by modelling
meiosis, including the crossing over of homologous chromosomes, fertilisation and mutations
● model the formation of new combinations of genotypes produced during meiosis, including but not
limited to:
– interpreting examples of autosomal, sex-linkage, co-dominance, incomplete dominance and
multiple alleles
– constructing and interpreting information and data from pedigrees and Punnett squares
● collect, record and present data to represent frequencies of characteristics in a population, in order to
identify trends, patterns, relationships and limitations in data, for example:
– examining frequency data
– analysing single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)

Inheritance Patterns in a Population

Inquiry question: Can population genetic patterns be predicted with any accuracy?
Students:
● investigate the use of technologies to determine inheritance patterns in a population using, for
example:
-DNA sequencing and pro ling
● investigate the use of data analysis from a large-scale collaborative project to identify trends,
patterns and relationships, for example:
-the use of population genetics data in conservation management
-population genetics studies used to determine the inheritance of a disease or disorder
-population genetics relating to human evolution
 8 8801308
Sexual reproduction: union of male and female gametes through
either external or internal fertilisation resulting with a zygote.
Internal reproduction: union of male and female gametes (sperm
and egg) inside the body of the female
• Fetus is nurtured inside the body of
the parent, which protects the fetus
from predation and disease. This
means genetically varied offspring
survive to continue to sexually
reproduce, which increases genetic
diversity. This is advantageous
because it increases likelihood of a
population being able to survive a
selective pressure, enabling it to
continue to adapt to changing
environments and reproduce, as a
result, contributing to the continuity
of the species.
• Close proximity: Increase likelihood
of fertilisation.
• Energy and time ef cient:
Increases rate of sexual
reproduction which increases
genetic diversity of population.
This is advantageous because it
increases the likelihood of being
able to adapt to a selective
pressure, enhancing the
population’s ability to thrive in it’s
environment and reproduce, as a
result, leading to the continuity of
the species reproduce, as a result
• Larger number of gametes
released: more zygotes, higher
chance of survival and more
offspring are produced.
Tortoise inserts tubular penis
inside female vagina to fertilise
the eggs.
• Energy and time inef cient: Reduces
rate of sexual reproduction which
reduces genetic diversity of a
population. This is disadvantageous
because it reduces likelihood of
being able to adapt to a selective
pressure, tarnishing the population’s
ability to thrive in it’s environment
and reproduce, as a result, leading
to the discontinuity of the species.
• Higher chance of transmitting
diseases to parents through physical
and sexual contact.
• Fetus is not nurtured by parent,
which leaves it susceptible to
predation and disease. This means
genetically varied offspring do not
survive to continue to sexually
reproduce, which reduces gentic
diversity. This is disadvantageous
because it reduces the likelihood
of a population being able to
survive a selective pressure,
tarnishing it’s ability to continue to
adapt and reproduce, as a result,
leading to the discontinuity of the
species.
• Droughts and dry seasons tarnish
the quality of the deposited
gametes.
Female bony sh deposit unfertilised
eggs while male bony sh
simultaneously deposit sperm in hopes
of fertilisation
 Asexual reproduction: Producing plant offspring by making structural modi cations
to the stem without using gametes,DEFINITIONS
seeds or spores.
E.g. strawberries, bananas, and dandelions.

Sexual reproduction: Producing offspring utilising reproductive organs of sexually

reproducing plants which involves the fusion of gametes.
E.g. roses, waratah, and grass.

Advantages Disadvantages
Underground stem that branches
Description: dispersing pollen in the air to
Internal
E.g. ginger
reach another plant’s ovary.
fertilisation Advantages:
• large amount of pollen can travel and reach
Underground stem with buds vast areas.
Disadvantage:
E.g. potatoes
• High chance of pollen not reaching and
fertilising plant
• good weather conditions are needed
Parent cell has protruding outgrowth (bud) • direction of wind must be ideal
which is a new plant
E.g. prickly pear

Description: Animals transfer pollen by

Grow on ground or surface
E.g. External
spinnefex grass and strawberries
fertalisation
New shoots arise from roots
E.g. banana, mint
Underground organs such as roots of stems
which function to provide stored food
during its dormant state
E.g. decidious trees have buds
EXAMPLES
Production of offspring from special
generative tissues without fertilisation of
seeds
E.g. dandelions
touching one flower and then another.
Animals include birds, bees and butterflies
which are attracted by colour and nectar.
Advantages:
• Direct transfer of pollen
• More precise
Disadvantages:
• Time consuming
• Not many seeds can be dispersed
• Animals may not be present to pollinate
during certain seasons.
Description: pollen from the anther is
deposited on the stigma of the same plant
or flower. Stamen and carpel mature at the
same time
Advantages:
• keep favourable traits
Disadvantages:
• less variation
 SENDAI 88 SENDAI
DEFINITIONS

