Sport of athletics

Athletics is a group of sporting events that involves competitive running, jumping, throwing, and walking.[1] The most common types of athletics
competitions are track and field, road running, cross-country running, and racewalking.

The results of racing events are decided by finishing position (or time, where measured), while the jumps and throws are won by the athlete that achieves
the highest or furthest measurement from a series of attempts. The simplicity of the competitions, and the lack of a need for expensive equipment, makes
athletics one of the most common types of sports in the world. Athletics is mostly an individual sport, with the exception of relay races and competitions
which combine athletes' performances for a team score, such as cross country.

Organized athletics are traced back to the Ancient Olympic Games from 776 BC. The rules and format of the modern events in athletics were defined in
Western Europe and North America in the 19th and early 20th century, and were then spread to other parts of the world. Most modern top level meetings
are held under the auspices of World Athletics, the global governing body for the sport of athletics, or its member continental and national federations.

The athletics meeting forms the backbone of the Summer Olympics. The foremost international athletics meeting is the World Athletics Championships,
which incorporates track and field, marathon running and race walking. Other top level competitions in athletics include the World Athletics Cross Country
Championships and the World Athletics Road Running Championships. Athletes with a physical disability compete at the Summer Paralympics and the
World Para Athletics Championships.

The word athletics is derived from the Ancient Greek ἀθλητής (athlētēs, "combatant in public games") from ἆθλον (athlon, "prize") or ἆθλος (athlos,
"competition").[2] Initially, the term described athletic contests in general – i.e. sporting competition based primarily on human physical feats. In the 19th
century, the term athletics acquired a more narrow definition in Europe and came to describe sports involving competitive running, walking, jumping and
throwing. This definition continues to be prominent in the United Kingdom and the former British Empire. Related words in Germanic and Romance
languages also have a similar meaning.

In much of North America, athletics is synonymous with sports in general, maintaining the historical usage of the term. The word "athletics" is rarely used
to refer to the sport of athletics in this region. Track and field is preferred, and is used in the United States and Canada to refer to athletics events,
including race-walking and marathon running (although cross country running is typically considered a separate sport).
History Athletics

Ancient

A copy of the Ancient

Greek statue Discobolus,
portraying a discus
thrower

Athletic contests in running, walking, jumping and throwing are among the oldest of all sports and their
roots are prehistoric.[3] Athletics events were depicted in the Ancient Egyptian tombs in Saqqara, with
illustrations of running at the Heb Sed festival and high jumping appearing in tombs from as early as of
2250 BC.[4] The Tailteann Games were an ancient Celtic festival in Ireland, founded c. 1800 BC, and the
thirty-day meeting included running and stone-throwing among its sporting events.[5] The original and
only event at the first Olympics in 776 BC was a stadium-length running event known as the stadion.
This later expanded to include throwing and jumping events within the ancient pentathlon. Athletics
competitions also took place at other Panhellenic Games, which were founded later around 500 BC.[6]

Highest Wo
governing body Ath
Modern era
Characteristics
The Cotswold Olympic Games, a sports festival which emerged in 17th century England, featured
athletics in the form of sledgehammer throwing contests.[7] Annually, from 1796 to 1798, L'Olympiade Mixed- Yes
de la République was held in revolutionary France, and is an early forerunner to the modern Olympic
Games. The premier event of this competition was a running event, but various ancient Greek sex
disciplines were also on display. The 1796 Olympiade marked the introduction of the metric system into
the sport.[8] Type Outdoor
Athletics competitions were held about 1812 at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst,[9] and in 1840 in or
Shrewsbury, Shropshire at the Royal Shrewsbury School Hunt. The Royal Military Academy at Woolwich
held an organised competition in 1849, and a regular series of closed meetings open only to
indoor
undergraduates, was held by Exeter College, Oxford, from 1850.[10] The annual Wenlock Olympian
Games, first held in 1850 in Wenlock, England, incorporated athletics events into its sports Presence
[11]
programme.

The first modern-style indoor athletics meetings were recorded shortly after in the 1860s, including a Olympic Present
meet at Ashburnham Hall in London which featured four running events and a triple jump
since
competition.[12][13]
inaugural
The Amateur Athletic Association (AAA) was established in England in 1880 as the first national body
for the sport of athletics and began holding its own annual athletics competition – the AAA
1896
Championships. The United States also began holding an annual national competition – the USA Olympics
Outdoor Track and Field Championships – first held in 1876 by the New York Athletic Club.[14] Athletics
became codified and standardized via the English AAA and other general sports organisations in the Paralympic Present
late 19th century, such as the Amateur Athletic Union (founded in the US in 1888) and the Union des
sociétés françaises de sports athlétiques (founded in France in 1889). since
An athletics competition was included in the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 and it has been as inaugur
one of the foremost competitions at the quadrennial multi-sport event ever since. Originally for men
only, the 1928 Olympics saw the introduction of women's events in the athletics programme. Athletics is
1960
part of the Paralympic Games since the inaugural Games in 1960. Athletics has a very high-profile Paralym
during major championships, especially the Olympics, but otherwise is less popular.

An international governing body, the International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF), was founded in
1912. It enforced amateur sport status on competitions during much of the 20th century. Professional competition continued at a low level, becoming
increasingly more common as the century progressed. The International Track Association briefly formed a professional track and field circuit in the
United States in the 1970s. Athletes used their increasing status to push for remuneration and the IAAF responded with the IAAF Golden Events series and
the establishment an outdoor World Championships in 1983, including track and field, racewalking and a marathon event. In modern times, athletes can
receive money for racing, putting an end to the so-called "amateurism" that existed before. The global body updated the name to the International
Association of Athletics Federations in 2001, moving away from its amateur origins,[15] before taking on its current name World Athletics in 2019.[16]

The Comité International Sports des Sourds had been formed by 1922, to govern international deaf sports, including athletics.[17]

The first organized international competitions for athletes with a physical disability (not deaf) began in 1952, when the first international Stoke Mandeville
Games were organized for World War II veterans.[17][18] This only included athletes in a wheelchair. This inspired the first Paralympic Games, held in 1960.
Competitions would over time be expanded to include mainly athletes with amputation, cerebral palsy and visual impairment, in addition to wheelchair
events.

Events
World Athletics, the sport's governing body, defines athletics in six disciplines: track and field, road running, race walking, cross country running, mountain
running, and trail running.[19] Mountain running was added in 2003 and trail running was added in 2015.[20][21][22][23]

All forms of athletics are individual sports with the exception of relay races. However, athletes' performances are often tallied together by country at
international championships, and, in the case of cross country and road races, finishing positions or times of the top athletes from a team may be
combined to declare a team victor.

Several further forms of competitive running exist outside of the governance of World Athletics. The International Skyrunning Federation (ISF) governs
high-altitude mountain running, defined as skyrunning, and is affiliated with the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation rather than World
Athletics.[24] Competitive stair climbing events, usually hosted in skyscrapers, has two common names: vertical running (as described by the ISF) and
tower running (as described by the Towerrunning World Association).[25][26] Snowshoe running is a winter sport governed by the World Snowshoe
Federation, which is similarly to cross country running but has athletes wearing snowshoes to race over deep snow on an obstacle-free course.[27] The
International Association of Ultrarunners organises ultra running as an affiliate of World Athletics, but these long-distance forms of competition fit within
World Athletics disciplines, albeit with additional distance.[28]
Track and field

A typical track and field stadium with

an oval running track and a grassy
inner field

International level women athletes at

ISTAF Berlin, 2006

Track and field competitions emerged in the late 19th century and were typically contested between athletes who were representing rival educational
institutions, military organisations and sports clubs.[29] Participating athletes may compete in one or more events, according to their specialities. Men and
women compete separately. Track and field comes in both indoor and outdoor formats, with most indoor competitions occurring in winter, while outdoor
events are mostly held in summer. The sport is defined by the venue in which the competitions are held – the track and field stadium.

