See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/275968176

The Use of Stories and Storytelling in Primary Science Teaching and Learning

Article · May 2008

CITATIONS READS

12 19,591

1 author:

Roslinawati Mohd Roslan

Universiti Brunei Darussalam
21 PUBLICATIONS 119 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Roslinawati Mohd Roslan on 08 May 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

The Use of Stories and Storytelling in Primary Science Teaching and Learning

Roslinawati Mohd Roslan

University Brunei Darussalam
roslinawati.roslan@ubd.edu.bn

ABSTRACT: The use of stories and storytelling in language education is well attested. Schema
theorists indicate the importance of helping children to develop a “sense of story” as a prerequisite
to comprehending and producing many types of literature. However, stories may also be used across
the curriculum to teach content subjects. The present paper examines the use of stories and
storytelling as a vehicle for the teaching of primary science. It addresses the rationale for stories in
science lessons and illustrates the various ways in which stories can be exploited in order to help
young learners to conceptualise and personalise scientific notions and principles.

“Science and stories are not only compatible, they’re inseparable”

(Hoffmann, 2005).

Introduction

When I was a child, my mother used to tell me scary ghost stories that gave me goose
bumps all over my body. I still remember her story about a hungry ghost that roamed around at
night searching for young girls’ blood. Until now, her story is still fresh in my mind and that is why
I never want to go out alone at night. There are many stories that my mother and teachers have told
me that I can still remember now.

Life itself is full of stories: stories told to inform, entertain, appreciate, stories about
happiness, sadness and many more. This has inspired me to become interested in using stories as a
tool in teaching and learning. I believe stories can be a powerful tool if used effectively across the
curriculum and especially in science education. I believe that stories can be used in teaching
science.

In addressing the use of stories in science education, a number of questions come to mind.
What are stories and why can they be used as a tool in teaching and learning science? In this paper,
I will attempt to answer these questions by drawing on the scenario of Bruneian primary science
classrooms and then to discuss the norms of scientific language that science teachers usually use in
the classroom. Then, this paper will discuss the definitions of stories and the benefits of using them
in teaching and learning particularly in primary science and how teachers could use stories and
storytelling in their science classrooms. Finally, this paper will delineate the limitations of using
stories in science teaching and learning.

Why stories?

In the primary science classrooms, the conventional style of teaching and learning in
science is often the delivery of facts for children to memorise in order to understand science
concepts (Zaitun, 1997). This is prominent in Bruneian primary classrooms where the teacher is the
authoritative figure, dominating most of the lesson in terms of delivering chunks of scientific facts.
Egan (1986) argues that mathematics and science suffer most from being stripped of their affective
associations and teachers tend to teach

79
these subjects as inhuman structures of knowledge, almost taking pride in their logical and inhuman
precision. There is lack of creativity and children may gradually lose interest in learning science
because they believe that science is boring and difficult to understand. This is where stories could
be used to capture their interest in doing and learning science. This is not a suggestion that stories
are the only tool that can be used to engage them in learning science, as there are many other
activities that can be used to capture these children interest in learning science. As we shall see
there are many advantages of using stories in science classrooms.

One of the advantages of using stories in Bruneian primary science classrooms is because
stories have the potential to engage pupils in the lesson better than the plain regurgitation of
scientific facts. Children are naturally, lovers of stories. However, stories and storytelling have not
been widely used in Brunei science classrooms. This situation is also similar to UK science
classrooms. For example, Wells (1986) argues that stories are underused and their importance is
only recognized within the narrow confines of creative writing and even though stories are used in
the classrooms, it is often as a way of filling odd moments when the “serious” work has been
completed. Similarly, Grainger (1997) argues that storytelling is not often valued as part of the
educational enterprise and is merely used in the classrooms as gossip or off-task talk.