1. gametes develop in male/female

Pollination:
gametophyte
1. Anther undergoes meiosis then
2. flagellated sperm swim in watery
further undergoes mitosis to form
environment to female
male gametophytes (Pollen grains)
gametophyte where egg is
located A 2. Ovule undergoes meiosis then
further undergoes mitosis to form
3. sperm fuses with egg
Rhizomes
(fertilisation) forming zygote
female gametophytes which then
4. zygote undergoes mitosis to form Pollination by
produces an egg.wind
3. Pollen grin is transferred (via wind
sporophyte
or animal) to stigma (Pollination)
5. sporophyte undergoes meiosis
4. Pollen tube grows which allows
Tuberand develop spores
6. spores undergo mitosis and
sperm to reach egg.
5. Egg is fertilised to form zygote and
develop male and female
seed develops around it.
gametophytes
6. Ovary wall thickens, forming fruity,
to protect seed.
Budding 7. Seed will germinate (via mitosis) to
form sporophyte (overall bodily
structure of the plant).
Pollinationby animals
Example: Banksia
Runner

Sucker

Perennating organs

self pollination
Apomixis
 GERUND REPRODUCTION
HIM 178101178
Budding is a small outgrowth, by mitosis, from the parent cell to form a clone

GYMNOSPERM
cell. This is an asexual type of reproduction.
ANGIOSPERMS

1. Outgrowth of bud forms on

parent cell under favourable
environmental conditions. DNA
gametophyte
4. Buds can perform1repeated budding duplicates and nucleus splits
by forming a chain of connected,

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independent buds.
e

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3. The bud pinches inwards at the base of the
sporophyte
É 2. Daughter nucleus

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parent cell and detaches after reaching a certain moves into the bud/
size. outgrowth.
Note: buds may be smaller than the parent cell

I
but they are still genetically identical

I EE
• Energy and time ef cient because there is no
competition as only one parent is required.
• Produce genetically identical genetic copies:
favourable trait remains in the population,
enabling them to survive in their
• Offspring are all genetically identical which
reduces geneticOvary
diversity. This is
ovulesare
wherebecause
disadvantageous
formed
population is faced
in the case that the
with a selective pressure,
they will all react the same way to it, as a result,
tarnishing the population’s ability to thrive in
environment. their environment, leading to the discontinuity
of the species.
Spores: tiny, unicellular, haploid reproductive cells produced in sporangia (spore-producing
units). This is an asexual type of reproduction.
BUDDING

cellmembrane
film

0
1. Hyphae (thread/ lament) form sporangia on tip of hyphae thread.
2. Spores burst out of sporangia. Spores initially are white and not mature.

0
3. Spores turn black as they ripen and mature.
4. Spores germinate under favourable environmental conditions as they absorb water
and nutrients to undergo mitosis and produce hyphae.
5. Hyphae branch out and for a mycelium (main body/network of hyphae).

• Offspring are all genetically identical

• Energy and time ef cient because there is
no competition as only one parent is
required.
• Produce genetically identical genetic
Advantages
copies: favourable trait remains in the
population, enabling them to survive in
their environment.
• Spores are light weight so they can be
easily dispersed by wind.
which reduces genetic diversity. This is
disadvantageous because in the case that
the population is faced with a selective
pressure, they will all react the same way
Disadvantages
to it, as a result, tarnishing the
population’s ability to thrive in their
environment, leading to the discontinuity
of the species.
SPORES

To
that myceli.am

spores n flaff're
1. Bacteria cell grows to full
yyy
6. Two genetically identical spores adult size, under
favourable environmental
daughter cells are formed. They
conditions.
800
grow to adult size and undergo
binary ssion again. spores sporangia
9 7 containsspores
2. Cell elongates and
8 cytoplasm volume increases.

lFF stolon

FE
hyphae
tips
5. Proteins accumulate at the
centre of the cell and the
cytoplasm begins pinching the
cell inwards. It elongates and
the cell begins synthesising a 4. Each copy of the DNA 3. Circular DNA, plasmids
cell wall near the cleavage. moves to opposite ends and ribosomes replicate.
of the cell membrane in
preparation of splitting.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Produce genetically identical genetic copies:
favourable trait remains in the population,
enabling them to survive in their environment.
• Energy and time ef cient because there is no
competition as only one parent is required.
• Offspring are all genetically identical which
reduces genetic diversity. This is
disadvantageous because in the case that the
population is faced with a selective pressure,
they will all react the same way to it, as a result,
tarnishing the population’s ability to thrive in
their environment, leading to the discontinuity
of the species.
 ribosome
cytoplasm
me
chromosomal DNA
anergy
Binary Fission: The splitting of a protist cell into 2 genetically identical daughter
cells.

Fri
• Protist cell grows to full

fish
• The nuclei splits and
adult size, under Protist cell completely splits,
creates 2 genetically
favourable environmental forming 2 genetically
identical daughter nuclei.
conditions. identical daughter cells.
• Cell pinches in and forms
• DNA in nucleus duplicates a cleavage.
via DNA replication.

• Produce genetically identical genetic

• Offspring are all genetically identical which reduces
copies: favourable trait remains in the
genetic diversity. This is disadvantageous because in the
population, enabling them to survive in
case that the population is faced with a selective pressure,
their environment.
they will all react the same way to it, as a result, tarnishing
• Energy and time ef cient because there is
the population’s ability to thrive in their environment,
no competition as only one parent is
leading to the discontinuity of the species.
required.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Budding: Refers to a small outgrowth, by mitosis, from the parent cell to form a

88
clone cell. This is an asexual type of reproduction.

