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Operating and Financial Leverage
Operating and Financial Leverage
Operating and Financial Leverage
Chapter 16
Operating and
Financial Leverage
16.1 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
Operating and
Financial Leverage
• Operating Leverage
• Financial Leverage
• Total Leverage
• Cash-Flow Ability to Service Debt
• Other Methods of Analysis
• Combination of Methods
16.3 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
Operating Leverage
Operating Leverage – The use of
fixed operating costs by the firm.
• One potential “effect” caused by
the presence of operating leverage
is that a change in the volume of
sales results in a “more than
proportional” change in operating
profit (or loss).
16.4 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
Impact of Operating
Leverage on Profits
(in thousands) Firm F Firm V Firm 2F
Sales $10 $11 $19.5
Operating Costs
Fixed 7 2 14
Variable 2 7 3
Operating Profit $ 1 $ 2 $ 2.5
FC/total costs 0.78 0.22 0.82
FC/sales 0.70 0.18 0.72
16.5 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
Impact of Operating
Leverage on Profits
• Now, subject each firm to a 50%
increase in sales for next year.
• Which firm do you think will be more
“sensitive” to the change in sales (i.e.,
show the largest percentage change
in operating profit, EBIT)?
[ ] Firm F; [ ] Firm V; [ ] Firm 2F.
16.6 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
Impact of Operating
Leverage on Profits
(in thousands) Firm F Firm V Firm 2F
Sales $15 $16.5 $29.25
Operating Costs
Fixed 7 2 14
Variable 3 10.5 4.5
Operating Profit $ 5 $ 4 $10.75
Percentage
Change in EBIT* 400% 100% 330%
* (EBITt - EBIT t-1) / EBIT t-1
16.7 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
Impact of Operating
Leverage on Profits
• Firm F is the most “sensitive” firm – for it,
a 50% increase in sales leads to a
400% increase in EBIT.
• Our example reveals that it is a mistake to
assume that the firm with the largest absolute
• or relative amount of fixed costs automatically
shows the most dramatic effects of operating
leverage.
• Later, we will come up with an easy way to
spot the firm that is most sensitive to the
presence of operating leverage.
16.8 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
Break-Even Analysis
Break-Even Analysis – A technique for
studying the relationship among fixed
costs, variable costs, sales volume, and
profits. Also called cost/volume/profit
analysis (C/V/P) analysis.
• When studying operating leverage,
“profits” refers to operating profits
before taxes (i.e., EBIT) and excludes
debt interest and dividend payments.
16.9 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
Break-Even Chart
Total Revenues
Profits
REVENUES AND COSTS
250
($ thousands)
Total Costs
175
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Break-Even
(Quantity) Point
Break-Even Point – The sales volume required
so that total revenues and total costs are
equal; may be in units or in sales dollars.
How to find the quantity break-even point:
EBIT = P(Q) – V(Q) – FC
EBIT = Q(P – V) – FC
P = Price per unit V = Variable costs per unit
FC = Fixed costs Q = Quantity (units)
produced and sold
16.11 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Break-Even
(Quantity) Point
Breakeven occurs when EBIT = 0
Q (P – V) – FC = EBIT
QBE (P – V) – FC = 0
QBE (P – V) = FC
QBE = FC / (P – V)
a.k.a. Unit Contribution Margin
16.12 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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16.13 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Break-Even
Point Example
16.14 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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16.15 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Break-Even Chart
Total Revenues
Profits
REVENUES AND COSTS
250
($ thousands)
Total Costs
175
Fixed Costs
100
Losses
Variable Costs
50
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Degree of Operating
Leverage (DOL)
Degree of Operating Leverage – The
percentage change in a firm’s operating
profit (EBIT) resulting from a 1 percent
change in output (sales).
DOL at Q Percentage change in
units of operating profit (EBIT)
output =
Percentage change in
(or sales) output (or sales)
16.17 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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DOLQ units Q (P – V)
=
Q (P – V) – FC
= Q
Q – QBE
16.18 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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DOLS dollars of S – VC
=
sales S – VC – FC
EBIT + FC
=
EBIT
16.19 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Break-Even
Point Example
16.20 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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6,000
DOL6,000 = = 3
6,000 – 4,000
units
8,000 2
DOL8,000 units = =
8,000 – 4,000
16.21 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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8,000 2
DOL8,000 units = =
8,000 – 4,000
16.22 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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5
DEGREE OF OPERATING
4
3
LEVERAGE (DOL)
2
1
0
2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000
–1
–2
–3 QBE
–4
–5
QUANTITY PRODUCED AND SOLD
16.23 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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1,000 + 7,000
DOL$10,000 sales = = 8.0
1,000
16.26 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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2,000 + 2,000
DOL$11,000 sales = = 2.0
2,000
16.27 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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2,500 + 14,000
DOL$19,500 sales = = 6.6
2,500
16.28 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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16.29 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Financial Leverage
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EBIT-EPS Break-Even,
or Indifference, Analysis
EBIT-EPS Break-Even Analysis – Analysis
of the effect of financing alternatives on
earnings per share. The break-even point is
the EBIT level where EPS is the same for
two (or more) alternatives.