The Norms of Scientific Language

In North America, Lemke (1990, p.133) in his influential book “Talking Science: Language,
Learning, and Values” proposed that science teachers usually follow the norms of scientific
language which he suggests is the recipe for dull and alienating language which disengages students
from liking science. He listed eight points which he called the norms of scientific language that
science teachers follow when teaching science in the classrooms such as:

1) be as verbally explicit and universal as possible;

2) avoid colloquial forms of language and use, in speech, forms closer to those of written
language;
3) use technical terms in place of colloquial synonyms or paraphrases;
4) avoid personification and use of specifically or usually human attributes or qualities
(anthropomorphism);
5) avoid metaphoric and figurative language;
6) avoid sensationalism;
7) avoid personalities and reference to individual human beings and their actions;
8) use of causal forms of explanation and avoid narrative and dramatic accounts.

These norms, he suggests have created a barrier between the language of human experience
and the language of science. Lemke (1990) argues:

“This is a contrast that we are taught to associate with the “objectivity” of science vs. the
“subjectivity” of experience. It artificially and misleadingly makes students and the public imagine
that science stands somehow outside of the world of human experience, rather than being a
specialized part of it” (p. 134).

Thus, it is arguable to say that teachers of science need to deviate from the norms of
scientific language if they want their students to value science as a human activity. Stories with
their narrative and dramatic accounts perhaps should be included in the teaching of science since
the language used in the stories is easily comprehensible for these students to follow. This is
illustrated from research conducted by Lemke (1983) cited in Lemke (1990) in which the

80
researchers investigated in which of the periods from a sequence of lessons the students mostly
“communicatively engaged”. The levels of communicative engagement when the language of the
lesson follows and when it breaks the stylistic rules were compared. From this, it was found that
there was an increased engagement of students when the teacher was using more humanized ways
of talking science (including using stories in science) more than following rigidly the norms of
scientific language stated earlier.

The rationale for using stories

The rationale for stories and storytelling can be summarised as follows:

1. Stories used as a teaching method

First of all, traditional Gurukala and Harikatha styles of instruction and storytelling
have been widely used in India long ago, well before western education influenced the
education system (Mercer, 1995). Mercer (1995) explains that the storyteller (guru) would
explain texts to the students, who did most of the learning by rote and this method was intended
to provide students with access to knowledge. Stories are still widely used nowadays especially
in the teaching of subjects apart from science and mathematics.

2. Stories used to illustrate a principle

In the teaching of religions, for example, stories have been used in Islam on the teaching
of Islamic principles which are illustrated from the verses of the holy book of Quran. Even in
the Bible, stories have been mostly used from the chapters to teach the followers on the teaching
of Christianity.

3. As a stimulus to other learning & activity

Thirdly, stories are not only used as a tool for teaching and learning but can also be
regarded as a stimulus to other learning and activity. For example stories can lead into dance,
drama, art, design, scientific investigations or other different kinds of activities. There will be
several examples of how stories can be used as a stimulus to other kinds of activities that will be
described in a later section of this essay.

4. Engagement in creative and imaginative learning

Fourthly, stories can be used in teaching ideas as they provide a way for children and
teachers to engage in creative and imaginative learning (Mallan, 1991). Wells (1986) argued
that when we use stories to teach children about a particular idea or concept, it is readily
accepted by the young children and they will find it easier to assimilate new ideas when they are
presented within the framework of a story. Wells (1986) believed that “stories provide a major
route to understanding”.

5. Help develop positive attitude towards teachers and schools

When children are exposed to stories early, for example starting from home, they may
develop positive attitudes towards teachers and schools because stories are readily accepted by
children from the early years. Barton and Booth (1990) claimed that “stories are the most
effective means of establishing that great line known as rapport”.

Specific purposes of using stories and storytelling in science lessons

Stories are potentially one of the most powerful tools to be used in teaching science. There
are many benefits that teachers of science can gain from using stories as one of the alternatives in
teaching. Osborne (1997) argued that practical activities are not

81
the only strategy of doing and learning science since there are many more strategies that can be
used by science teachers in the classroom. For example, utilizing discussion in small groups among
the students may be very helpful.