BINARY FISSION

1. Small outgrowth/bud
develops on parent
5. Chain of buds cell, under favourable
detach from environmental
nucleus
parent cell and conditions.
2. The nucleus replicates its
DNA via DNA replication
continues to and split.
grow.

cell A
membrane

4. Many outgrowths can 3. One copy moves towards

create a string/chain of the outgrowth/daughter cell.
buds.

• Energy andAdvantages Disadvantages

• Offspring are all genetically identical which
time ef cient because there
reduces genetic diversity. This is
is no competition as only one parent is
disadvantageous because in the case that the
required.
population is faced with a selective pressure,
• Produce genetically identical genetic
they will all react the same way to it, as a
copies: favourable trait remains in the
result, tarnishing the population’s ability to
population, enabling them to survive in
thrive in their environment, leading to the
their environment.
discontinuity of the species.

Examples
plasmodiumfalciparum Malaria
Amoeba
paramecium
Giardialamblia
BUDDING
Fertilisation: Refers to the fusion between a haploid egg cell (female gamete) and a haploid
sperm cell (male gamete), in order to produce a diploid zygote.

Algaecellsy
small bud
UEf
outgrowth

f
nucleus
µ
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ftp.T EY
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Sperm swim to the fallopian Sperm physically breaks

tube.Advantages Disadvantages
through the Corona Radiata
(First layer)

Examples
Acrosome of sperm then release
Sperm t in glycoprotein like a
Algae hydrolytic enzymes to break down
and penetrate
lock and key. Once
Toxoplasmosis
Zona Pellucida (Second layer).
glycoprotein is destroyed, the
Zona Pellucida (second layer)
hardens to protect zygote.
 I
The sperm’s nucleus
enters the cytoplasm of i.if iii.i if together,
Both nuclei fuse

E.si
the ovum and eventually forming a diploid zygote
reaches the ovum’s cell (2n).
nucleus.

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of
 Afertilised egg embedding itself to the endometrium uterine wall
Fertilisation
Morula Cleavage
Blastocyst

Embryo FERTILISATION

iigiiiiiiiaiiissippi spermnucleusfuses with egg'snucleus

to form a diploidzygotecell
20
CLEAVAGE
Rapid proliferation of thezygote
via mitosisfrom 2 cells
to 8 cells
0
MORULA
BLASTOCYST cellsfurtherdivideto make 16 cells andenterthe uterus
Mitosis continuesto cellsare unspecialised embryonic stemcells
make 2 layers
innermass embryo
andoutermass Placenta
880 FETUS
Adultfeatures
Outermassgrows finger like haveformed
projections and attaches itself GASTRULA
to the endometrium Embedded embryo
cells differentiate forms 3 layers
1 Ectoderm skin nervoussystem

hÉÉ
If
excretory system
as heart
mass g
 Pituitary gland
AKAmastergland

g
Produces prolactin whichpromotes
the secretion of milkfrommammary
glands Hypothalamus
ReleasesGnRH
Gonadotropin
ReleasingHormone
whichactsonthe

É
MN secreteFSH LH

if.fi
w Éf

III
produces oxytosin
Hanafin
whichcontributesto
Promotesthedevelopmentofthe
wall as positivefeedback follicle
as a response tothe LH LutenisingHormone
fetus pushing kicking causes thefollicleto release
on the wall the ovum egg Day14during
more contractions Trophoblastcells ovulation
moreoxytosin hCG Humanchorionic Destrogen
Released byovaries and
gonadotropin promotes the development of
Maintains thecorpus the endometrium
luteumforthefirst8weeks
Destrogen is releasedby
the
Kkk fertightangifests first PYeekYteum in
NEGATIVE POSITIVEFEEDBACK Progesterone
vascularisestheendometrium
Body
aÉf'The pposite.oxytposi.sn sEeleasedandmakesitmucus like
ofwhatishappening toincrease uterine suppresses uterine activity
toregulatebodily contractions whena during pregnancy
functions fetus pushes on the
Eg High estrogen wall contractions Progesterone isreleased
by
Progesteffffless
Push inthedirection the corpusluteum in the
offetuskicking first 6 weeks
 BRAIN
iii
GnRH
anterior posterior Pituitary
De nition: Refers to the arti cial transfer of
male sperm into a female vagina to produce an
gland
offspring with favourable traits from each
vascularise the endometrium
parent.
withbloodcarryingnutrients
Process:
AND inhibitsGnRHwhich
stopsFSHand LH
51 784 1799
1. Sperm is extracted from male with
favourable characteristics.

