MECHANICS OF MACHINES FOR EIE PART 1

Mechanics

Mechanics is the science of the equilibrium and motion of bodies subject to forces.
It is the discipline devoted to the study of the equilibrium and motion of bodies
subject to various forces. It also deals with the kind of forces that act on an object
that is not moving.

Machine
A machine can be defined as “an apparatus for applying mechanical power and it
consists of a number of inter-related parts that are appropriately joined together,
and each having a definite function.” For example:

● an engine converts thermal energy into mechanical energy; and,

● A lathe (machine) converts electrical energy into some useful
mechanical work.

Therefore, both (the engine and the lathe) are machines.

A machine is basically an assembly of mechanical linkages. A mechanical

linkage is an assembly of links or systems connected to manage forces and
movement. The movement of a body, or link, is studied using geometry and so
the link is considered to be rigid enough to transmit forces. The connections
between links are called joints. A joint is the connection between two or more
links which allows some motion between the connecting links.

The links are modeled (or designed) to provide:

● ideal movement;
● pure rotation; and,
 ● sliding, etc.

Mechanical linkages are usually designed to transform a given input force and
movement into a desired output force and movement. The ratio of the output
force to the input force is known as the mechanical advantage of the linkage,
while the ratio of the input speed to the output speed is known as the speed ratio.

The linkages in the machine are used to apply mechanical power resulting in a
definite objective or function. For example, Fig. 1 shows an extended SCISSOR
LIFT. Here, we have linkages that can be used to lift loads when forces are applied
appropriately to the system.
 Fig. 1: Extended SCISSOR LIFT

The simplest mechanical linkage is the LEVER (Fig. 2). A lever is a link that
pivots around a fulcrum attached to a fixed point. As applied force rotates the
lever, points far from the fulcrum have a greater velocity than points near the
fulcrum.
 Fig. 2: The mechanical advantage of a lever

[The subscript r represents the resistance force caused by a load, and the
subscript e represents the effort, or input force, IMA is the Induced Mechanical
Advantage]

A lever is a type of simple machine, which creates a mechanical advantage to

perform tasks by changing the magnitude and/or direction of forces. As already
stated, a lever needs a fulcrum (Fig. 2), which is the central pivot for the system to
manipulate forces. A lever also needs some sort of rigid bar or rod placed in some
position on the fulcrum for the system to be functional.

While levers may change the amount of force that is required to perform a job —
they do not change the work or energy needed. Like all simple machines, people
use the physics of levers to their advantage, but there is a trade-off for using less
force — the force must be applied over a greater distance.

Many everyday tools use levers and fulcrums, such as nail clippers, pliers, scissors,
wheelbarrows, fishing rods, crow bars, and nutcrackers, just to name a few. The
principles behind levers can also be explored by seeing how hard of a push is
needed to open a door at different distances from its hinges.

Because power into the lever equals the power out, a small force applied at a point
far from the fulcrum (with greater velocity) equals a larger force applied at a point
near the fulcrum (with less velocity). The amount by which the applied force is
amplified is called mechanical advantage. This is the law of the lever.

Mechanical advantage, force-amplifying effectiveness of a simple machine, such

as a lever, an inclined plane, a wedge, a wheel and axle, a pulley system, or a
jack-screw. The theoretical (or induced) mechanical advantage of a system is the
ratio of the force that performs the useful work to the force applied, assuming there
is no friction in the system. In practice, the actual mechanical advantage will be
less than the theoretical value by an amount determined by the amount of
friction.

Two levers, 2 and 4, connected by a rod, 3, so that a force applied to one is

transmitted to the second is known as a four-bar linkage (Fig. 3). The levers in the
four-bar linkage are called cranks, and the fulcrums between the links are called
pivots. In fig. 3, link 3, the connecting rod, is also called the coupler. Link 1 in the
assembly is the ground, or frame, on which the cranks are rigidly mounted.
 Fig. 3: Four-bar linkage

Mechanical linkages are important components of machines and tools. Examples

are:

● the four-bar linkage used to amplify force in a bolt cutter;

● the mechanism that provides independent suspension in a motor vehicle;

and,

● the complex linkage systems in robotic arms and walking machines.