1. Stories as a Starting Point

This kind of discussion can be carried out if the teacher uses a form of story to stimulate
the children’s thinking of a certain science concept. For example, a teacher may use a story
about a famous scientist, Sir Isaac Newton to begin the lesson on ‘gravity’, where she/he tells
about how he firstly thought about gravity from an apple falling from a tree. He/she can then
pose questions to the children about the nature of gravity and this could lead to further activities
such as discussion about gravity acting on different objects.

2. To help explain abstract ideas or concepts

Secondly, stories could be used to explain abstract ideas or concepts of a general
principle or as an illustration. This is supported by Wells (1986) who argued that storying is one
of the most fundamental means of making meaning, as such it is an activity that pervades all
aspects of learning.

The findings of one study by Banister & Ryan (2001) showed that children remember
abstract science ideas better when taught in a story format and they could also distinguish the
real from the anthropomorphic (the attribution of human characteristics to objects). The use of
anthropomorphic thinking in science education is worrying for some educators, however Tamir
& Zohar (1991) believe that the use of anthropomorphism should not raise concern since many
children are able to distinguish between anthropomorphic and factual reasoning.

For example, in teaching water cycle, Banister & Ryan (2001) develop a story which
they called ‘The Great Journey of William Water’. In their study, water molecule was given
human attributes such as feelings and gender. In their story, William (the water molecule)
evaporated up into the air and “when he was evaporating into the air, and he said ‘Wheee’
because he thought he was flying” (ibid, p. 77).

3. Scientific explanation as analogous to ‘stories’

Ogborn et al. (1996) proposed a significant contribution in their book on “Explaining in
the Science Classroom” which identifies science explanation itself as being analogous to stories
in which there is a cast of protagonists that must be ‘talked into existence’ (Ogborn et al., 1996,
p. 14). In this case, there are no human actors involved in science explanation, the protagonists
are the entities (for example elements or atoms) as well as mathematical constructions such as
velocity that need to be explained like a story. Ogborn et al. (1996, p. 15) state that:

One way to transform knowledge is to turn it into a narrative. Stories, whether that of the
discovery of penicillin or a personal experience- say finding food having gone bad – can act as
effective “knowledge carriers”. The narrative relations in the story match the conceptual
relations to be understood, and make them memorable and easily recoverable.

The authors argue that “scientific explanations rely on the existence of worlds of
protagonists whose possible behaviours make up the story” (ibid, p.10). Suffice it to say, in a
scientific story, the actors that are ‘acting’ in the story are those entities which need

82
to be talked into existence. How could we relate this to our everyday views of the world since some
of these scientific explanations are beyond our perception?

To answer this question, there is a need to consider those scientific explanations that need to
be told. We could do this if we relate them to our everyday experiences for example, in answering
what causes ringworm, we need to talk about the existence of fungi that causes ringworm. This
explanation is just answering what causes it but to make it a scientific story, we need to know what
are fungi and what can they do to us. In this sense, we are able to understand the actor (fungi) and
their ‘action’ in this scientific story.

It is clear that a science explanation that is being told in the form of a story form is more
favourable among the students because of its style which is more easily comprehensible.

Sutton (1992) in his book “Words, Science and Learning” mentions stories to be used in the
science classroom, he writes a story “is not seen as an account of fact, but as an expression of
thought by some person who can be identified or at least envisaged. It offers a point of view, a kind
of explanation, a way of talking about the topic” (Sutton, 1992, p. 73).

Consider for example using a form of story to teach the concept of digestion of food to
students. Students may perceive the word ‘digestion’ as something new and difficult to understand.
By using a story, for example, describing what happens to the egg sandwich that you eat during
breakfast as it enters the mouth, the process of digestion can be explained easily as it invites
students to imagine the unseen processes of food digestion such as the breakdown of carbohydrates
into fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins into amino acids.