70
folliclewithout
to secondary
001
2. Sperm is mixed into a solution containing
chemicals (glycerol and buffer solution), an
then frozen using nitrogen. This is effective progesterone
for long term storage.
3. Sperm is thawed then injected into female estrogen
y
with favourable characteristics, using
Inhibin
t.ae
specialised equipment.
4. Results in offspring with favourable
characteristics from both mother and father.

estrogen causesLH stops FSH

surge whichpromotes
Maturation offollicle the releaseoftheegg
• stimulates
Increases the
genetic release
diversity of from
in the • Only follicle
theone male inseminates many females
estrogen
ovulation
short term as it produces offspring which reduces genetic diversity of the
with new combinations of alleles population in the long term as less new alleles
which express favourable are being introduced into the population. This

Fertilisation
characteristics. This is is disadvantageous because a limited gene

t.LI fhtiihtT
advantageous because it increases pool reduces the likelihood of the population
the likelihood of the population being able to adapt to a selective pressure.
implantation
being able to adapt to a selective This tarnishes the population’sdegenerate
ability to thrive
pressure. of
Theoutermass theblastocyst in their
and stop
environment and reproduce, as a
trophoblast will secrete HCG
• Sperm is easier to transport than the progesterone estrogen
result, leading to the discontinuity of the
whole animal, making it a more
thefirst 8
in accessible and weeks of pregnancy
convenient method.
and inhibin
species.
• Specialised equipment is costly, time
to the
•maintain
corpus luteum
Can be used in conservation to inhibits GnRHwhich stopstoFSH
consuming and has the potential causeand LH
the of
increase the numbers of injury to the female if carried out incorrectly.
continues production
endangered species. thedrop in progesterone
• Does not always and estrogen
favour the offspring, for
•progesterone estrogen and
will
Economic gain (Friesian - Jersey example, Friesian - Jersey cattle develop
cause wall to shed
uterine
inhibin no GnRH
cattle): Milk companies suchno as A2 abnormally large udders due to high yield of

LH
FSH due tono of
large quantities of high- follicle
maturation new
milk and Dairy Farmers will bene t
and be released
creamy milk which leads to pain, diseases and
as a
period
inability to walk (Ethical consideration).
i Maintains uterine
quality milk.
lining which as a resultpromoting cycle a new
prevents a miscarriage
by stimulating the maturation
After 8 weeks placenta begins of a new follicle
releasing progesterone estrogen
HCGdrops
 AIFEIBIIG.IT DDIINSEIYIINATION
De nition: Refers to the process of manually transferring
pollen from the anther of one plant to the stigma of another.

f
Process

1. Select 2 plants with favourable and desirable traits

2. Manually extract pollen grain from male with favourable

offETA
characteristics.
3. Manually transfer pollen grain to female stigma of
another plant with favourable characteristics.
4. Remove anthers form receiving plant to prevent self-
pollination, and keep in a greenhouse to prevent a 1
pollination from other plants.
5. Seed will germinate and an offspring with favourable

RIETI
traits of both parents is produced.

e.g. Federation wheat was produced by arti cially

pollinating purple straw and Yandilia fe-Indian wheat.
This produced a high yield of drought tolerant wheat
Friesiancattle Highmilkyield
Friesian Jersey cattle
Highyield of creamymilk
POSITIVEIMPLICATIONS NEGATIVE IMPLICATIONS

• Increases genetic diversity in the short

• Decreased genetic variation: Overtime,
term as it produces offspring with new
mass production of arti cially pollinated
combinations of alleles which express
plants will decrease the genetic pool.
favourable characteristics. This is
Natural variations in gene pool which
advantageous because it increases the
may be of future bene t will be lost. For
likelihood of the population being able to
example, the ability to withstand
adapt to a selective pressure.
selective pressures such as disease.
• Does not require specialised equipment,
making it cheap and accessible to a wider
range of individuals.
• Increased nancial gain and economic
growth, for example, due to higher and
better-quality yields.
 ABTIIBIIGII.DK 17088 INATION
Single cell division which produces 2 genetically identical daughter cells. It is
used for:

ffyfg.fi ff dffor
1. Restores the nucleus by passing on genetic information to new cells
2. Growth and Development from zygote to adult
2. Maintenance and Repair of damaged cells
3. Asexual reproduction in plants (vegetative propagation) a

fi
4. Genetic stability by ensuring cells are genetically identical m e

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Highyield
to augmiangimate
POSITIVEIMPLICATIONS NEGATIVE IMPLICATIONS
 PURPOSE

centrioles

mineralogyInethane 8888

9414 INTERPHASE PROPHASE

DNAduplicates Chromatincondenses into

n 4h 46doublestrandedchromosomes
centriolesand
organellesduplicates
L L.fi i qn
centrioles move to oppositeends

af.de
y
CYTOKENISIS

Cellssplit to produce 2 genetically METHYL

identical diploid daughtercells
Spindlefibres attach to the
46doublestrandedchromosomes
Spindlefibresalign chromosomes

Gf alongtheequatormiddle
Mformetaphase Middle

TELOPHASE
chromosomes uncoil form
chromatin
spindle fibresdisappear
Nuclear membranereforms
Cellpinches in themiddleto
separatecytoplasmformingcleavage
ANAPHASE
Spindlefibrescontract pullingapartthe46
chromosomes
forming 92singlestranded
chromosomes
spindlefibresthencontinue to pullthe
single stranded chromosomes to oppositeends
46singlestranded chromosomesoneachside
A'forAnaphase Away
 INTERPHASE
Cellcontents duplicate
uÉarmembrane
DNAduplicatesthrough cellmembrane
DNAreplication DNA
Proofreadingandediting CR
ofDNA to preventmutations
EARLY PROPHASE
Physicalexchangebetween
DNAcondenses intochromosomes
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synapsis
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LATE PROPHASE
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will cross over and physically
exchange genetic material yfzgfrtf
spindlefibresappear
nuclear membrane disappears ftp.yyffyf
METAPHASE I
Homologouschromosomes