The internal combustion engine, Fig. 4(b), uses a slider-crank four-bar linkage, Fig.
4(a), formed from the piston, connecting rod, and crankshaft. This results in
transformation of power from expanding burning gases (fuel) in the combustion
chamber into rotary power of a shaft. The slider-crank mechanism is a particular
four-bar linkage configuration that converts linear motion to rotational, or
vice versa. Internal combustion engines are a common example of this mechanism,
where combustion in the cylinder (combustion chamber) creates enormous
pressure that drives the piston. This mechanism is composed of three important
parts, namely:

▪ The crank which is the rotating disc;

▪ the piston (slider) which slides inside the cylinder (combustion chamber);
and,

▪ the connecting rod which joins the parts together.

Fig. 4(a): A slider-crank four-bar linkage

 Fig. 4(b): Diagram of a cylinder as found in an overhead cam
4-stroke petrol engines

● C – crankshaft
● E – exhaust camshaft
● I – inlet camshaft
● P – piston
● R – connecting rod
● S – spark plug
● V – valves red: exhaust, blue: intake.
● W – cooling water jacket
● gray structure – engine block

Relatively simple linkages are often used to perform complicated tasks. Interesting
examples of linkages in use include:

● The windshield wiper (for motor vehicles);

 ● The bicycle suspension mechanism;

● The leg mechanism in a walking machine; and,

● Hydraulic actuators for heavy equipment.

In these examples the components in the linkage move in parallel planes and are
called planar linkages. A linkage with at least one link that moves in
three-dimensional space is called a spatial linkage. The skeletons of robotic
systems are examples of spatial linkages. The geometric design of these systems
relies on modern computer aided design software.

A machine, therefore, consists of an assembly of links. If motion is imparted

suitably to one link, the other links may receive motion, but their relationship will
depend upon the nature of connections. If a force is applied suitably to one link, the
force will be transmitted to another link. The transmitted force can be harnessed as
required, but the relationships of the applied and transmitted forces will depend
upon the nature of connections of the links in the machine.

Scope of theory of machines

a) Kinematics of a machine – this deals with the relative motion between

the parts, neglecting the consideration of the force. Thus it is the
study, from a geometric point of view, to know the displacement,
velocity and acceleration of a part of a mechanism.
 b) Dynamics of a machine – this deals with the forces acting on the parts
of the machine. It involves the calculations of forces impressed upon
different parts of a mechanism.

Dynamics may be further sub- divided into:

(i) Statics, which deals with the forces, ignoring the mass due to parts.
(ii) Kinetics, which deals with the inertia force due to mass and motion
considerations.

Kinematics of machines

When a machine is to be designed, three distinct considerations are essential,

namely:

1. Determination of kinetic chain.

2. Determination of forces.
3. Proportioning of the parts.

Though all the above three steps are not independent of each other, and therefore a
systematic comprise is necessary, it is convenient to consider the first two steps
separately and apply to machine design, and then the third step is considered.

Note:

A kinetic chain (sometimes called the kinematic chain) is an engineering concept

used to describe movement of links. Rigid, overlapping segments are connected
via joints and this creates a system whereby movement at one joint produces or
affects movement at another joint in the kinetic link.

Kinematic link or element

Kinematic link is a resistant body of an assembly of resistant bodies which make a

part or parts of a machine connecting other parts which have motion relative to it.

Kinematic link can be an assembly of parts forming one unit with no relative
motion of the parts with respect to one another.

EXAMPLE: Fig. 5
In every machine there is one fixed link. This is essentially the frame of the
machine.
Fig. 5: Schematic Representation of a Reciprocating Engine (slider crank
mechanism)

Let us consider any reciprocating engine schematically shown in Fig. 5 to help

explain the use of the term link.

Link (1) is the fixed link and includes the frame and all other stationary parts like
cylinder, crankshaft and camshaft bearings, etc.