A variety of running events are held on the track which fall into three broad distance categories: sprints, middle-distance, and long-distance track events.
Relay races feature teams comprising four runners each, who must pass a baton to their teammate after a specified distance with the aim of being the
first team to finish. Hurdling events and the steeplechase are a variation upon the flat running theme in that athletes must clear obstacles on the track
during the race. The field events come in two types – jumping and throwing competitions. In throwing events, athletes are measured by how far they hurl
an implement, with the common events being the shot put, discus, javelin, and hammer throw. There are four common jumping events: the long jump and
triple jump are contests measuring the horizontal distance an athlete can jump, while the high jump and pole vault are decided on the height achieved.
Combined events, which include the decathlon (typically competed by men) and heptathlon (typically competed by women), are competitions where
athletes compete in a number of different track and field events, with each performance going toward a final points tally.

The most prestigious track and field contests occur within athletics championships and athletics programmes at multi-sport events. The Olympic athletics
competition and World Championships in Athletics, and the Paralympic athletics competition and World Para Athletics Championships, are the highest
and most prestigious levels of competition in track and field. Track and field events have become the most prominent part of major athletics
championships and many famous athletes within the sport of athletics come from this discipline. Discrete track and field competitions are found at
national championships-level and also at annual, invitational track and field meets. Meetings range from elite competitions – such as those in the IAAF
Diamond League series – to basic all comers track meets, inter-sports club meetings and schools events, which form the grassroots of track and field.
Official world championship track and field events

Track Field

Middle- Long- Combined

Sprints Hurdles Relays Jumps Throws
distance distance

60 m hurdles
Long
100 m Shot put
4× jump
hurdles Discus
60 m 100 m Triple
800 m 5000 m 110 m throw Pentath
100 m relay jump
1500 m 10,000 hurdles Hammer Heptath
200 m 4× High
3000 m m 400 m throw Decath
400 m 400 m jump
hurdles Javelin
relay Pole
3000 m throw
vault
steeplechase

Note: Events in italics are competed at indoor world championships only

Note: Heptathlon can refer to two different events, each consisting of different

disciplines and both recognised by IAAF: the indoor heptathlon for men, and the

outdoor heptathlon for women.

Road running
Road running competitions are running events (predominantly long distance) which are mainly conducted on courses of paved or tarmac roads, although
major events often finish on the track of a main stadium. In addition to being a common recreational sport, the elite level of the sport – particularly
marathon races – are one of the most popular aspects of athletics. Road racing events can be of virtually any distance, but the most common and well
known are the marathon, half marathon, 10 km and 5 km. The marathon is the only road running event featured at the IAAF World Championships in
Athletics and the Summer Olympics, although there is also an annual IAAF World Half Marathon Championships. The marathon is also the only road
running event featured at the World Para Athletics Championships and the Summer Paralympics. The World Marathon Majors series includes the six most
prestigious marathon competitions at the elite level – the Berlin, Boston, Chicago, London, New York City and Tokyo Marathons.

Runners in the popular National

Marathon race in Washington, D.C.

The sport of road running finds its roots in the activities of footmen: male servants who ran alongside the carriages of aristocrats around the 18th century,
and who also ran errands over distances for their masters. Foot racing competitions evolved from wagers between aristocrats, who pitted their footman
against that of another aristocrat in order to determine a winner. The sport became professionalised as footmen were hired specifically on their athletic
ability and began to devote their lives to training for the gambling events. The amateur sports movement in the late 19th century marginalised
competitions based on the professional, gambling model. The 1896 Summer Olympics saw the birth of the modern marathon and the event led to the
growth of road running competitions through annual events such as the Boston Marathon (first held in 1897) and the Lake Biwa Marathon and Fukuoka
Marathons, which were established in the 1940s. The 1970s running boom in the United States made road running a common pastime and also increased
its popularity at the elite level.[30]

Ekiden contests – which originated in Japan and remain very popular there – are a relay race variation on the marathon, being in contrast to the typically
individual sport of road running.

Cross country running

Competitors mid-race at a boys high

school event in the United States

Cross country running is the most naturalistic of the sports in athletics as competitions take place on open-air courses over surfaces such as grass,
woodland trails, and earth. It is both an individual and team sport, as runners are judged on an individual basis and a points scoring method is used for
teams. Competitions are typically long distance races of 3 km (1.9 mi) or more which are usually held in autumn and winter. Cross country's most
successful athletes often compete in long-distance track and road events as well.

The Crick Run in England in 1838 was the first recorded instance of an organised cross country competition. The sport gained popularity in British, then
American schools in the 19th century and culminated in the creation of the first International Cross Country Championships in 1903.[31] The annual IAAF
World Cross Country Championships was inaugurated in 1973 and this remains the highest level of competition for the sport. A number of continental
cross country competitions are held, with championships taking place in Asia, Europe, North America and South America. The sport has retained its status
at the scholastic level, particularly in the United Kingdom and United States. At the professional level, the foremost competitions come under the banner
of the IAAF Cross Country Permit Meetings.

While cross country competitions are no longer held at the Olympics, having featured in the athletics programme from 1912 to 1924, it has been present
as one of the events within the modern pentathlon competition since the 1912 Summer Olympics. One variation on traditional cross country is mountain
running, which incorporates significant uphill and/or downhill sections as an additional challenge to the course. Fell running and Orienteering are other
competitive sports similar to cross country, although they feature an element of navigation which is absent from the set courses of cross country.
Racewalking

A track-side judge monitoring

technique at the 1912 Summer
Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden

Racewalking is a form of competitive walking that usually takes place on open-air roads, although running tracks are also occasionally used. Racewalking
is the only sport in athletics in which judges monitor athletes on their technique. Racewalkers must always have a foot in contact with the ground and their
advancing leg must be straightened, not bent at the knee – failure to follow these rules results in disqualification from the race.[32]

Racewalking finds its roots in the sport of pedestrianism which emerged in the late 18th century in England. Spectators would gamble on the outcome of
the walking competitions. The sport took on an endurance aspect and competitions were held over long distances or walkers would have to achieve a
certain distance within a specified time frame, such as Centurion contests of walking 100 miles (160 km) within 24 hours.[32] During this period,
racewalking was frequently held on athletics tracks for ease of measurement, and the 1908 Summer Olympics in London saw the introduction of the
3500-metre and 10-mile walks. Racewalking was briefly dropped from the Olympic programme in 1928, but the men's 50 kilometres race walk has been
held at every Olympic Games but one since 1932. The men's 20 kilometres race walk was added to the Olympic athletics schedule in 1956 and the
women's event was first held in 1992. The most common events in modern competition are over 10 km, 20 km and 50 km on roads, although women's
3 km and men's 5 km are held on indoor tracks.

The highest level racewalking competitions occur at the IAAF World Championships in Athletics and at the Summer Olympics, although the sport also has
its own separate major competition – the IAAF World Race Walking Cup – which has been held since 1961. The IAAF World Race Walking Challenge forms
the primary seasonal competition – athletes earn points for their performances at ten selected racewalking competitions and the highest scoring walkers
are entered into that year's IAAF Race Walking Challenge Final.

Categories

Foekje Dillema was banned from the

women's division in 1950.