4. Storytelling as a dialogic process

The stories which I have emphasized here need to be told directly, thus are referred to as
“storytelling”. Stories that are used in science need to be talked about because they entirely
involve a process of interaction between a teller (teacher) and an audience (students). Linking it
to the perspective of socioculturalists, the telling of a story is also a dialogic process in which an
individual is trying to make sense of the story being told on a social plane. Solomon (2002, p.
95) cited Bakhtin who argues that a story itself is like a dialogue which not only involves a teller
telling a tale, but also the listener has a part to play in the narration, even though only one voice
is heard from start to finish.

Different kinds of stories for science teaching and learning

There are different genres of stories such as fairy tales, stories about history of science,
stories about scientific discovery, traditional stories, children’s stories and stories specifically
written for teaching and learning of science. Many science teachers have argued that there are
limited stories available for the teaching of science and some might argue that certain stories are not
suitable for teaching science at all. All these stories stated earlier might be used in teaching science
if teachers are given time to think of them and to choose the appropriate stories that can be used in
teaching particular science concepts.
According to Dunne (2006) there are two purposes of stories to be told in science:
1) illustration of a concept and
2) narrative, which describes how a breakthrough was made or a point understood.
The latter of these would be considered as stories about the discovery of science for example
the invention of a light bulb by Thomas Edison or the discovery of genetics by Gregor Mendel.
Stories about the history of science were shown to provide easier

83
avenues for students to learn science content and scientific processes (Solomon, Duveen, Scott and
McCarthy, 1992).

Norris et al. (2005) propose that there are two kinds of narratives or stories included in
science. The first one is a narrative or story that is intrinsic to science - one that explains some
natural phenomena and is part of the body of scientific knowledge itself, for example, the theory of
gravitational forces (This relates to the story proposed by Ogborn et al. 1996 explained earlier).

The second type is extrinsic to science – “include those of how the discovery of the
neutrino was made, of how scientific knowledge moved away from vitalism over time, and of the
motivations and trials of Galileo surrounding the publication of his dialogue” (ibid, p. 537). In this
case, this is similar to the second purpose of stories in science describe by Dunne et al. (2006)
earlier.

Therefore, stories such as how Michael Faraday discovers electromagnetic induction, how
Louis Pasteur discovers vaccinations for rabies and cholera and how Marie Curie discovers
polonium are examples of stories which are extrinsic to science. Norris et al. (2005) believed that
these extrinsic stories have more positive effects on science learning. However, stories which are
intrinsic to science need to be evaluated and used carefully before being incorporated in the
teaching of science.

To illustrate a science concept, there are many stories available in the children’s
literature that can be used in the primary classrooms. Feasey (2006) suggests several examples of
children stories which can be used to teach certain science concepts such as forces, sound,
electricity, tooth decay, structure of teeth, changes of state and many more. For example, a
story of Humpty Dumpty can be used to illustrate a concept of forces and as a stimulus for scientific
investigation such as asking children to find ways to stop Humpty from breaking when he falls off
the wall. Children in primary schools in Brunei are also familiar with these famous stories such as
Humpty Dumpty but some might find the stories unfamiliar since most of them are derived from
Western culture.

Cheong & Thong (2004) suggest that local indigenous stories can stimulate the development
of higher order thinking such as making comparisons and understanding the concepts of change and
continuity that have occurred over time. For example, the stories about indigenous people of
Kedayan and Penan were used to illustrate the wisdom of native knowledge about living in
harmony with the environment (Ulluwesiha, Kaloko and Hairuni, 1997). Cheong & Thong (2004)
investigated how science student-teachers could use local stories in the teaching of science concepts
and environmental issues. In their study, it was shown that local stories can be valuable educational
resources for science lessons and that the science student-teachers could creatively employ the
storytelling strategy if they were trained to do so. Local stories such as Si Perawai (Mr. Perawai),
Rimbun dengan Bulan (Rimbun and the Moon), Lelaki Tamak (The Greedy Man) and Si Panjang
(Mr Long) were used to teach various science concepts in the study. For example, Si Perawai was
used by a student-teacher in the study to teach about how man’s utilisation of energy needs, could
upset the environmental balance and in a story called Rimbun dengan Bulan, the concept of stability
in Physics under the topic “Effects of Forces” can be shown in the collapse of the bamboo tower
(Cheong & Thong, 2004).