Independent Assortment
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ANAPHASE I
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differentiominationW
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In ahuman gamete thereare
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 TELOPHASE I

ff
Cytoplasm pinches to separatethe cells
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b
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CYTOKENISIS
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PROPHASE
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METAPHASE II
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ANAPHASE II
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TELOPHASE II
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spindlefibres disappear
cytoplasm pinches in middle
CYTOKENISIS
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DNA helicase will unzip and unwind the strand by
Cellelongates
anti-parallelandsplits to
double create
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4 geneticallyvariedhaploid
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sex cells
exposing nitrogenous bases

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DNA primase generates DNA and RNA Forms 2 semi conservative identical
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d
attach free floating complementary
nucleotides in 5’ to 3’ direction of the leading
and lagging strand. For the lagging strand,
b are the newly synthesised strand
whereas the blue strands are the old
strands.
the nucleotides are attached in a series of
okazaki fragments in 5’ to 3’ direction, which
are then joined together by 0 DNA ligase. 5
5 5 3 5 3
 5 3 5 3 5

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Mitosis allows for the reproduction of asexual
P which produces
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selective pressure, they will all react the same
way to it, as a result, tarnishing the population’s
ability to thrive in their environment and
reproduce, leading to the discontinuity of the
species.

DNA replication in interphase ensures the
accurate duplication of genetic information,
leading to diploid daughter cells through
Mitosis. Without this DNA replication, mitosis
would create non-functioning haploid
daughter cells. The correct DNA amount is
advantageous for coding functional proteins,
ensuring accurate phenotypic expression and
favourable characteristics. This adaptation
supports the organism’s ability to thrive and
reproduce in its environment, ultimately,
enhancing the continuity of the species.
DNA replication may potentially introduce
errors in the DNA code, know as mutations.
These mutations may result in non-
functional proteins, leading to incorrect
phenotypic expression and potentially
unfavourable characteristics. Such
unfavourable trains can reduce the
population’s ability to survive and
reproduce under a selective pressure,
ultimately leading to the discontinuity of
the species.
ASSESS THE EBBEGTOBGEDIBEPE.IEDT I ON
GONTII.NUITY0B8HEGIIE8

Advantages Disadvantages

• Both consist of • DNA organised in

• DNA organised in nucleotides CIRCULAR
LINEAR (pentose sugar, chromosomes
chromosomes phosphate, e.g. plasmids
• DNA is wrapped nitrogenous base) • DNA is NOT
around histone • both undergo
Advantages
wrapped around
proteins mutations Disadvantages
histone proteins
• DNA is contained • both synthesis • DNA is contained
within nucleus proteins within a nucleoid

Advantages Disadvantages
AND IIB EUKARYOTES AND
PROKARYOTES

EUKARYOTES PROKARYOTES
 1. Initiation: RNA polymerase attaches to the promotor region which
unzips the DNA strand to expose nitrogenous bases

cell membrane
2. Elongation: Complementary RNA nucelotides from RNA nucleotide
Transcription
pool is added along the sense strand to non-sense strand in order to create
pre-mRNA. The strand is complementary to the non-coding strand, except
thymine is replaced by Uracil

3. RNA processing: Ekg

i) Introns removed from pre-mRNA by spliceosome cytoplasm
ii) A 5’ cap and poly-A-tail is added to stabilise the pre-mRNA to protect it

iiiiiii
from degrading once it enters the cytoplasm (like a boat entering raging
waters). The mRNA is now mature! It now moves out of the nucleus through
i
nuclear
nuclear pores and into the cytoplasm to ribosomes. membrane
iiia.in
i e natin
nucleotides
phosphate

fiihn
ggyo .fti.ie o
1. Initiation: The rRNA makes its way to the mature mRNA and
ribosomal units assemble around the mRNA like a sandwich. They
Deoxy

start at the 5’ cap and move down until it reaches the start codon.

iii
2. Elongation: As the rRNA reads the start codon, a tRNA molecule

ig
carrying anticodons to the start codon (complementary/opposite to the

yi.yy
qq.iq
igyy
rRNA codons) attaches to the rRNA molecule. The tRNA also carries a

iii
corresponding amino acid. The anti-codon binds to the start codon via

yy
g
complementary base pairing. This binding action causes the amino acid

ig iqgq
ii
from theii tRNA
i yto be released. The tRNA is the ejected from the rRNA
molecule. The rRNA moves to the next codonq and this process repeats.
iz
The amino acid released binds to the amino from the previous tRNA

yy
molecule, forming a polypeptide chain bonded by peptide bonding.