The significant variation in people's abilities in the sport of athletics has led to the creation of numerous competitive categories, in order that athletes are
pitted against rivals of a similar kind or ability, and to include groups of people who would otherwise not be competitive in open-to-all events. The eligibility
of athletes for a given category is occasionally a source of controversy among the sport's participants, officials and spectators, with disputes typically
being rooted in deliberate cheating in order to gain a competitive advantage or differing cultural perspectives over the eligibility of a category.
Beyond the primary categories based on physical attributes, some competitions have further eligibility criteria based on nationality, community
membership or occupation.

Men's and women's divisions

The foremost division of this kind is by sex[ling]: in athletics, men and women almost exclusively compete against people of the same sex. In contrast to
the men's division, the development of the women's division has caused regular dispute in terms of eligibility. Several intersex athletes had success in the
women's division in the early 20th century, such as Stanisława Walasiewicz and Mary Weston (later Mark), and the IAAF responded by introducing sex
verification for all athletes in the women's category, beginning with the disqualification of sprinter Foekje Dillema in 1950 after she refused to be tested.[33]
Olympic champion Ewa Kłobukowska became the first athlete to publicly fail the test in 1967 and the humiliation she suffered as a result of the
announcement led to sex tests becoming a confidential process.[34] Hurdler Maria José Martínez-Patiño failed a test and was disqualified in 1985, but
publicly fought the ban in court and was reinstated in 1988. In 1991, the IAAF replaced the sex chromatin test with general medical tests for athletes of all
divisions, due to changes in ethical and scientific viewpoints.[35]

The question of eligibility for the women's division continued to be a contentious and public issue into the 21st century, with Caster Semenya and Dutee
Chand bearing periods of ineligibility and taking the IAAF to the Court of Arbitration for Sport over their bans under the hyperandrogenism rules.[36] An
increasing number of trans men and trans women began to compete in the women's division in the 2010s, which caused other athletes in the division to
raise questions of fairness in competition.[37][38]

The dispute reached new heights in 2019 with the United Nations Human Rights Council issuing a statement that the IAAF was breaching "international
human rights norms and standards" through its practice of allowing some athletes to compete in the women's division only once they had lowered their
testosterone levels through medical intervention.[39] The IAAF and several prominent women athletes, such as Paula Radcliffe, said this was required in
order to prevent a situation where countries deliberately sought out athletes who were intersex, transgender or had a difference in sex development in
order to succeed in women's sport.[40] Others have argued for the abolition of gender verification testing, with academic Maren Behrensen citing the harm
to tested athletes' social and emotional well-being, the inaccuracy of the medical tests, the difficulty of determining the exact performance advantage
provided by a given condition, and the moral risk of "gender-engineering" by setting a biological definition for a female athlete.[41]

Age

Masters marathon runner

Fauja Singh

Age is a significant determiner of ability to compete in athletics, with athletic ability generally increasing through childhood and adolescence, peaking in
early adulthood, then gradually declining from around the age of 30 onwards.[42][43] As a result, numerous age categories have been created to encourage
younger and older athletes to engage in competition. At international level, there are three major categories for young athletes: under-23, under-20
(formerly junior), and under-18 (formerly youth). Beyond international rules, different youth categories are in use in the sport, often in the form of two-year
or single age groupings.[44] Age categories are more extensive for older athletes and these are commonly organised under the umbrella of masters
athletics, which has age groups spanning five years for all athletes aged 35 and above. There is no limit to the number of age groupings, hence Stanisław
Kowalski holds a world record for men aged 105 years and over.[45] For competitions where age is not taken into account, this is known as senior or open
class athletics; in international rules there remain some restrictions on younger people competing in endurance events for health reasons .[44]
Athletes' eligibility for a competitive age grouping is typically assessed through official documentation, such as birth records or passports. Instances of
age cheating have occurred at all of the IAAF's global age category championships. One prominent incident was Olympic medalist Thomas Longosiwa,
who provided a falsified passport to compete at the 2006 World Junior Championships in Athletics at age 24.[46] Age falsification for youth categories is
mostly limited to less developed parts of the world, such as Africa and South Asia, which have less stringent controls on official documentation and many
mature athletes engaging in high school competition due to disruptions to education.[47][48][49][50] The same regions of the world also present issues with
age verification in masters age categories, with examples such as Indian distance runners Dharampal Singh Gudha and Fauja Singh (both claiming to be
over 100 years old) reaching mainstream attention.[51]

Athletes with disabilities

Competitor in a
wheelchair race at the
2008 Summer
Paralympics

Athletes with physical disabilities have competed at separate international events since 1952. The International Paralympic Committee governs the
competitions in athletics, and hosts the Paralympic Games, which have continued since 1960.[17][18]

Competitors at elite level competitions, are classified by disability, to arrange athletes with a similar disability in the same event. A classified T12 athlete
for example, is a track athlete with a visual impairment.[52]

F = Field athletes

T = Track athletes

11–13 – visual impairment. Compete with a sighted guide.

20 – Intellectual disability

31–38 – cerebral palsy

40–46 – amputation, and others (including athletes with

dwarfism)

51–58 – Wheelchair
Operating independently of the Paralympic movement, deaf athletes have a long-established tradition of organised athletics, with the first major world
competition being included at the 1924 Deaflympics.[53] The primary impediments to the inclusion of deaf athletes in mainstream athletics are sound
based elements of the sport, such as the starter's pistol. This can be a disadvantage even in Paralympic sport, as shown in by the example of Olivia Breen
who failed to hear a false start in a cerebral palsy class race at the 2012 Paralympics.[54]

In wheelchair racing athletes compete in lightweight racing chairs. Most major marathons have wheelchair divisions and the elite racers consistently beat
the runners on foot. The speed of wheel chair racers has caused difficulties for race organisers in properly staggering their start times compared to
runners. A collision between Josh Cassidy (a wheelchair racer) and Tiki Gelana (a leading female marathoner) at the 2013 London Marathon brought the
issue into the spotlight again.[55]

Occasionally, athletes with a disability reach a level at which they can compete against able-bodied athletes. Legally blind Marla Runyan ran in the 2000
and 2004 Olympics and won a gold medal in the 1500 metres at the 1999 Pan American Games. Oscar Pistorius, a double amputee, was a semi-finalist at
the 2011 World Championships and won a silver medal as part of South Africa's 4 × 400 metres relay team.[56] In masters athletics it is far more common
to make an accommodation for athletes with a disability. Blind Ivy Granstrom set numerous Masters world records while being guided around the track.[57]

The disability categories have caused dispute among athletes, with some athletes being accused of exaggerating their level of disability in order to
compete in less challenging categories.[58] Athletes with intellectual disabilities were banned from competition in all Paralymic sports in response to
verification issues and cheating at the 2000 Summer Paralympics and the intellectual disability athletics programme was only restored twelve years later
at the 2012 Summer Paralympics.[59]

Venues
Professional athletics almost exclusively takes place in one of three types of venue: stadiums, set courses on grass or woodland, and road-based courses.
Such venues ensure that events take place in a relatively standardised manner, as well as improving the safety of athletes and enjoyment for spectators.
At a more basic level, many forms of athletics demand very little in terms of venue requirements; almost any open space or area of field can provide a
suitable venue for basic running, jumping and throwing competitions.

Track and field stadium

A typical layout of an outdoor track

and field stadium

A standard outdoor track is in the shape of a stadium,[60] 400 metres in length, and has at least eight lanes 1.22 m in width (small arenas might have six
lanes). Older track facilities may have nonstandard track lengths, such as 440 yards (402.3 m; 1/4 mile) (common in the United States). Historically, tracks
were covered by a dirt running surface. Modern All-weather running tracks are covered by a synthetic weather-resistant running surface, which typically
consists of rubber (either black SBR or colored EPDM granules), bound by polyurethane or latex resins. Older tracks may be cinder-covered.