Calculate EPS for a given level of
EBIT at a given financing structure.
(EBIT – I) (1 – t) – Pref. Div.
EPS =
# of Common Shares
16.31 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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EBIT-EPS Chart
Basket Wonders has $2 million in LT
financing (100% common stock equity).
• Current common equity shares = 50,000
• $1 million in new financing of either:
• All C.S. sold at $20/share (50,000 shares)
• All debt with a coupon rate of 10%
• All P.S. with a dividend rate of 9%
• Expected EBIT = $500,000
• Income tax rate is 30%
16.32 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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EBIT-EPS Chart
6
Earnings per Share ($)
4 Common
3
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
EBIT ($ thousands)
16.34 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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EBIT-EPS Chart
6 Debt
Earnings per Share ($)
5
Indifference point
between debt and
4
common stock
Common
3 financing
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
EBIT ($ thousands)
16.36 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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EBIT-EPS Chart
6 Debt Preferred
Earnings per Share ($)
4 Common
3
Indifference point
2
between preferred
stock and common
1 stock financing
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
EBIT ($ thousands)
16.38 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Probability of Occurrence
6
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
EBIT ($ thousands)
16.39 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Debt
(for the probability distribution)
6
Earnings per Share ($)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
EBIT ($ thousands)
16.40 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Degree of Financial
Leverage (DFL)
Degree of Financial Leverage – The
percentage change in a firm’s earnings
per share (EPS) resulting from a 1
percent change in operating profit.
DFL at
Percentage change in
EBIT of
earnings per share (EPS)
X dollars =
Percentage change in
operating profit (EBIT)
16.41 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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= 1.00
16.43 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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= 1.25
* The calculation is based on the expected EBIT
16.44 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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= 1.35
* The calculation is based on the expected EBIT
16.45 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Variability of EPS
DFLEquity = 1.00
Which financing
DFLDebt = 1.25 method will have
the greatest relative
DFLPreferred = 1.35 variability in EPS?
• Preferred stock financing will lead to
the greatest variability in earnings per
share based on the DFL.
• This is due to the tax deductibility of
interest on debt financing.
16.46 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Financial Risk
Financial Risk – The added variability in
earnings per share (EPS) – plus the risk of
possible insolvency – that is induced by the
use of financial leverage.
• Debt increases the probability of cash insolvency
over an all-equity-financed firm. For example, our
example firm must have EBIT of at least $100,000
to cover the interest payment.
• Debt also increased the variability in EPS as the
DFL increased from 1.00 to 1.25.
16.47 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Degree of Total
Leverage (DTL)
Degree of Total Leverage – The
percentage change in a firm’s earnings
per share (EPS) resulting from a 1
percent change in output (sales).
DTL at Q units Percentage change in
(or S dollars) earnings per share (EPS)
=
of output (or Percentage change in
sales) output (or sales)
16.49 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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EBIT + FC
DTL S =
EBIT – I – [ PD / (1 – t) ]
dollars
of sales
Q (P – V)
DTL Q units =
Q (P – V) – FC – I – [ PD / (1 – t) ]
16.50 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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DTL Example
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= 1.20
*Note: No financial leverage.
16.52 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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16.53 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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What is an Appropriate
Amount of Financial Leverage?
Debt Capacity – The maximum amount of debt
(and other fixed-charge financing) that a firm
can adequately service.
• Firms must first analyze their expected future
cash flows.
• The greater and more stable the expected
future cash flows, the greater the debt
capacity.
• Fixed charges include: debt principal and
interest payments, lease payments, and
preferred stock dividends.
16.55 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Coverage Ratios
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Coverage Ratios
Income Statement Debt-service Coverage
Ratios
EBIT
{ Interest expenses +
Coverage Ratios [Principal payments / (1-t) ] }
Indicates a firm’s Allows us to examine the
ability to cover ability of the firm to meet
interest expenses all of its debt payments.
and principal Failure to make principal
payments. payments is also default.
16.57 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Coverage Example
Make an examination of the coverage
ratios for Basket Wonders when
EBIT=$500,000. Compare the equity
and the debt financing alternatives.
Assume that:
• Interest expenses remain at $100,000
• Principal payments of $100,000 are
made yearly for 10 years
16.58 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Coverage Example
Compare the interest coverage and debt
burden ratios for equity and debt financing.
Interest Debt-service
Financing Coverage Coverage
Equity Infinite Infinite
Debt 5.00 2.50
The firm actually has greater risk than the interest
coverage ratio initially suggests.
16.59 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Coverage Example
PROBABILITY OF OCCURRENCE
Firm A
Debt-service burden
= $200,000
EBIT ($ thousands)
16.60 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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Security Ratings
16.64 Van Horne and Wachowicz, Fundamentals of Financial Management, 13th edition. © Pearson Education Limited 2009. Created by Gregory Kuhlemeyer.
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