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Objectives:
After the completion of this unit, you would be able to ….
• Learn what clause is.
• Identify different types of clauses
• Use clauses correctly in your daily speaking
Overview:
Lesson 1: Clause and types of clause

Exercises with answer key

Lesson 01: Clause and types of clause

Clause
(a) in the bank Sentences contain phrases and clauses
(b) on a rainy day A phrase:
(c) her father in Kabul • is a group of words.
• Does not contain a subject and a verb
• Is not a sentence
Examples (a), (b) and (c) are phrases.
(d) He went running in the park. A clause
(e) She visited her grandparents in Turkey. • Is a group of words
• Contains a subject and a verb.
• Examples (d) and (e) are clauses.
Independent clause Clauses can be independent or dependent
An independent clause
(f) Ali lives in Kabul. • Contains the subject and a verb
Independent clause • Is the main clause of the sentence
• May be a statement or a question
(g) Where does Ali live? • Can stand alone.
Dependent clause A dependent clause
• Is not a complete sentence
(h) Where Ali lives, • Cannot stand alone
• Must be connected to a main clause.
Note: Dependent clause is divided in to three
parts.
➢ Noun clause
➢ Adjective clause
➢ Adverb clause
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Noun Clause
(i) Where Ali lives, Noun clause
(j) Whether you want to go to course, • Is a clause
(k) Who knows me well, • Functions as a noun ( that means it can
Noun clause (used as a subject) function as a subject or object of the
sentence)
(l) Where Ali lives is very far.
Noun clause (used as an object) Note: A noun clause subject takes a singular
verb.
(m) We all know where Ali lives.
There are three ways to make a noun clause:
• Noun clause beginning with a WH- question.
• Noun clause beginning with wither or if (Yes/ No questions)
• Noun clause beginning with that clause
(a) Where does Ali live? To change Information Questions to a noun
I will find where Ali lives. clause; we need to observe these steps:
(b) Which country do you live? • Use WH- words to introduce noun clause
Which country you live is none of my business. • Remove auxiliary verbs
(c) When did she study English? • Statement order is used (S + V…)
Her father knows when she studied English.
(d) What time has he played football?
Do you know what time he has played football?
(a) Do you learn English? To change yes / no questions to a noun clause; we
Whether you learn English shows your goal. need to observe these steps”
(b) Will they have been here? • If or whether is used to introduce noun clause
I don’t know if they will have been here. • Use statement order (S + V … ) is used
(c) Are you listening to me? • Remove auxiliary verb.
Whether or not you are listening to me is very
important. Note: we normally use “if or not”, “whether or
not” with noun clauses beginning with if/whether.
Example: I don’t know whether or not we have
exam tomorrow.
Noun clause beginning with that clause
• Verb + that clause
Examples
1- I think that I will come to course tomorrow.
2- He decided that he should study in Edu Light Consultancy to improve his English.
• Person + be + adjective + that clause
1- He is happy that he passed the test successfully.
2- We are glad that we study level 4 here.
• It + be + adjective + that clause
1- It is clear that you can’t improve your English without working hard.
2- It is good that he called to talk about our progress.
• That clause as a subject
1- That we like to eradicate poverty is obvious.
2- That he succeeded in exam didn’t surprise me.
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Objectives:
After the completion of this unit, you would be able to ….
• Learn what direct and indirect speech are.
• Know how to change direct speech in to indirect speech
• Use direct and indirect speech
Overview:
Lesson 1: Direct and indirect speech
Lesson 2: Rules for direct speech
Lesson 3: How to change a direct speech in to an indirect speech

Exercises with answer key

Lesson 01: Direct and indirect speech

There are two ways of relating what a person has said: Direct and indirect speech
Direct speech (Quoted speech):
Direct speech is speech inside quotation mark. It is used to repeat the exact words that
someone said.
Examples:
• He said, “I am looking for reported speech definition.”
• She said, “I will do whatever it takes to be a successful person in my life.”
• “My brother is a student,” she said.
Indirect speech (Reported speech):
While this [Direct speech] is okay for sharing stories with friends, this is not the best way to
report a conversation, either in speech or in writing. It shows a better education to use
reported speech; Reported speech is often also called indirect speech. When we use reported
speech, we are usually talking about the past (because obviously the person, who spoke,
originally spoke in the past).
Examples:
• He said that he was looking for reported speech definition.
• She said that she would do whatever it takes her to be a successful person in her life.
• Ali said that he was learning English.
Or Indirect speech is a way of reporting what someone said without reporting their exact
words. For example, in the sentence ‘Ali said that he was learning English.’ The clause ‘that
he was learning English. His actual words were ‘I am learning English’.
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Rules for forming direct speech
To report a speech directly, first we need to have a reporting verb [also called reporting speech]
like say or tell. Report the speech between two inverted commas. Be sure to put a comma after
reporting verb.
Examples:
• Ahmad said, “I am the best student in this class.”
• She said, “She had been doing the assignment all day.”
• He told me, “A new teacher is going to come here tomorrow.”