84
 What makes a good science story

According to Ellis (2005) a science story that is well structured can do three important
things: It brings facts to life, it makes abstract concepts concrete, and through the virtual reality of
storytelling, it walks listeners through the process of scientific inquiry.
Ellis (2005) offered several suggestions for teachers in order to make a good science story.
One of the suggestions is that a good science story needs a sense of immediacy. Passion and
enthusiasm is important to the writing and telling of the story. There should be a quick beginning
that will grab the audience’s attention, therefore, avoiding lengthy, obscure beginnings (Mallan,
1991).
Ellis (2005) explains that like all good stories, there should be well-defined characters and a
clear setting. A good storyteller will describe the story or place using all of their senses and there is
a dynamic plot in the story with a sense of mystery or surprise. Furthermore, a teacher who wants to
use a story in teaching science needs to exercise his/her scientific vocabulary while defining terms
with explanatory clauses. This is because children are unlikely to learn these scientific words unless
they hear them in a meaningful context.

Another method of using storytelling is combining them with questioning to engage the
children in the story and to encourage them to think and to hypothesise about the certain events in
the story.

Guidelines for using stories well

There are several ways teachers can use stories and storytelling in their science classrooms.
First of all teachers should find a suitable story in order to teach a science concept. If the story
chosen is to be told to the whole class, teachers should consider several points in making the story
interesting and alive to the children. Dunne (2006, p.24) wrote an inspiring paper about how
teachers can tell science stories effectively:

 The golden rule: When telling a story, teachers should watch the audience and maintain
good eye contact.

 The silver rule: When telling a story, teachers should make their voice confident and
remember to vary the intonation of their voices to make the characters in the story alive.

 A couple of bronze rules: Teachers should consider that non-vocal communication is

important such as gestures, facial expressions and body language since these features will
help illustrate the story. Another point of storytelling is to keep it short. For example fifteen
minutes is an appropriate time length of telling a story for those teachers who are new to
storytelling.

Apart from that, realia (real things) and props can be used to enliven the story told (Dunne,
2006, Grainger, 1997, Keogh et al., 2006). Keogh et al. (2006) found a very

85
positive response when they investigated the use of puppets to tell science stories. Talk amongst
children is enhanced and therefore the use of reasoning is frequent when children talk to each other
when puppets are used to tell the science stories. Grainger (1997) proposes that “in giving the
puppet a voice, the character comes to life, and enters and contributes to the unfolding narrative” (p.
124). Another benefit of using puppets to tell a story is that it can bring life to stories and even a shy
child can get involved in the learning activities. Apart from that, the concentration and engagement
in learning science is enhanced among children (Keogh et al. 2006). In other cases, real things can
also be used as an additional tool when telling a science story to children. For example, using a light
bulb to tell a story about Thomas Edison on how he develops the use of the light bulb. Furthermore,
pictures or visual aids can also be used to support science stories for children. Realia, puppets and
visual aids can contribute to the effectiveness of storytelling.