A standard indoor track is designed similarly to an outdoor track, but is only 200 metres in length and has between four and eight lanes, each with width
between 0.90 m and 1.10 m.[61] Often, the bends of an indoor track will be banked to compensate for the small turning radius. However, because of space
limitations, indoor tracks may have other nonstandard lengths, such as 160-yard (146.3 m) indoor track at Madison Square Garden used for the Millrose
Games. Because of space limitations, meetings held at indoor facilities do not hold many of athletics events typically contested outdoors.
Cross country courses

A cross country race taking place at a

snowy park in the United States

There is no standardised form of cross country course and each venue is significantly defined by the environment it contains – some may be relatively flat
and featureless, while others may be more challenging with natural obstacles, tight turns, and undulating ground. While a small number of purpose-built
courses exist, the vast majority of cross country running courses are created by cordoning a specific area within any open natural land, typically a park,
woodland or greenspace near a settlement.[62]

At the elite and professional level, courses must be looped and each lap must be between 1750 m and 2000 m in length. Severe obstacles such as deep
ditches, high barriers and thick undergrowth not normally present; the course should be able to be completed whilst remaining on foot throughout. In order
to maintain the sport's distinction from road running, the usage of unnatural or macadamised surfaces is generally kept to a minimum or avoided
entirely.[62]

Because the majority of races take place on areas of grass, soil, mud or earth, weather conditions can significantly affect the difficulty of cross country
courses, as snow and rain reduces traction and can create areas of standing water.

Road courses

A typical road running course on the

inner-city roads of Toronto

The surface of road races is highly important and the IAAF dictate that the courses must be along man-made roads, bicycle paths or footpaths. Courses
set along major roads of cities are typical of road running events, and traffic is usually cordoned off from the area during the competition. While soft
ground, such as grass, is generally avoided, races may start and finish on soft ground or within a track and field stadium. Road racing courses come in two
primary types: looped and point-to-point. Courses may be measured and designed to cover a standardised distance, such as 10 km (6.2 mi), or they may
simply follow a set route between two landmarks.[63]

Road running courses over 5 km usually offer drinks or refreshment stations for runners at designated points alongside the course and medical
professionals are present at the courses of major races due to the health risks involved with long-distance running.[63]

Elite road walks are conducted on closed loop courses (usually loops of 2,000 or 2,500 meters). Refreshment stations are also present over long distance
walking competitions, with drinks being available on every lap for races longer than 10 km.[64]
Organizations
In 1912, the formation of the international governing body for athletics, the International Amateur Athletics Federation, began. In recognition of the
movement of the sport from amateurism towards professionalism that began in the late 1970s, the word amateur was dropped from the name, and the
organization was rebranded as the International Association of Athletics Federations in 2001. In late 2019, another rebranding began, with World Athletics
as the new title of the governing body.

World Athletics has 215 member nations and territories, which are divided into six continental areas (or area associations).[65] The six association areas
are for Asia, Africa, Europe, Oceania, North and Central America and Caribbean and South America. The sports within athletics do not have their own
independent governing bodies at either international or continental level; instead, all fall under the athletics authorities.[66][67]

Map of the six continental federations of

World Athletics

AAA – Asian Athletics Association

CAA – Confederation of African Athletics

CONSUDATLE – South American Athletics Confederation

NACACAA – North America, Central America and Caribbean

Athletic Association

EAA – European Athletics Association

OAA – Oceania Athletics Association

National level athletics organisations are responsible for the regulation of the sport within their respective countries and most major competitions have
some form of permit or approval from their national body.
Competitions

Men's 1,500-metre Running during the

2018 IAAF World U20 Championships
at the Ratina Stadium in Tampere,
Finland

Athletics competitions can be broadly divided into three types: international championships, national championships, and annual meetings and races.
Athletics at international championships, or Games, represent the pinnacle of competition within the sport, and they are contested between athletes
representing their country or region. The organisation of these competitions is usually overseen by either a world, continental, or regional athletics
governing body. Athletes gain entry into these competitions by earning selection from their national athletics governing body, which is generally done by
assessing athletes via their past achievements or performances at a national selection event. National championships are annual competitions endorsed
by a national governing body which serve the purpose of deciding the country's best athlete in each event. Annual one-day meetings and races form the
most basic level of competition and are the most common format of athletics contests. These events are often invitational and are organised by sports
organisations, sports promoters, or other institutions.

Competitions typically feature only one of the sports within athletics. However, major outdoor international athletics championships and athletics
competitions held as part of multi-sport events usually feature a combination of track and field, road running and racewalking events

International competitions

Multi-sport events

The athletics competition underway

at the main stadium of the 2008
Summer Olympics

The modern Summer Olympics was the first event at which a global athletics competition took place. All the four major sports within athletics have
featured in the Olympic athletics programme since its inception in 1896, although cross country has since been dropped. The Olympic competition is the
most prestigious athletics contest, and many athletics events are among the most watched events at the Summer Olympics. A total of 47 athletics events
are held at the Olympics, 24 for men and 23 for women (as of London 2012). The events within the men's and women's programmes are either identical or
have a similar equivalent, with the sole exception being that men contest the 50 km race walk.[68]

Following the model of the Olympics, various other multi-sport events arose during the 20th century, which included athletics as a core sport within the
programme from the outset. These included the Commonwealth Games, the Central American and Caribbean Games, Universiade, and many others.
The Summer Paralympics include athletes with a physical disability. Track and field, and road events have featured in the Paralympic athletics programme
since its inception in 1960. The Paralympic competition is the most prestigious athletics contest where athletes with a physical disability compete.
Athletics at the Paralympic Games also include wheelchair racing where athletes compete in lightweight racing chairs. Athletes with a visual impairment
compete with a sighted guide. At the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London, for the first time at an international athletics event, the guides received
medals,[69] such as the pilots in cycling, and the guides at the Paralympic Winter Games have done for a while.

World championships
The World Athletics Championships is the primary global athletics championships held by World Athletics. The biennial competition was first held in 1983
and now features an event programme which is identical to the Olympics. Thus, road running, racewalking and track and field are the sports which feature
at the competition. Cross country running has its own discrete global championships – the World Athletics Cross Country Championships – which has
been held annually since 1973. The World Athletics Indoor Championships is a biennial athletics championships which features solely indoor track and
field events. The foremost separate road running event is the annual World Athletics Half Marathon Championships (formerly IAAF World Half Marathon
Championships). While not having official world championship status, the biennial World Athletics Race Walking Team Championships fulfils a similar role
for the sport of racewalking. Outdoor track and field is the only sport in athletics that does not have a its own distinct global championship which is
separate from other types of athletics, although the IAAF Continental Cup (a quadrennial competition between continental teams) is composed entirely of
outdoor track and field events.

Other world championships include the World Athletics U20 Championships and the 2017 defunct World Youth Championships in Athletics, which are for
athletes under-19 and under-17, respectively. World Masters Athletics conducts the World Masters Athletics Championships for athletes in 5-year age
divisions over the age of 35. The now defunct IAAF World Road Relay Championships served as the global event for ekiden marathon relay races.

Elite athletes with a physical disability compete at the World Para Athletics Championships.

Area/Continental championships
African, Asian, European, North & Central and Caribbean (NACAC), Oceania and South American Athletics Championships are held regularly in a variety of
configurations. For example, the Oceania Area Championships in Athletics are combined with the Oceania U20 Athletics Championships. Most of the main
regions hold separate cross-country, road-running and marathon championships.