Quoted Speech
Quoted speech refers to reproducing words exactly as they were originally spoken. Quotation marks
(“ …”) are used.
QUOTING ONE SENTENCE
(a) She said, “ My brother is a student.”
(b) “My brother is a student,” she said.
(c) “My brother” she said, “ is a student.”
QUOTING MORE THAN ONE SENTENCE
(d) “My brother is a student. He is attending a
university,” she said.
(e) “My brother is a student,” she said. “He is
attending a university.”
QUOTING A QUESTION OR EXCLAMATION
(f) She asked, “When will you be here?”
(g) “When will you be here?” she asked.
(h) She said, “Watch out!”
(j) “My brother is a student,” said Anna.
“My brother,” said Anna, is a student.”
(i) “Let’s leave,” whispered Dave.
(k) “Please help me,” begged the unfortunate man.
In (a): Use a comma after she said. Capitalize the first
word of the quoted sentence. Put the final quotation marks
outside the period at the end of the sentence. In (b): Use a
comma, not a period, at the end of the quoted sentence
when it precedes she said. In (c): If the quoted sentence is
divided by she said, use a comma after the first part of
quote. Do not capitalize the first word after she said.
In (d): Quotation marks are placed at the beginning and the
end of complete quote. Notice: There are no quotation
marks after student.
In (e): If she said comes between two quoted sentences,
the second sentence begins with quotation marks and a
capital letter.
In (f): the question mark is inside the quotation marks. In
(g): If a question mark is used, no comma is used before
she asked. In (h): The exclamation point is inside the
quotation marks.
In (j): The noun subject (Anna) follows said. A noun
subject always follows the verb when the subject and verb
come in the middle or at the end of a quoted sentence.
(Note: A pronoun subject almost always precedes the verb.
Very rare: “My brother is a student,” said she.)
Say and ask are the most commonly used quote verbs.
Some others: add, agree, announce, answer, beg, begin,
comment, complain, confess, continue, explain, inquire,
promise, remark, reply, respond, shout, suggest, and
whisper.

Note: In British English, quotation marks are called “inverted commas” and can consist of either double
marks (“) or a single mark (‘): She said, ‘My brother is a student.’
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Identifying reporting speech and reported speech
Before we move further, we must know parts of direct speech. A direct speech sentence consists of
two parts. The part that is inside quotation marks, is called reported speech. The other one that is out
of quotation marks, is called reporting speech. Hence, direct speech sentences have two parts;
reporting verb and reported verb. Look at the example below and separate reporting speech and
reported speech.
Direct speech sentence Reporting speech Reported speech
She said, “I am learning English.” She said, “I am learning English.”
“I am happy to see you,” said Ahmad. Said Ahmad. “I am happy to see you,”
“I will talk to manager today,” said Aman. Said Aman. “I will talk to manager today,”

How to change direct speech in to indirect speech

Reported speech
Quoted speech uses a person’s exact words, and it is set off by quotation marks. Reported speech uses a
noun clause to report what someone has said. No quotation marks are used.
Quoted speech Reported speech
(a) “The world is round.” She said (that) the world is The present tense is used when the reported
round. sentence deals with a general truth, as in (a)
That is optional; it is more common in writing than
speaking.
(b) “I work at night.” He says he works at night. When the reporting verb is simple present, present
perfect, or simple future, the verb in the noun clause
He has said that he works at night. does not change.
He will say that he works at night.
(c) “I work at night.” He said he worked at night. If the reporting verb (said) is simple past, the verb
in the noun clause will usually be in a past form.
(d) “I am working.” He said he was working. Here are some general guidelines;
(e) “I worked.” He said he worked/had worked. Simple present simple past
(f) “I have worked.” He said he had worked. Present continuous past continuous
(g) “I had worked.” He said he had worked. Simple past past perfect
Present perfect past perfect
Present perfect continuous past perfect continuous
Past perfect no change
Past continuous past perfect continuous
Past perfect continuous no change

