Soil

Soil can be defined as the organic and inorganic

materials on the surface of the earth that provide the
medium for plant growth. Soil develops slowly over
time and is composed of many different materials.
Inorganic materials, or those materials that are not
living, include weathered rocks and
minerals. Weathering is the mechanical or chemical
process by which rocks are broken down into smaller
pieces. As rocks are broken down, they mix with
organic materials, which are those materials that
originate from living organisms. For example, plants
and animals die and decompose, releasing nutrients
back into the soil.
 Types of Soil
The soil is basically classified into four types:

Sandy Soil.

Silt Soil.

Clay Soil.

Loamy Soil.
Sandy Soil
The first type of soil is sand. It consists of small
particles of weathered rock. Sandy soils are one
of the poorest types of soil for growing plants
because it has very low nutrients and poor in
holding water, which makes it hard for the
plant’s roots to absorb water. This type of soil is
very good for the drainage system. Sandy soil
is usually formed by the breakdown or
fragmentation of rocks like granite, limestone,
and quartz.
Silt Soil
Silt, which is known to have much smaller
particles compared to the sandy soil and is
made up of rock and other mineral particles
which are smaller than sand and larger than
clay. It is the smooth and quite fine quality of
the soil that holds water better than sand. Silt is
easily transported by moving currents and it is
mainly found near the river, lake, and other
water bodies. The silt soil is more fertile
compared to the other three types of soil.
Therefore it is also used in agricultural
practices to improve soil fertility.
Clay Soil
Clay is the smallest particles amongst the other
two types of soil. The particles in this soil are
tightly packed together with each other with
very little or no airspace. This soil has very
good water storage qualities and making hard
for moisture and air to penetrate into it. It is
very sticky to the touch when wet, but smooth
when dried. Clay is the densest and heaviest
type of soil which do not drain well or provide
space for plant roots to flourish
Loamy Soil
Loam is the fourth type of soil. It is a
combination of sand, silt, and clay such that the
beneficial properties from each is included. For
instance, it has the ability to retain moisture
and nutrients, hence, it is more suitable for
farming. This soil is also referred to as
an agricultural soil as it includes an
equilibrium of all three types of soil materials
being sandy, clay, and silt and it also happens
to have hummus. Apart from these, it also has
higher calcium and pH levels because of its
inorganic origins.
 Soil Profile
The vertical variation of soil properties is not random
but rather an ordered layering with depth. Soil tends
to have more or less distinctly recognizable
layers, called horizons, each with different
characteristics. The horizons are positioned
approximately parallel with the land surface, one
above the other, normally, but not always, separated
by a transition zone rather than a sharp line.
A vertical cross section (as might be seen in a road cut
or the side of a trench dug in a field) from
the Earth’s surface down through the soil layers and
into the parent material is referred to as a soil profile.
 Soil Horizons
The O horizon (humus or organic): is sometimes
the surface layer, and in it organic matter, both fresh and
decaying, makes up most of the volume. This horizon
results essentially from litter derived from dead plants and
animals. It is common in forests and generally absent in
grasslands. It is actually more typical for soils not to
possess an O horizon; the surface horizon of most soils is
the A horizon.

The A horizon: referred to as topsoil, is a mineral horizon

that also contains considerable organic matter. It is formed
either at the surface or immediately below an O horizon. A
horizons generally contain enough partially decomposed
organic matter to give the soil a darker color than
underlying horizons. They are also normally coarser in
texture, having lost some of the finer materials by
erosion and eluviations. Seeds germinate mostly in the
A horizon.

The E horizon: is normally lighter in color than either

the overlying A or the underlying B horizon. It is
essentially an eluvial layer from which clay, iron, and
aluminum have been removed, leaving a concentration of
abrasion-resistant sand or silt particles.

The B horizon: usually called subsoil, is a mineral

horizon of illuviation where most of the materials
removed from above have been deposited. A collecting
zone for clay, iron, and aluminum, this horizon is usually
of heavier texture, greater density, and relatively
greater clay content than the A horizon.

The C horizon (parent material): The deposit at

Earth’s surface from which the soil developed.

The R horizon (bedrock): A mass of rock such as

granite, basalt, quartzite, limestone or sandstone that
forms the parent material for some soils – if the
bedrock is close enough to the surface to weather.
This is not soil and is located under the C horizon.
 What is land pollution?
Land pollution refers to all forms of pollution affecting
any type of soil: agricultural, forestry, urban, etc.

A soil is polluted when it contains an abnormal

concentration of chemical compounds potentially
dangerous to human health, plants or animals.