There is the Pan American Combined Events Cup. Central American and Caribbean Championships are organised by the Central American and Caribbean
Athletic Confederation (the CACAC)).

Culture and media

Ancient Greek pottery

showing the javelin and
the discus throw

Athletics, and its athletes in particular, has been artistically depicted since ancient times – one of the surviving instances include runners and high
jumpers in the motifs of Ancient Egyptian tombs dating from 2250 BC. Athletics was much respected in Ancient Greece and the events within the ancient
pentathlon provided inspiration for large statues such as the Discobolus and Discophoros, and for motifs on countless vase and pottery works. Aristotle
discussed the significance of the pentathlon in his treatise Rhetoric and reflected on the athlete aesthetic of the period: "a body capable of enduring all
efforts, either of the racecourse or of bodily strength...This is why the athletes in the pentathlon are most beautiful".[70]
Films about athletics are overwhelmingly focused on running events: the 1962 film The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (based on the book of the
same name) explores cross country running as a means of escape. Chariots of Fire, perhaps one of the most well-known athletics films, is a fictionalised
account of Eric Liddell and Harold Abrahams's chase for sprint gold medals at the 1924 Olympics. Track and field has been the subject of American films
such as Personal Best (1981) and Across the Tracks (1991). Biopics are found within the genre, including Prefontaine (regarding Steve Prefontaine) and
Jim Thorpe – All-American (1951) featuring Burt Lancaster as Thorpe. Documentaries are also common with examples such as 2007 film Spirit of the
Marathon, which follows runners' preparations for the 2005 Chicago Marathon.

Books on the subject are predominantly non-fiction, and tend towards the forms of training manuals and historical accounts of athletics. The story of the
four-minute mile has been a particularly popular subject, spawning books such as The Perfect Mile and 3:59.4: The Quest to Break the Four Minute Mile.

Athletics journalism has spawned a number of dedicated periodicals including Athletics Weekly and Race Walking Record, both of which were first
published in England in the early 1940s, and Track & Field News which was first published in the United States in 1948. Runner's World has been in print
since 1966 and the Track & Field Magazine of Japan (Rikujyo Kyogi Magazine) is another long-running publication.

Athletics events have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors' coins. One of the recent samples is the €10 Greek Running commemorative
coin, minted in 2003 to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics. In the obverse of the coin, a modern athlete figure appears in the foreground, shown in
the starting position, while in the background two ancient runners are carved in a manner that gives the appearance of a coin that is "worn" by time. This
scene originally appeared on a black-figure vase of the 6th century BC.

See also

List of films about the sport of athletics Sport of

athletics
List of Olympic medalists in athletics (men), portal
(women) Sports
portal
List of world records in athletics

World records in athletics (athletes with a disability)

National records in athletics

Association of Track and Field Statisticians

Running in Ancient Greece

USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships

World Athletics Championships

Diamond League
References

1. "Athletics" (http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/12495?rskey=WMZWDf&r
esult=20&isAdvanced=true#eid35304975) . Oxford English Dictionary
(3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. December 2013. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20150924071051/http://www.oed.com/view/Entr
y/12495?rskey=WMZWDf&result=20&isAdvanced=true#eid35304975)
from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.

2. Athlete (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&s
earch=athlete&searchmode=none) Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20170911071847/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowe
d_in_frame=0&search=athlete&searchmode=none) 2017-09-11 at the
Wayback Machine, Online Etymology Dictionary

3. Intro – What is Athletics? (http://www.iaaf.org/community/athletics/in

dex.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120422020013/ht
tp://www.iaaf.org/community/athletics/index.html) 2012-04-22 at the
Wayback Machine. IAAF. Retrieved on 2010-05-28.

4. Touny, Ahmed D. 84.85–90 History of Sports in Ancient Egypt (http://w

ww.ioa.leeds.ac.uk/1980s/84085.htm) Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20061029232515/http://www.ioa.leeds.ac.uk/1980s/84085.
htm) 2006-10-29 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2010-05-28.
5. Diffley, Seán (2007-07-14). Tailteann Games' place in history going for
a song (http://www.independent.ie/sport/other-sports/tailteann-game
s-place-in-history-going-for-a-song-1037527.html) Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20090921070915/http://www.independent.ie/spor
t/other-sports/tailteann-games-place-in-history-going-for-a-song-1037
527.html) 2009-09-21 at the Wayback Machine. The Irish
Independent. Retrieved on 2010-05-28.

6. The Ancient Olympic Games: Mythic Worship of Gods and Athletes (htt
p://www.workoutgearlab.com/A1_1%20The%20Ancient%20Olympic%2
0Games%20-%20Mythic%20Worship%20of%20Gods%20and%20Athlet
es.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150529033625/htt
p://www.workoutgearlab.com/A1_1%20The%20Ancient%20Olympic%2
0Games%20-%20Mythic%20Worship%20of%20Gods%20and%20Athlet
es.pdf) 2015-05-29 at the Wayback Machine. e-Legacies. Retrieved on
2010-05-28.

7. Origins of Robert Dover's Games (http://www.olimpickgames.co.uk/co

ntentok.php?id=862) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2009120
2114440/http://www.olimpickgames.co.uk/contentok.php?id=862)
2009-12-02 at the Wayback Machine . Olympick Games. Retrieved on
2010-05-28.

8. Alain Arvin-Bérod, Les enfants d'Olympie, Paris, CERF, 1996 (pp. 27–
40)
 9. Frank Moore Colby; Talcott Williams (1914). The New International
Encyclopædia (https://books.google.com/books?id=9NUXAQAAIAA
J) . Dodd, Mead. p. 316. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160
501185346/https://books.google.com/books?id=9NUXAQAAIAAJ)
from the original on 2016-05-01. Retrieved 2016-01-10.

10. Oxford Companion to Sports and Games, ed. J.Arlott, O.U.P. (1975)

11. The Modern Olympics: a Struggle for Survival, by David C. Young,Johns

Hopkins University Press (1996)

12. Hoshino, Atsushi The Origin of Indoor Track and Field Meets (http://ww
w2.iaaf.org/wic99/history/history_2.html) Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20120810234606/http://www2.iaaf.org/wic99/history/hist
ory_2.html) 2012-08-10 at the Wayback Machine. IAAF. Retrieved on
2011-04-09.

13. European Athletics, Inside Track: Newsletter of European Athletics, Vol.

1/2011 (February 2011); Records could be broken as indoor athletics
returns home (http://www.european-athletics.org/european-athletics-n
ewsletter.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201103120510
11/http://www.european-athletics.org/european-athletics-newsletter.ht
ml) 2011-03-12 at the Wayback Machine, p. 4; accessed 6 March 2011

14. The United States' National Championships In Track & Field Athletics:
Introduction (http://www.trackandfieldnews.com/display_article.php?i
d=258) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20071031022334/htt
p://www.trackandfieldnews.com/display_article.php?id=258) 2007-
10-31 at the Wayback Machine. Track and Field News. Retrieved on
2009-09-19.
15. April Henning & Jörg Krieger. "Dropping the Amateur": The International
Association of Athletics Federations and the Turn Towards
Professionalism (https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/retrieve/ba136330-cfde-472
f-955f-a38b92b71854/Henning%20_%20Krieger%202020%20Droppin
g%20the%20Amateur.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
00412121935/https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/retrieve/ba136330-cfde-472f-9
55f-a38b92b71854/Henning%2520_%2520Krieger%25202020%2520Dr
opping%2520the%2520Amateur.pdf) 2020-04-12 at the Wayback
Machine. Sport History Review (January 2020). Retrieved 2020-04-12.