Writing Stories and Sequels

Teachers are not only encouraged to choose stories which are suitable for teaching science, but
they could also write their own stories or sequels to well-known stories. Teachers could be creative
in writing their own stories which have scientific elements in them for children to learn. For
example, in teaching the metamorphosis of a butterfly, teacher could write a story of a caterpillar
and how it turns into a butterfly by including dramatic actions in the story. Several science
concepts, processes as well as the nature of science can be incorporated into one story. For example,
in a study conducted by Tao (2002) four stories (the story of penicillin, the story of smallpox,
Newton’s Law of Universal and the cure of the stomach ulcer) were used to foster student’s
understanding of the nature of science. In this study, it was found that “the aspects of the science
stories in students’ focal awareness could be determinant of the students’ sense-making of the
stories and hence of the views of the NOS they acquired subsequently” (ibid, p. 114).

Lowe (2006) proposes that primary science teachers could be creative by writing sequels to
well-known stories as a stimulus for scientific investigations. For example, stories such as folk tales
and nursery rhymes can be used to write sequels since most children know these stories inside out.
This is also helpful for Bruneian children who are mostly exposed to these kinds of stories since
nursery. Several helpful suggestions are given by Lowe (2006, p.12) for primary science teachers to
write sequels: -

- Decide what science teachers want the children to investigate by looking at the medium-
term plans or school scheme.

- Consider an everyday scenario that demonstrates the differences that occur due to variables
(e.g. cooking, washing, keeping warm).

- Transfer the scenario to a suitable character group familiar to both the teacher and the
children.

- Set the scene and start writing the sequel at an appropriate and familiar point.

86
 - Try to write in a style in keeping with the characters and situation that the teacher is
‘borrowing’.

Several examples of written sequels are given by Lowe (2006) in her article which is interesting
and suitable to use for primary school children. One example of a sequel is on ‘Goldilocks and the
three variables’ in which children are asked to understand the need for controlling variables. In the
story, Baby Bear who is the main character of the story found out that the tea he made was not as
tasty as Daddy Bear and Mother Bear because he had put three spoonfuls of sugar to his baby-sized
cup. This story could provoke the children’s thinking, asking them to find out why his tea was not
as tasty as Daddy Bear and Mother Bear by looking at the variables presented in the story.

This kind of story could lead children to do scientific investigations by performing the
experiment making three cups of tea with three different sizes of cups and spoons. Children could
also be asked to find out other variables such as amount of water, amount of sugar, degree of
stirring and length of time between making and tasting.

Conclusion
In conclusion, there are benefits that students can gain from being exposed to stories and
storytelling in the science classroom. These benefits are beyond the level of entertainment and
ranges from positive social, emotional, cultural and intellectual benefits.

However, stories and storytelling also have several limitations. These limitations could be
reduced if science teachers are careful with the selection of stories used in the purpose of science
learning. Stories and storytelling should not be used as the only method in the science classrooms
but they could be a powerful and pervasive tool if used effectively in the hands of the science
teacher. Perhaps, it is best to say here that using stories may work to complement other teaching
approaches in science classroom. In order to capture interest among children in learning science,
Bruneian primary science teachers in particular need to put variety in their style of teaching, not just
considering “chalk and talk” and rote learning in their science classrooms. Science learning should
be challenging and interesting especially in the early years of primary education. If a strong
foundation of science is established in primary schools, in the later stage, children might pursue
higher studies in science and may even eventually become involved in the real world of science
discovery, research or technology.

References
Banister, F., & Ryan, C. (2001). Developing science concepts through storytelling. School Science
Review, 83(302), pp.75 - 83
Barton, B. & Booth, D. (1990). Stories in the Classroom: Storytelling, Reading Aloud and
Roleplaying with Children. Ontario: Pembroke Publishers Limited.
Cheong, I. & Thong, K.(2004, May) Storytelling in science teaching. Paper presented on the ninth
annual international conference of the department of science and mathematics education,
Universiti Brunei Darussalam.
Dunne, I. B. (2006). Bringing the story alive. Primary Science Review, 92(March/April), pp. 22 –
24.