Link 2 may include crankshaft, flywheel, etc., all having a motion of rotation about
the fixed axis, i.e. axis of the main bearings.

Link 3 is the connecting rod, an intermediate floating link.

Link 4 is the piston having reciprocating rectilinear translatory motion.

All materials have elasticity, but in most cases the deformation produced may be
very small and can be neglected for kinematic analysis.

Mechanism

If a number of linkages are assembled in such a way that the motion of one causes
constrained and predictable motion to the others, it is known as a mechanism.

A mechanism is a constrained kinematic chain. This means that the motion of any
one link in the kinematic chain will give a definite and predictable motion
relative to each of the others. Usually one of the links of the kinematic chain is
fixed in a mechanism.

Note: A mechanism transmits and modifies a motion.

A machine is a mechanism or collection of mechanisms, which transmit force from

the source of power to the resistance (or load) to be overcome. Though all
machines are mechanisms, all mechanisms are not machines. Many instruments are
mechanisms but are not machines, because they do no useful work nor do they
transform energy.

Examples of mechanisms are:

● Gears and gear trains;

● Belts and chain drives;
● Cams and followers;
● Linkages;
● Friction devices, such as brakes or clutches;
● Structural components such as a frame, fasteners, bearings, springs, or
lubricants

Comparison between a Machine and a Mechanism

 Machine
Machine modifies mechanical
work
A machine is a practical
development of any mechanism
A machine may have number of
mechanism for transmitting
mechanical work or power
Mechanism
Mechanism transmits and modifies
motion
A mechanism is a part of a
machine
A mechanism is a skeleton outline
of the machine to produce motion
between various links.

Structure

Structure is an assemblage of resistance bodies which are not kinematic links

because there is no relative motion between the links. There is only straining action
due to forces acting on them. Fig. 6 shows a very simple structure having three
resistant bodies 1, 2 and 3 but no relative motion is possible.
 Fig. 6: Structure

Difference between a machine and a structure

(a) A machine
A machine is a mechanism or a combination of mechanisms which,
apart from imparting definite motions to the parts, also transmits and
modifies the available mechanical energy into some kind of desired
mechanical work. There is relative motion between its members.

Examples are:

● Shaper
● Screw jack

(b)A Structure
⮚ Serves to modify and transmit forces only.
⮚ No relative motion exists between its members

Examples of structures are:

● Building.
● Roof truss
● Aqueducts and viaducts.
● Bridges.
● Canals.
● Cooling towers and chimneys.
● Dams.
● Railways.
● Roads

Kinematic pair
A pair is joint of two links/elements that permits relative motion. The relative
motion between the elements or joints that form a pair is required to be completely
constrained.

The kinematic pair shown in Fig. 7 is a joint of two links/elements that permit
relative motion. The relative motion between the elements or links that form this
pair is completely constrained.

Fig. 7: Kinematic pair

The example of a kinematic pair (shown in Fig. 7) is commonly used in petrol

engines. The mechanism is called slider crank mechanism.

In the reciprocating engine mechanism, (Fig. 5) joints A, B and C are turning

pairs. However, joint D is called a sliding pair since it slides horizontally inside a
cylinder. Hence the piston and the cylinder in which the former is sliding forms a
sliding pair.

Types of kinematics pairs

Classification of kinematic pairs is based on the following considerations.

a) Nature of relative motion between the elements.

b) Nature of contact between the elements.
c) Nature of the mechanical arrangement for complete or successful
constraints between the elements.

Based on the relative motion between the elements of kinematic pair, pairs are
classified into following types:

i) Sliding Pair;

ii) Rolling Pair;

iii) Turning Pair;

iv) Screw pair;

v) Cylindrical Pair;

vi) Spherical Pair

1. Classification based on the nature of relative motion between elements.

(i) Sliding pair – prismatic sliding pair is constituted by two elements
connected in such a way that one is constrained to have a sliding
motion relative to the other relative to the other, as shown in fig. 8.
 Fig 8: Sliding
pair

Here, relative
motion
between
elements A
and B can be expressed by a single co-ordinates δ, and thus it possesses one degree
of freedom.