16. Mackay, Duncan (2019-09-26). IAAF officially agree to change name to

World Athletics after debate (https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/
1085180/iaaf-to-change-name-to-world-athletics) Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20191207222102/https://www.insidethegames.bi
z/articles/1085180/iaaf-to-change-name-to-world-athletics) 2019-12-
07 at the Wayback Machine. Inside the Games. Retrieved 2020-02-09.

17. Para- Athletics – History (http://www.athletics.ca/files//NationalTeam

Programs/EventGroups/SpeedPower/PARAATHLETICSBACKGROUND
07JUNE07.PDF) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120531104
304/http://www.athletics.ca/files//NationalTeamPrograms/EventGrou
ps/SpeedPower/PARAATHLETICSBACKGROUND07JUNE07.PDF)
2012-05-31 at the Wayback Machine, Athletics Canada

18. About the Sport (http://ipc-athletics.paralympic.org/About_the_Spor

t/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120625051757/http://ip
c-athletics.paralympic.org/About_the_Sport/) 2012-06-25 at the
Wayback Machine, IPC Athletics
19. "IAAF 2017 Constitution" (https://www.iaaf.org/download/download?fil
ename=e912df83-c582-4ecf-b7d5-f0d7a9fe1698.pdf&urlslug=2017%2
0IAAF%20Constitution) . International Association of Athletics
Federations. 1 January 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0170511012523/https://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=
e912df83-c582-4ecf-b7d5-f0d7a9fe1698.pdf&urlslug=2017%20IAAF%
20Constitution) from the original on 11 May 2017. Retrieved
29 October 2017.

20. "The IAAF Constitution" (https://web.archive.org/web/2010070501380

5/http://www.iaaf.org/mm/Document/AboutIAAF/Publications/05/47/
96/20100113075829_httppostedfile_IAAFConstitution-01.11.09-Eng-W
ebsite_17812.pdf) (PDF). International Association of Athletics
Federations. 1 November 2009. Archived from the original (http://www.
iaaf.org/mm/Document/AboutIAAF/Publications/05/47/96/20100113
075829_httppostedfile_IAAFConstitution-01.11.09-Eng-Website_1781
2.pdf) (PDF) on 2010-07-05. Retrieved 11 February 2011.

21. "IAAF Competition Rules 2016-2017" (https://www.iaaf.org/download/

download?filename=89ed4cba-6b5e-49fe-a43e-9f5487b77a84.pdf)
(PDF). International Association of Athletics Federations. 1 November
2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160323100248/http://
www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=89ed4cba-6b5e-49fe-a43
e-9f5487b77a84.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 23 March 2016.
Retrieved 29 October 2017. "IAAF Congress in Beijing voted to change
Article 2 of the IAAF Constitution to include trail running officially as
part of the definition of 'Athletics' "
22. "Trail running recognised as an official discipline of the IAAF" (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20180125134429/https://www.run247.com/articl
es/article-6662-trail-running-recognised-as-an-official-discipline-of-the-i
aaf.html) (Press release). Archived from the original (http://www.run2
47.com/articles/article-6662-trail-running-recognised-as-an-official-dis
cipline-of-the-iaaf.html) on 25 January 2018. Retrieved 29 October
2017.

23. "2017 Trail World Championships" (http://itra.run/page/347/2017_TW

C_-_Badia_Prataglia.html) . International Trail Running Association.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171106193931/http://www.it
ra.run/page/347/2017_TWC_-_Badia_Prataglia.html) from the original
on 6 November 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2017. "IAAF (International
Association of Athletics Federations), having recognized in summer
2015 the Trail as a new discipline, will recognize as the only Trail World
Championships the event of Badia Prataglia, Italia"

24. About ISF (https://www.skyrunning.com/about-isf/) Archived (https://

web.archive.org/web/20200220120657/http://www.skyrunning.com/a
bout-isf/) 2020-02-20 at the Wayback Machine. International
Skyrunning Federation. Retrieved 2020-02-09.

25. Vertical running – on top of the world (https://www.verticalworldcircui

t.com/vertical-running/#) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
00726103020/https://www.verticalworldcircuit.com/vertical-running/)
2020-07-26 at the Wayback Machine. Vertical World Circuit. Retrieved
2020-02-09.
26. Do you know what is Tower Running? (https://www.runsociety.com/trai
ning/tower-running/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2020072
6105825/https://www.runsociety.com/training/tower-running/) 2020-
07-26 at the Wayback Machine. Run Society (2019-12-08). Retrieved
2020-02-09.

27. About (https://worldsnowshoe.org/about-1) Archived (https://web.arc

hive.org/web/20200628072039/https://worldsnowshoe.org/about-1)
2020-06-28 at the Wayback Machine. World Snowshoe Federation.
Retrieved 2020-02-09.

28. What is the IAU (http://www.iau-ultramarathon.org/index.asp?menuco

de=187&tmp=tmp2&taal=en&menu_id=About_us&submenux=What%2
0is%20the%20IAU&foto=foto0) Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20200411061746/http://iau-ultramarathon.org/index.asp?menucode
=187&tmp=tmp2&taal=en&menu_id=About_us&submenux=What%20i
s%20the%20IAU&foto=foto0) 2020-04-11 at the Wayback Machine.
International Association of Ultrarunners. Retrieved 2020-02-09.

29. History – Introduction (http://www.iaaf.org/aboutiaaf/history/index.ht

ml) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20100501210531/http://w
ww.iaaf.org/aboutiaaf/history/index.html) 2010-05-01 at the Wayback
Machine. IAAF. Retrieved on 25 March 2010.

30. Road running – Introduction (http://www.iaaf.org/community/athletic

s/roadrunning/index.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
21023092528/http://iaaf.org/community/athletics/roadrunning/index.
html) 2012-10-23 at the Wayback Machine. IAAF. Retrieved on 2010-
05-27.
31. Cross country – Introduction (http://www.iaaf.org/community/athletic
s/crosscountry/index.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
110227014746/http://www.iaaf.org/community/athletics/crosscountr
y/index.html) 2011-02-27 at the Wayback Machine. IAAF. Retrieved on
2010-05-27.

32. Race Walking – Introduction (http://www.iaaf.org/community/athletic

s/racewalking/index.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
00308103505/http://www.iaaf.org/community/athletics/racewalking/i
ndex.html) 2010-03-08 at the Wayback Machine. IAAF. Retrieved on
2010-05-28.

33. Ballantyne, K. N.; Kayser, M.; Grootegoed, J. A. (2011). "Sex and gender
issues in competitive sports: Investigation of a historical case leads to
a new viewpoint" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC337
5582) . British Journal of Sports Medicine. 46 (8): 614–617.
doi:10.1136/bjsm.2010.082552 (https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbjsm.201
0.082552) . PMC 3375582 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/article
s/PMC3375582) . PMID 21540190 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
21540190) .

34. Schultz, Jaime (2012). "Disciplining Sex: 'Gender Verification' Policies

and Women's Sports" (https://books.google.com/books?id=buIzAAAA
QBAJ&pg=PA449) . In Helen Jefferson Lenskyj (ed.). The Palgrave
Handbook of Olympic Studies. Stephen Wagg. Palgrave Macmillan.
pp. 443–60. ISBN 9780230367463. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20170226014536/https://books.google.com/books?id=buIzAAA
AQBAJ&pg=PA449) from the original on 26 February 2017. Retrieved
2 March 2015.
35. Ferris, EAE. "Gender verification testing in sport" (https://academic.ou
p.com/bmb/article-abstract/48/3/683/297802?redirectedFrom=PDF)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220817114136/https://acad
emic.oup.com/bmb/article-abstract/48/3/683/297802?redirectedFro
m=PDF&login=false) 2022-08-17 at the Wayback Machine. British
Medical Bulletin, Volume 48, Issue 3, 1992, pp. 683–697.