Class: Level four

Time: 3:00 – 4:00 p. m
Instructor: Muhammad Amir Sorosh
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Reported speech
(h) immediate reporting In spoken English, if the speaker is reporting
something immediately or soon after it was said, no
- What did the teacher just say? I didn’t hear him.
change is made in the tense of noun clause.
- He said he wants us to review reported speech.
(i) later reporting
- I didn’t go to calss yesterday. Did the teacher give any
assignment?
- yes, He said he wanted us to review reported speech.
(j) “Leave.” She told me to leave. In reported speech, an imperative sentence is
changed to an infinitive. Tell is used instead of say
as the reporting verb.
Reported speech: Modal verbs The following modal and phrasal modal verbs
change when the reporting verb is in the past:
(a) “I can go.” She said she could go.
Can could
(b) “I may go.” She said she may/might go.
May may/ might
(c) “I must go.” She said she had to go.
Must had to
(d) “I have to go.” She said she had to go.
Have to had to
(e) “I will go.” She said she would go. Am/is/are going to was/were going to
(f) “I am going to go.” She said she was going to go.
(g) “I should go.” She said she should go. The following modals do not change when the
reporting verb is in the past.
(h) “I ought to go.” She said she ought to go.
Should
(i) “I might go.” She said she might go.
Ought to (No change)
Might
How to change direct in indirect speech (Yes / No Questions)
(a) “Do you want tea?” she asked. To change Yes / No questions to indirect speech
✓ She asked me whether I wanted tea. consider the following steps’
(b) “Have you been to gallery?” he asked her. 1. Use a reporting verb (ask / want to know)
✓ He asked her if she had been to gallery. 2. Use if / whether after reporting verb
(c) “Are you making a cake?” I asked Ali. 3. State reported question in S + V order
✓ I asked Ali if he was making a cake. 4. Do not use auxiliary verb such as do, does …
(d) “Can you paint?” asked Mary. 5. Pronouns, possessive adjective, time and place
✓ Mary asked me whether I could paint. expressions might change.
(e) “Will you make me one?” I asked Ali. 6. Change the tense one step backward
✓ I asked Ali if he would make me one. 7. Use a period after reported speech

(a) “Put your clothes in the drawer,” said Mina.
✓ Mina told me to put my clothes in the drawer.
(b) “Don’t wear the red one,” she said
✓ She told me not to wear the red one.
In reporting an order follow these rules;
Step 1) use tell as reporting verb
Step 2) use full infinitive
Step 3) in negative order use not + infinitive
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Reported speech
How to change direct into indirect speech (Information question)
(a) “What kind of shoes are in fashion now?” asked Ali. To change information questions to indirect
✓ Ali asked me what kind of shoes were in fashion at speech consider the following steps:
that moment. Step 1) use a reporting verb (ask/ want to know)
(b) “When did I start English?” asked my brother.
✓ My brother asked me when I had started English.
Step 2) Use WH _ words after reporting verb
(c) “Who did she see at fashion show?” he asked. Step 3) State reported question in S + V order
✓ He asked who she had seen at fashion show. Step 4) Do not use auxiliary verbs such as do …
(d) “How much does your hat cost?” Ali asked Aman. Step 5)Pronouns, possessive adjective, time and
✓ Ali asked Aman how much his hat cost. place expressions might change
Step 6) Change the tense one step backward
Step 7) Use a period after reported speech

Reported speech: Pronouns and determiners

✓ In reported speech; we also change some pronouns and determiners.
These changes include:

Direct speech Indirect speech Example

My His/ her “I have lost my credit card,” said Tim. Tim said he had lost his credit card.
This / that + noun The / that “I love this sweater,” said Ali. Ali said he loved the/ that sweater.
This /that + verb It “This is a lovely sweater,” said Ali. Ali said it was a lovely sweater.
These/ those + noun The / those “I love these sweaters,” said Ali. Ali said he loved the/ those sweaters.
These/ those + verb They “Those are lovely sweaters,” said Ali. Ali said they were lovely sweaters.
Verb + these / those Them “I want to buy these,” said Ali. Ali said he wanted to buy them.

Reported speech: Time and Place changes

✓ In reported speech; we also usually change words and phrases connected to time and place.
These changes include:

Direct speech Indirect speech Example

Here There “I usually shop here,” said Ali. Ali said he usually shopped there.
Now/ at the moment Then /at that moment “I am shopping now,” he said. He said he was shopping then.
Tomorrow The next / following “I am going to be shopping tomorrow,” he said. He said he was
day going to be shopping the next day.
Tonight That night “I am going to be shopping tonight,” he said. He said he was going
to be shopping that night.
Next week/ month/ The following “I am going to be shopping next week,” he said. He said he was
year week/month/year going to be shopping the following week.
Yesterday The day before / the “I shopped yesterday,” said Ali. Ali said he had shopped the day
previous day before.
Last The week/ month/ “I went shopping last week,” said Ali. Ali said he has gone
week/month/year year before or the shopping the previous week.
previous
week/month/ year
Ago Before/ previously “I went shopping two days ago,” said Ali. Ali said he had gone
shopping before / previously.