Example of a sliding pair

Piston and cylinder in a slider crank mechanism shown in Fig. 5 form a sliding
pair.

There is a sliding motion of the piston surface relative to cylinder surface. It is

important to note that the piston does not rotate in the cylinder and therefore the
degree of freedom is only one. Fig 8 shows a rectangular hole in a bearing B.

(ii) Turning pair (also called “revolute pair”)

When connections of the two elements are such that only a constrained motion of
rotation of one element with respect to the other is possible, the pair constitutes a
turning pair. Fig. 9 illustrates this situation. It allows only relative motion of
rotation which can be expressed by a single co-ordinate, θ.

Fig. 9: Turning pair

Thus a turning pair (revolute pair) has single degree of freedom.

Example

While in Fig. 5, links A and B are turning pairs of the slider crank mechanism, Fig.
9 shows a shaft A with two collars and a bearing B in which it rotates.

(iii) Cylindrical pair

If the collars in Fig. 9 are removed, the motion between links A and B can be both
turning and sliding, Fig. 10 (b).
.

Fig. 10 (a): Cylindrical pair (with collar)

Fig. 10 (b): Cylindrical pair (without collars)

Fig. 10 (b) has two degrees of freedom, namely,

a) That of rotation; and,

 b) That of translation parallel to the axis of rotation between links A and B.

These relative motions can be expressed by co-ordinates, θ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠.

(iv) Rolling pair

A wheel and the surface on which it rolls from a rolling pair at the line of contact.
Example: Ball bearing for a shaft - Fig. 11.

Fig 11: Rolling pair (ball bearing)

Ball bearings are used with rotating shafts. Bearings reduce friction by means of
a rolling motion. This allow for a greater decrease in the amount of energy
consumption (or loss) during rotation.
Another example of a rolling pair is a belt-drive – Fig. 12. Here the pulley can be
considered to be rolling on the belt. The rollers are rolling on the surfaces of inner
race and the outer race. This is a case of a rolling pair formed by the surface of the
roller and the surface of the inner race or outer race at the surface of contact.

Fig. 12: Belt-drive

In any industrial facility, turbines and motors are used to produce rotational
mechanical motion to perform different kinds of tasks. The industrial power
transmission market works with basic power transmission open-drive products like
belt drives, chain drives, gear drives and each has its own set of advantages and
disadvantages.
 (v) Spherical pair

Fig. 13 (a) shows the kinematic pair in which one of element of the pair is
spherical and turns inside the other element which is a stationary element. This is
called spherical pair. A spherical pair has 3 degrees of freedom.

Fig. 13 (a): Spherical pair

Fig 13 (b) shows a ball and a socket joint form a spherical pair. A is the ball
element and the element B is the socket. The spherical pair between A and B is
formed at the surface of contact. As illustrated, the pair has three degrees of
freedom.
 Fig. 13 (b): Spherical pair illustrating degrees of freedom.

The full description of the relative motion between links A and B needs three
independent co-ordinates. Two co-ordinates, namely ∝𝑎𝑛𝑑 β are needed to specify
axis OM and the third co-ordinate θ describes the rotation about the axis OA.

Examples of spherical pairs are:

a) The ball and socket joint;
b) A pen stand;
 c) The mirror attachment of vehicles.

(vi) Helical pair (or screw pair)

When two elements of a kinematic pair have both turning as well as sliding motion
between them by means of screw threads, then this type of kinematic pair is called
screw pair – Fig. 14.

Fig. 14: Screw pair (or Helical pair)

Examples of screw pair are:

(i) Nut and Bolt;

(ii) Screw and nut of screw jack; and,
(iii) Lead Screw of Lathe and Nut.

Note

If the bolt is kept fixed, then the nut can have a simultaneous sliding as well as a
rotational motion and vice versa.

Fig. 14 shows that contact surfaces are screw threads, therefore there is both
rotational and sliding motion of the bolt relative to the nut. However, a specified
amount of rotation of bolt relative to nut results in a strict proportion.