36. Bull, Andy (2018-01-23) "Caster Semenya and Dutee Chand run ragged
by IAAF's moving goalposts" (https://www.theguardian.com/sport/201
8/jan/23/caster-semenya-dutee-chand-iaaf-hyperandrogenic)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190420172931/https://www.
theguardian.com/sport/2018/jan/23/caster-semenya-dutee-chand-iaaf
-hyperandrogenic) 2019-04-20 at the Wayback Machine. The
Guardian. Retrieved 2019-04-20.

37. Thorbecke, Catherine (2018-06-22). "Transgender athletes speak out

as parents petition to change policy that allows them to compete as
girls" (https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/News/transgender-athletes-spea
k-parents-petition-change-policy-compete/story?id=56071191)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190421021830/https://abcn
ews.go.com/GMA/News/transgender-athletes-speak-parents-petition-
change-policy-compete/story?id=56071191) 2019-04-21 at the
Wayback Machine. ABC News. Retrieved 2019-04-20.
38. Taylor, Marisa (2019-06-20). "Hammer Thrower Could Become First
Transgender US Olympic Athlete" (https://abcnews.go.com/blogs/hea
dlines/2012/06/hammer-thrower-could-become-first-transgender-u-s-o
lympic-athlete/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190420172
928/https://abcnews.go.com/blogs/headlines/2012/06/hammer-thro
wer-could-become-first-transgender-u-s-olympic-athlete/) 2019-04-20
at the Wayback Machine. ABC News. Retrieved 2019-04-20.

39. "IAAF new gender rules 'humiliating, harmful': UN rights council" (http
s://www.straitstimes.com/sport/iaaf-new-gender-rules-humiliating-har
mful-un-rights-council) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190
420172930/https://www.straitstimes.com/sport/iaaf-new-gender-rules
-humiliating-harmful-un-rights-council) 2019-04-20 at the Wayback
Machine. Straits Times (2019-03-23). Retrieved 2019-04-20.

40. Morgan, Tom (2019-04-18). "Paula Radcliffe reveals 'aggressive' abuse

suffered online since supporting IAAF's landmark legal battle with
Caster Semenya" (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/athletics/2019/04/18/
paula-radcliffe-reveals-aggressive-abuse-suffered-online-since/)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190419065702/https://www.
telegraph.co.uk/athletics/2019/04/18/paula-radcliffe-reveals-aggressi
ve-abuse-suffered-online-since/) 2019-04-19 at the Wayback Machine.
The Telegraph. 18 April 2019. Retrieved 2019-04-20.
41. Behrensen, Maren (2011). "Intersex athletes: Do we need a gender
police in professional sports?" (https://www.iwm.at/publications/5-juni
or-visiting-fellows-conferences/vol-xxix/maren-behrensen-2/)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191003225534/https://www.
iwm.at/publications/5-junior-visiting-fellows-conferences/vol-xxix/mar
en-behrensen-2/) 2019-10-03 at the Wayback Machine Modernities
Revisited, ed. M. Behrensen, L. Lee and A. S. Tekelioglu, Vienna: IWM
Junior Visiting Fellows' Conferences, Vol. 29.

42. McReynolds, Ginny (2017-02-03). 'Do or Decline': An athlete's age may

be less important to performance than persistent practice (https://ww
w.washingtonpost.com/news/inspired-life/wp/2017/02/03/do-or-decli
ne-an-athletes-age-may-be-less-important-to-performance-than-persist
ent-practice/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2019042017293
4/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/inspired-life/wp/2017/02/0
3/do-or-decline-an-athletes-age-may-be-less-important-to-performance
-than-persistent-practice/) 2019-04-20 at the Wayback Machine. The
Washington Post. Retrieved 2019-04-20.

43. How does aging affect athletic performance? (https://theconversation.

com/how-does-aging-affect-athletic-performance-36051) Archived (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20190420172928/https://theconversation.
com/how-does-aging-affect-athletic-performance-36051) 2019-04-20
at the Wayback Machine. The Conversation (2015-07-06). Retrieved
2019-04-20.
44. Age group changes included in proposals for 2016 UKA rule book (http
s://www.athleticsweekly.com/featured/age-group-changes-included-pr
oposals-2016-uka-rule-book-19405/) Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20190420172929/https://www.athleticsweekly.com/featured/a
ge-group-changes-included-proposals-2016-uka-rule-book-19405/)
2019-04-20 at the Wayback Machine. Athletics Weekly (2015-03-11).
Retrieved 2019-04-20.

45. "Meet Stanislaw Kowalski: The 105-year-old sprinter" (https://www.thev

ersed.com/10779/meet-stanislaw-kowalski-the-105-year-old-sprinter/
#) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200726111114/https://w
ww.theversed.com/10779/meet-stanislaw-kowalski-the-105-year-old-s
printer/) 2020-07-26 at the Wayback Machine. The Versed (2017-06-
22). Retrieved 2019-04-20.

46. Kenyan police officer accused of age falsification (http://en.people.cn/

200608/09/eng20060809_291388.html) Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20170110232405/http://en.people.cn/200608/09/eng2006
0809_291388.html) 2017-01-10 at the Wayback Machine. People
China (2006-08-29). Retrieved 2019-04-20.
47. Rajaraman, G (2019-02-22). Age fraud in sports: Indian federations
need to impose long-term bans to bring age-old menace under control
(https://www.firstpost.com/sports/age-fraud-in-sports-indian-federatio
ns-need-to-impose-long-term-bans-to-bring-age-old-menace-under-cont
rol-6137371.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201904201
72930/https://www.firstpost.com/sports/age-fraud-in-sports-indian-fe
derations-need-to-impose-long-term-bans-to-bring-age-old-menace-und
er-control-6137371.html) 2019-04-20 at the Wayback Machine. First
Post. Retrieved 2019-04-20.

48. Sabuni Khwa Sabuni (2019-03-05). Athletics Kenya to investigate

possible age cheating in juniors (https://dailysport.co.ke/2019/03/05/
athletics-kenya-to-investigate-possible-age-cheating-in-juniors/)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190420172933/https://daily
sport.co.ke/2019/03/05/athletics-kenya-to-investigate-possible-age-ch
eating-in-juniors/) 2019-04-20 at the Wayback Machine. Daily Sport
Kenya. Retrieved 2019-04-20.

49. Kuti, Dare (2018-09-09). National Youth Games: over 200 athletes
disqualified for age cheating (https://www.aclsports.com/national-yout
h-games-over-200-athletes-disqualified-for-age-cheating/) Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20190420172931/https://www.aclsports.c
om/national-youth-games-over-200-athletes-disqualified-for-age-cheati
ng/) 2019-04-20 at the Wayback Machine. ACL Sports. Retrieved
2019-04-20.
50. Age Cheating Stalks African Sport (https://www.dailynews.co.zw/articl
es/2014/05/31/age-cheating-stalks-african-sport) Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20190420172931/https://www.dailynews.co.zw/a
rticles/2014/05/31/age-cheating-stalks-african-sport) 2019-04-20 at
the Wayback Machine. Daily News. Retrieved 2019-04-20.

51. Longman, Jere & Kumar, Hari (2016-11-20). Still Running at 119? Not
So Fast (https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/20/sports/119-year-old-ru
nner-world-masters-championships.html) Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20190420172928/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/20/
sports/119-year-old-runner-world-masters-championships.html) 2019-
04-20 at the Wayback Machine. New York Times. Retrieved 2019-04-
20.