87
Egan, K. (1986). Teaching as storytelling. London, Ontario: Althouse Press.
Feasey, R. (2006). Using stories and poems in science. Primary Science Review, 92(March/April),
pp. 8 – 10.
Grainger, T. (1997). Traditional storytelling in the primary classroom. Warwickshire: Scholastic
Ltd.
Keogh, B., Naylor, S., Downing, B., Maloney, J. & Simon, S. (2006). Primary Science Review, 92
(March/April), pp.26 – 28.
Lemke, J. L. (1990). Talking Science: Language, learning and values. Ablex Publishing
Corporation, Norwood, New Jersey.
Lowe, G. (2006). Goldilocks and the three variables. Primary Science Review, 92 (March/April),
pp.11 – 16.
Mallan, K. (1991). Children as Storytellers. Australia: Primary English Teaching Association.
Mercer, N. (1995). The guided construction of knowledge. Multilingual Matters, Clevedon, UK.
Norris, S. P., Guilbert, S. M., Smith, M. L., Hakimelahi, S. & Phillips, L. M. (2005). A Theoretical
Framework for Narrative Explanation in Science. Science Education, 89(4), pp. 535 – 563.
Ogborn, J., Kress, G., Martins, I. and McGillicuddy, K. (1996). Explaining science in the
classroom. Open University Press, Buckingham.
Osborne, J. (1997). Practical alternatives. School Science Review, 78(285), pp. 61 – 66.
Peck, J. (1989). Using storytelling to promote language and literacy development. The Reading
Teacher, 43(2), pp. 138 – 141.
Solomon, J. (2002). Science stories and science texts: What can they do for our students? Studies in
Science Education, 37, pp. 85 – 105.
Solomon, J., Duveen, J., Scott, L. & McCarthy, S. (1992). Teaching about the nature of science
through history: action research in the classroom. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
29(4), pp. 409 – 421.
Sutton, C. (1992). Words, Science and Learning. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Tamir, P. and Zohar, A. (1991). Anthropormorphism and teleology in reasoning about biological
phenomena. Science Education, 74(285), 61 – 66.
Tao, P. K. (2002). A Study of Students’ Focal Awareness when Studying Science Stories for
Fostering Understanding of the Nature of Science. Research in Science Education, 32, pp.
97 – 120.
Ulluwesiha, R., Kaloko, A., & Hjh. Hairuni Hj. Maricar (1997). Indigenous knowledge and
sustainable living: Two case studies from Brunei. In J. Fein, D. Heck, & J. Ferreira (Eds.).
Learning for a sustainable environment. Brisbane: UNESCO Asia Pacific Centre of
Educational Innovation for Development and Griffith University Centre for Innovation and
Research in Environmental Education.
Wells, G. (1987). The meaning makers: children learning language and using language to learn.
London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Hjh Zaitun bte Hj Mohd. Taha (1997, January) Focus on the teacher: The transfer

88
 of knowledge from teacher education into the classroom. Paper presented at the international
conference on Science, Mathematics & Technology Education, Hanoi, Vietnam.

Internet Sources

Curriculum Repository Glossary (2006). [Online]. [Accessed 15th May 2006]. Available from
World Wide Web: http://belts.sourceforge.net/systemadmin/glossary.html

Imagination (2006). [Online]. [Accessed 23rd March 2006]. Available from World Wide Web:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagination

Ellis, B.F. (2006). [Online]. [Accessed 2nd March 2006]. Available from World Wide Web:
www.foxtlesint.com/article8.htm

Emotional Intelligence (2006).[Online]. [Accessed 23rd March 2006]. Available from World Wide
Web: http://www.funderstanding.com/eq.cfm

Hoffmann, R. (2005). [Online]. [Accessed 2nd March 2006]. Available from World Wide Web:
http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/44518?&print=yes

Narrative (2006).[Online]. [Accessed 25th March 2006]. Available from World Wide Web:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative

Stuhlman, D. D. (2006). [Online]. [Accessed 15th May 2006]. Available from World Wide Web:
http://home.earthlink.net/~ddstuhlman/stories.htm

89

View publication stats