3. Termination: Eventually, the rRNA molecule reaches the stop codon

and the Stop amino acid is added to the polypeptide chain which causes
the chain to be released from the rRNA. The mRNA strand is broken into
RNA molecules so that they can be reused to make another mRNA for a
different protein. The polypeptide chain is then sent to the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) for folding into asatinit
complete protein. Lastly, the protein is
sent to where it is needed!
 Initiation RNApolymerase enzyme
attachesto promoterregion
whichunzipsand unwinds
3 5 ide
theDNAstrandto
expose nitrogenous
Y nu

bases

Pfiffner
mRNA
In transcription, mRNA acts as a In translation. tRNA

ÉI
messenger molecule that makes a decodes the mRNA
complimentary copy of the genetic molecules by carrying a
information and carries it from theÉI particular anticodon and

É
thus,3aRNA

IÉ
nucleus to the ribosomes in the speci Processing
c amino acid
to the rRNA. This also
removed
that the correct,from
1 Introns
cytoplasm.
ensures
premature mRNA
In translation, the individual codons functioning protein
spliceosome
is by
specify the particular anti-codon and produced. enzyme
also, the amino acids that form the ii 5cap andPolyATail is
polypeptide chain. All this minimises added to stabilise
2 risk
the Elongation
5 ensures
of a mutation and thus 3 prematuremRNAand
that the correct, functioning protein is
complementary prevent it from
produced.
RNA nucleotides degredation
fromRNA nucleotide whichturns it
pool addedalong sense into maturemRNA
strand to create pre mRNA
strand
note.nameUracil met
with a

iiiiff

IEEE
TRANSCRIPTION

TRANSLATION
 INESSENGERRNA TRANSFERRNAN
Nitrogenousbases amino acid
pongata
say u.fi ti
Think about this entire process like a

110000
to
ffeffffsif.fi
cooking book. You are at the library
and you want to make Butter Chicken.
Instead of taking the entire book with
you home, you photocopy the Butter
Chicken recipe and take it home and
n
make a delicious meal.

In this analogy, the cooking book is

the DNA which holds important
information for all possible recipes.
That one recipe is the gene (section of
DNA) to making the meal/protein.
The photocopying process is the
transcription process. The photocopy
is the mRNA which hold the
instructions to making the Butter
Chicken or protein.

If there is a mistake in the cooking

book and they tell you to add 10kg of
salt instead of 10g, then your Butter
Chicken will taste disgusting.
Similarly, if there is a mutation in the
DNA then the instructions will be
wrong and the protein produced can
be faulty.

Now let’s say there is something

wrong with the photocopier, then
there is a mistake with the photocopy
and a step is missing. This photocopy
is the mRNA. Faulty mRNA will also
give the wrong instructions and
create a disastrous Butter Chicken.

Lastly, a mistake with the tRNA will

cause the wrong amino acids to be
added to the protein, hence
potentially creating a faulty protein.
 17180T IN STRUCTURE
PRIMARY SECONDARY
tesheet

0
0 00 0 0 SILENE
97 EISELEY
Folded and held
Basicaminoacidsequence simple by hydrogen
Eg cow insulin BY hape

TERTIARY
Bond
QUATERNARY

ifti
t.IE
iI CPYEHsiF E f Iiii E EEIIII
ÉIIIII IIEI.IE
a
Eg Keratin multiplepolypeptide
chains
Eg haemoglobin collagen

TYPESOBPBOTEII.MS
TYPES FUNCTION EXAMPLE
support movement
structural maintain theshape of cells Collagen Keratin
proteins tissues organs and systems Hairand nails
form a cytoskeleton
speed up biochemical Amalayse breaksdown
Enzyme reactions catalyse carbs and starch in
proteins especially in respiration saliva Digestion
and digestion
work in conjunction Oxytosin FSH follicle
communication with the endocrine
proteins hormones and nervous stimulating hormone
hormones system

Transport Ligand molecule binding Haemoglobin attaches

Release ligand when it is to oxygen on a red blood
storage needed cell Drops off oxygen
proteins whereneeded
 AYA'S GOOBII.MG ANALOGY
IIMOMTANGE 015 HAND AND TRNA

II E I

Hydrangea is a species of plant which

has its colour controlled by pigments
known as anthocyanins. This pigment
changes colour based on pH of soil.

to
iii

Identical twins come from the same egg, so they have

the exact same genome. This means any differences
can not come from genes, so they must come from the
environment. Good
Differences in phenotypic expression including IQ,
Butter
height, skin colour and personality must all be Chicken
influenced by environment.