52. International Paralympic Committee, IPC Athletics Classification (htt

p://www.paralympic.org/Athletics/Rulesandregulations/Classificatio
n) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130126221910/http://ww
w.paralympic.org/Athletics/RulesandRegulations/Classification)
2013-01-26 at the Wayback Machine

53. Athletics (http://www.ciss.org/sports/AT) Archived (https://web.archi

ve.org/web/20190407093405/http://www.ciss.org/sports/AT) 2019-
04-07 at the Wayback Machine. International Committee of Sports for
the Deaf. Retrieved 2019-04-20.
54. Swinbourne, Charlie (2012-09-06). The Paralympic Games is a missed
opportunity for deaf athletes (https://www.theguardian.com/commenti
sfree/2012/sep/06/paralympic-games-deaf-athletes) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20151017132322/http://www.theguardian.co
m/commentisfree/2012/sep/06/paralympic-games-deaf-athletes)
2015-10-17 at the Wayback Machine. The Guardian. Retrieved 2019-04-
20.

55. Gareth A Davies, London Marathon 2013: rethink over wheelchair race
start time to avoid repeat of Josh Cassidy collision (https://www.telegr
aph.co.uk/sport/othersports/athletics/london-marathon/10010646/Lo
ndon-Marathon-2013-rethink-over-wheelchair-race-start-time-to-avoid-r
epeat-of-Josh-Cassidy-collision.html) Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20170911184654/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersport
s/athletics/london-marathon/10010646/London-Marathon-2013-rethin
k-over-wheelchair-race-start-time-to-avoid-repeat-of-Josh-Cassidy-colli
sion.html) 2017-09-11 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 22
April 2013.

56. Oscar Pistorius wins silver at World Championships despite not

running (https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/sep/02/oscar-pist
orius-silver-world-championships) Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20190420172928/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/se
p/02/oscar-pistorius-silver-world-championships) 2019-04-20 at the
Wayback Machine. The Guardian (2011-09-02). Retrieved 2019-04-20.
57. Rock, Brad (1997-10-24). "No wheelchair throne for this track queen" (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20190420172928/https://www.deseretne
ws.com/article/590759/No-wheelchair-throne-for-this-track-queen.htm
l) . Deseret News. Archived from the original (https://www.deseretnew
s.com/article/590759/No-wheelchair-throne-for-this-track-queen.htm
l) on 2019-04-20. Retrieved 2019-04-20.

58. Kelner, Martha (2017-10-31). "Para-athletes Cockroft and Hahn deny

'baseless' classification claims" (https://web.archive.org/web/2019042
0172927/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/oct/31/paralympi
c-stars-threatened-losing-places-speak-out-classification-row-athletic
s) . The Guardian. Archived from the original (https://www.theguardia
n.com/sport/2017/oct/31/paralympic-stars-threatened-losing-places-s
peak-out-classification-row-athletics) on 2019-04-20. Retrieved
2022-08-23.

59. Jinkinson, Bethan; Hammond, Claudia (2012-08-29). "How the

Paralympics checks intellectual disability" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20190428092512/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-1937103
1) . BBC News. Archived from the original (https://www.bbc.com/new
s/magazine-19371031) on 2019-04-28. Retrieved 2022-08-23.

60. "Stadium" (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Stadium.html) .

mathworld.wolfram.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2021
0909195220/https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Stadium.html) from the
original on 9 September 2021. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
61. "IAAF Competition Rules 2010-2011" (https://web.archive.org/web/201
11011023632/http://www.iaaf.org/mm/Document/Competitions/Tech
nicalArea/05/47/81/20091027115916_httppostedfile_CompRules201
0_web_26Oct09_17166.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://
www.iaaf.org/mm/Document/Competitions/TechnicalArea/05/47/81/
20091027115916_httppostedfile_CompRules2010_web_26Oct09_171
66.pdf) (PDF) on 2011-10-11. Retrieved 2011-10-10. IAAF Competition
Rules 2010–2011

62. Competition Rules 2010–11 (http://www.iaaf.org/mm/Document/Abo

utIAAF/Publications/05/47/80/20091027085725_httppostedfile_Com
pRules-BAT_17164.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20101
217151957/http://www.iaaf.org/mm/Document/AboutIAAF/Publicatio
ns/05/47/80/20091027085725_httppostedfile_CompRules-BAT_1716
4.pdf) 2010-12-17 at the Wayback Machine (pp. 227–28). IAAF.
Retrieved on 2010-05-31.

63. Competition Rules 2010–11 (http://www.iaaf.org/mm/Document/Abo

utIAAF/Publications/05/47/80/20091027085725_httppostedfile_Com
pRules-BAT_17164.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20101
217151957/http://www.iaaf.org/mm/Document/AboutIAAF/Publicatio
ns/05/47/80/20091027085725_httppostedfile_CompRules-BAT_1716
4.pdf) 2010-12-17 at the Wayback Machine pp. 224–26. IAAF.
Retrieved on 2010-05-31.
64. Competition Rules 2010–11 (http://www.iaaf.org/mm/Document/Abo
utIAAF/Publications/05/47/80/20091027085725_httppostedfile_Com
pRules-BAT_17164.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20101
217151957/http://www.iaaf.org/mm/Document/AboutIAAF/Publicatio
ns/05/47/80/20091027085725_httppostedfile_CompRules-BAT_1716
4.pdf) 2010-12-17 at the Wayback Machine (pp. 220–23). IAAF.
Retrieved on 2010-05-31.

65. "Member Federations" (http://worldathletics.org/about-iaaf/structure/

member-federations) . worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2023-08-02.

66. IAAF Member Federation Manual – Chapter 2 (http://www.iaaf.org/m

m/Document/imported/9589.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20100525092736/http://www.iaaf.org/mm/Document/imported/
9589.pdf) 2010-05-25 at the Wayback Machine (pp. 17–18). IAAF.
Retrieved on 26 March 2010.

67. "Member Federation Resource Centre | Official Documents" (http://worl

dathletics.org/about-iaaf/documents/member-federation-resource-cen
tre) . worldathletics.org. Retrieved 2023-08-02.

68. Sports Reference (https://web.archive.org/web/20200417045838/http

s://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/summer/2012/ATH/)

69. Exclusive: Guides to be awarded Paralympic medals at London 2012 (h

ttps://web.archive.org/web/20120317184215/http://www.insideworld
parasport.biz/insideparasport/9218-guides-to-be-awarded-paralympic-
gold-medals) , insideworldparasport.biz, February 12, 2011
70. Ancient Olympic Events; Pentathlon (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Ol
ympics/pentathlon.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2021
0320232951/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Olympics/pentathlon.htm
l) 2021-03-20 at the Wayback Machine. Perseus digital library.
Retrieved on 2009-08-03.

External links

Media related to Athletics at Wikimedia Commons

World Athletics (https://www.worldathletics.org/) website

Track and Field News (https://trackandfieldnews.com/) website

European Athletics (http://www.european-athletics.org/) website

GBR Athletics (http://www.gbrathletics.com/) – historical

competition data

List of all Athletics Games (https://newssow.com/athletics-game

s/)

Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Athletic Sports" (https://en.wikisour

ce.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Athletic_Sport
s) . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge
University Press. pp. 846–849. This provides a detailed, although
Anglocentric, overview of the history of the sport.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Sport_of_athletics&oldid=1209144647"

This page was last edited on 20 February 2024, at 14:44 (UTC). •

Content is available under CC BY-SA 4.0 unless otherwise noted.