An experiment illustrated that for twins with

schizophrenia, 50% identical twins share the disease,
while only about 10-15% fraternal twins do. This Bad
Butter
difference is evidence for a strong genetic component
in susceptibility to schizophrenia. However, the fact
that both identical twins don’t develop the disease
100% of the time indicates that other environmental
Chicken
factors are involved.
 GONE
IWBONGD SI
• De nition: Alleles found on non-sex • De nition: Alleles found on sex
chromosomes chromosomes
• Type:

GBDEGEDDANAEH'IIA
• Types: Autosomal and Dominant
• e.g. Sickle Cell Anaemia ◦ X-linked (Dominant and
• Requirements: Recessive)
◦ Y-linked (Dominant)
• E.g. Red-Green colour blindness

Formal
RedBloodcell 51k
Blood cellI^A,
• De nition: More than 2 alleles per gene
• Example: Blood has 3 possible alleles
I^B and i. These 3 alleles form 6 different

mail.fi
genotypes and 4 different phenotypes

in

threonine proline
iEiikat
threonine Proline
valine
kids ayfam.catfamicaaiaf Glutamic

• De nition: Both alleles are expressed Missense mutation changes

• e.g. Roan calf the aminoacidfrom
• Requirements:
of
Pointmutation substitution Glutamic Acid to Valine
of thymine to adenine • If both alleles are present, the
phenotype will be blend of both
alleles.
• example: Snapdragon flower has
which which
subunit
Beta globin Ca
red and white genes, blend
to form a pink phenotypic colour
MisshapenRedBloodcells get makes uphaemoglobin gets
stuck in capillaries andcannot a linearshape ratherthan
store enough oxygen totransport globular
anddamage organs
Live for shorter
Evenin
redbloodcell sickleshape
Stink in P Y negatively affectsthe function
blockage
Absorb less oxygen less blood
going to anger less
EBBEET 015 GENES AND ENVIRONMENT
ON PHENOTYPEIG EWBBESE.IN
GENE ENVIRONMENT PHENOTYPE

HYDRANGEAFLOWERLI

I
ACTICS OIL
H 01L
ALKALIYE
pH 7

IDENTICALTWINSEXPERIMINTI

Of 0

schizophrenia
A
twin

schizophreniaXr
 PUNNET SQUARES
KEY A
A
Acharacteristic
Dominant

a Recessive A AA Aa
characteristic
a Aaaa
• Trait appears in both • Trait appears in both
sexes relatively equally. sexes relatively equally
Genotype
• Does NOT skip a • Trait tends to skip a
generation(s)
generation

AA dominant
• Affected parents MUST
Homozygous 25
• Unaffected parents tend
to produce affected
produce affected

Aa Heterozygous dominant
offspring
50
offspring

aa Homozygous recessive 25
Genotypic Ratio AA Aa ad
1 2 1

Phenotype • Both males and • Only males

• Both males and
females are are affected
Dominant characteristic 75
females are
affected
affected • Passed from
• Tends to skip a
characteristic 25
father to all
Recessive
• Does not skip a
generation
generation sons
• It is never • It does NOT
• Affected sons must
Phenotypic Ratio Dominant
passed from
have an affected Recessive
father to son
skip a
generation
mother
• Affected daughters
must have either
3
• All daughter of
affected fathers
are carriers
an affected mother
or an affected
father
• Affected father will
pass on trait to all
daughters
 PEDIIGREES
Dad I0 mum
• Alleles: Different forms of the same gene
son
0
• Polymorphic gene: A gene with more than 2 alleles
Daughter
• Examining frequency data involves population genetics. This is the study of the
frequency of speci c alleles in a population as well as the traits they code for.
• It combines Mendelian inheritance and Darwinian evolution to explain changes in

8080708
the species
• Allele Frequency Formula:

Dominant Recessive

Characteristics

• What are SNPs?

SENDEINBAGE
◦ SNP’s are single nucleotide polymorphisms. They are formed when a
mutation occurs where a single nucleotide is replaced by another
nucleotide and this speci c mutation is present in at least 1% of the
population
X linked
◦ They mostly occur in between genes
X linked X linked
Dominant Recessive
◦ They account for 80% of human genetic variation Recessive
◦ These are approximately 300 million different SNP’s.

• Usefulness of SNPs:
Characteristics
◦ SNP’s serve as genetic markers. Certain SNP’s are present in high
frequency in individuals with speci c diseases, and as such, by identifying
whether or not a speci c individual has these SNP’s, their predisposition of
a disease can be determined.
◦ Mutations allow variation: enzyme functioning changes, appearance
changes, disease susceptibility

• Limitations of SNPs:
◦ Most SNOs occur in introns which are removed, so cannot be recorded by
scientists
 FREQUENCY DATA
De nition: A process to determine the
exact order of nucleotides in a DNA
strand
Process:
1. isolate DNA from cell content
(centrifuge)
t.IM 9
2. Amplify DNA using PCR
3. place ampli ed DNA into seperate
m each test tube
test tubes,
in population
containing Fluorescent Labelled
Chain Terminating Nucleotides
(FLCTN), DNA polymerase,
primer, spare nucleotides and the
ampli ed DNA strands
SINGLE POLYMORPHISM SNP
4. DNA is synthesised into different
lengths containing FLCTN
5. DNA is placed in agarose gel
where electrical current is applied
6. DNA is negatively charged so it
will move to the opposite end
(positive charge)
7. Smaller strands move through gel
quicker due to smaller molecular
weight
8. FLCTN is analysed by computer/
sequencer which enable scientists
to determine order of nucleotides
Positive implications:
• Helps identify risk of genetic
diseases such as breast cancer for
early treatment/management
Negative implications:
• Violation of privacy as companies
can have entire sequence of your
DNA
• Insurance companies may increase
premiums if client is at risk of
disease based on their genome
De nition: Process to determine the
unique DNA pro le of an individual.
Process:
1. Isolate DNA from cell content
(Centrifuge).
2. Restriction enzymes cut at Short
Tandem Repeats (STR), which are
sections of introns that are repeated
nagmany times, e.g. TATATATA.
3. Amplify STR using PCR.
4. STR is placed in agarose gel where
electric current is applied.
5. STR are negatively charged so will
move to opposite end of the gel
(positive charge).
6. Shorter STR fragments with less
repeats move through gel quickly and
emerge before larger STR fragments.
7. This then creates a DNA pro le which
can be used for comparison.
Short tandem repeats (STRs): Sections of
non-coding regions (introns) in our DNA
that are repeated many times over e.g.
TATATATATA These have a high variation
among different individuals.
Positive implications:
• Allows crime suspects to be accurately
identi ed as guilty or innocent which
prevents any wrongful conviction
• Helps children identify their biological
father using paternal tests
Negative implications:
• Violation of privacy
• DNA may be planted in crime scenes to
falsely convict innocent individuals
De nition: Involves planning and implementing strategies to protect and sustainably
use natural ecosystems in order to maintain biodiversity. It includes studying the past
to make informed decisions about future events.

adf.int
DFTD, or Devil Facial Tumour Disease, is a contagious cancer affecting
Tasmanian devils. It originates from a mutation causing tumours to develop
around the mouth and head of the affected devils. This cancer disrupts their
feeding, leading to death within 3-5 months. Tasmanian devils often bite each
other while feeding, facilitating the spread of DFTD through direct contact.
When an infected devil bites a non-infected one during feeding, the cancerous
mutation is transmitted. This continuous transmission within the population
results in a decline, as infected devils are unable to feed properly. Consequently,
the Tasmanian devil population dwindles, reducing genetic diversity due to
fewer alleles. This is disadvantageous because it reduces likelihood of being
able to adapt to a selective pressure, as a result, tarnishing their ability to thrive
in their environment and continue to reproduce, leading to the eventual
discontinuity of the species.

Population genetics studies, which

involves analysing DNA through
sequencing and pro ling, played a crucial
role in understanding the genetic makeup
of healthy Tasmanian Devils compared to
those with DFTD mutations. A government
program was then set up to analyse the
DNA of wild Tasmanian devils and identify
the healthy ones (without mutations).
These healthy devils were selectively bred
in an enclosure and released into the wild
when needed. By 2013, more than 500
disease-free devils with 98% genetic
diversity were released. A similar project,
Devil Ark, started in 2011, used DNA
sequencing to nd disease-free Tasmanian
devils. They were selectively bred in an
enclosure with natural conditions to
maintain their wild-type behaviours,
resulting in seven successful breeding
seasons and the birth of over 300 healthy
joeys.
 DETEBIYI.ININGIINHEB'ITANGE
PATTERNS
PHASE.HU
BRCA1 and BRCA2 ENGIINGDNA17180B
are human genes
responsible for producing proteins
IBI.MG
that act as "tumour suppressors."
These proteins play a crucial role in
repairing damaged DNA, preventing
mutations in the DNA code. However,
when these genes undergo mutations,
the production of the DNA-repairing
protein is disrupted. Consequently,
damaged DNA may not be properly
repaired, increasing the likelihood of
cells developing additional genetic
alterations, potentially leading to
cancer.

Breast Cancer and DNA Analysis:

Utilising DNA analysis technologies such as DNA
sequencing, scientists can pinpoint the speci c
sequence of mutations in the BRCA1 gene, which
signi cantly raises the risk of women developing
breast cancer by 85%. These mutations in the
BRCA1 gene are inherited and present in about 1 in
800 women.
Population Genetics Studies and Pre-screening:
Through population genetics studies, individuals
can undergo pre-screening processes, like DNA
sequencing, to identify whether they have inherited
the BRCA1 gene mutation. This information allows
individuals to take proactive measures, enabling
early detection and personalised interventions to
manage the heightened risk of developing breast
cancer.
 CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT
Population genetics helps us understand how humans have evolved over time.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), found in the mitochondria and inherited exclusively from
the mother, plays a special role. Unlike other types of DNA, DNA doesn't mix or
recombine.
Instead, it accumulates mutations at a steady rate as time goes on. By looking at the
differences in mtDNA sequences between two individuals, scientists can estimate how
long ago they shared a common ancestor.

Neanderthal Genome Project

Scientists began this project in July
2006 to sequence the Neanderthal
genome, the complete set of
Neanderthal genes.

Scientists used mtDNA, passed from

Neanderthal mothers to their

DEVILFACIALTUMOURDISEASE .iq offspring, to investigate whether

there was interbreeding between
Neanderthals and Homo sapiens
(modern humans).

By comparing the Neanderthal

genome with that of present-day
humans, scientists identi ed unique

iief
genetic features which indicated that
male Neanderthals had offspring with
female homo-sapiens.

ah
 GEMETIIGDII.SED8E8
BREASTCANCERD

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iiieiiiiif.io

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 HUMAN EVOLUTION

NEANDERTHALGENOMEPROJECT

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Morant