Soil pollution refers to the contamination of soil with

anomalous concentrations of toxic substances.
It is important to understand that all soils
contain compounds that are harmful/toxic to
human beings and other living organisms.
However, the concentration of such substances
in unpolluted soil is low enough that they do
not pose any threat to the surrounding
ecosystem. When the concentration of one or
more such toxic substances is high enough to
cause damage to living organisms, the soil is
said to be contaminated.
The root cause of soil pollution is often one of the
following:

Agriculture (excessive/improper use of pesticides)

Excessive industrial activity

Poor management or inefficient disposal of waste

The challenges faced in soil remediation

(decontamination of soil) are closely related to the
extent of soil pollution. The greater the contamination,
the greater the requirement of resources for
remediation.
 Pollutants that Contaminate Soil

Some of the most hazardous soil pollutants are

xenobiotics (A xenobiotic is a chemical
substance found within an organism that is not
naturally produced or expected to be present
within the organism)The term ‘xenobiotic’ has
Greek roots – ‘Xenos’ (foreigner), and ‘Bios’
(life). Several xenobiotics are known to be
carcinogens. An illustration detailing major soil
pollutants is provided below:
Pollutants that Contaminate Soil
Heavy Metals
The presence of heavy metals (such as lead and
mercury, in abnormally high concentrations) in soils
can cause it to become highly toxic to human beings.
Some metals that can be classified as soil pollutants are
tabulated below. These metals can originate from
several sources such as mining activities, agricultural
activities, electronic waste (e-waste), and medical
waste.
Toxic Metals that Cause Soil Pollution
Arsenic Mercury Lead
Antimony Zinc Nickel
Cadmium Selenium Beryllium
Thallium Chromium Copper
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (often abbreviated to
PAHs) are organic compounds that:
•Contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms.
•Contain more than one aromatic ring in their chemical
structures.
Common examples of PAHs include naphthalene,
anthracene,etc. Exposure to polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons has been linked to several forms of
cancer. These organic compounds can also cause
cardiovascular diseases in humans.
Soil pollution due to PAHs can be sourced to coke
(coal) processing, vehicle emissions, cigarette smoke,
and the extraction of shale oil.
Industrial Waste
The discharge of industrial waste into soils can
result in soil pollution. Some common soil
pollutants that can be sourced to industrial waste are
listed below:
•Chlorinated industrial solvents
•Dioxins produced from the manufacture of
pesticides and the incineration of waste.
•Plasticizers/dispersants
•Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
The petroleum industry creates many petroleum
hydrocarbon waste products. Some of these wastes,
such as benzene and methylbenzene, are known to
be carcinogenic in nature.
Pesticides
Pesticides are substances (or mixtures of substances)
that are used to kill or inhibit the growth of pests.
Common types of pesticides used in agriculture
include:
Herbicides – used to kill/control weeds and other
unwanted plants.
Insecticides – used to kill insects.
Fungicides – used to kill parasitic fungi or inhibit their
growth.
However, the unintentional diffusion of pesticides into
the environment (commonly known as ‘pesticide drift’)
poses a variety of environmental concerns such as
water pollution and soil pollution. Some important soil
contaminants found in pesticides are listed below:
Herbicides Fungicides
Triazines Mercury-containing
Carbamates compounds
Amides Thiocarbamates
Phenoxyalkyl acids Copper sulfate
Aliphatic acids

Insecticides
Organophosphates
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Arsenic-containing compounds
Pyrethrum
 What are the Processes that Cause Soil
Pollution?
Soil pollution can be broadly classified into two
categories –

❖Naturally caused soil pollution

❖Anthropogenic soil pollution (caused by human

activity)
 Natural Pollution of Soil
In some extremely rare processes, some pollutants are
naturally accumulated in soils. This can occur due to
the
Differential deposition of soil by the atmosphere.
Transportation of soil pollutants with precipitation
water.
Accumulation of compounds containing the
perchlorate anion (ClO4–) in some dry, arid
ecosystems.
It is important to note that some contaminants can be
naturally produced in the soil under the effect of
certain environmental conditions. For example,
Perchlorates can be formed in soils containing chlorine
and certain metals during a thunderstorm
 Antropogenic Pollution of Soil

Human activities are the main causes of land

pollution:
1. Agriculture
Agricultural activities are one of the major
sources of land pollution. The spreading of
plant protection products such as pesticides and
herbicides, as well as the emissions of
livestock buildings and farms are at the origin
of soil pollution, in particular by nitrogen and
phosphates.
a) Pesticides
Pesticides are synthetic toxic chemicals that definitely kill
different types of pests and insects causing damage to
agriculture but it has many ecological consequence.
They are generally insoluble in water and
non-biodegradable. Therefore, these chemicals will not
gradually decompose and keep on accumulating in the
soil. Therefore, the concentration of these chemicals will
increase when the transfer of these chemicals take place
from lower to higher trophic level via the food chain.
Hence, it will cause many metabolic and physiological
disorders in humans.
b)Chlorinated Organic toxins
The harmful effect of DDT and other chemicals led to
the introduction of less persistent organic and
more-biodegradable substance such as carbamates
and organophosphates. However, these chemicals act
as harmful toxins for nerves, hence they are more
dangerous to humans.
c)Herbicides
Slowly, the industries began production of herbicides
like sodium arsenite (Na3AsO3), sodium chlorate
(NaClO3), etc. Herbicides can decompose in a span of
few months. However, even they affect the
environment and are not environmental friendly. Even
though they are not as harmful as organo-chlorides but
most of the herbicides are toxic. They are known to
d)Inorganic Fertilizers
Excessive use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers leads to
acidification of soil and contaminate the agricultural
soil. Also known as agrochemical pollution.

e)Inferior Irrigation Practices

Poor irrigation methods increase the soil salinity.

Moreover, excess watering, improper maintenance of

canals and irrigation channels, lack of crop rotation and
intensive farming gradually decreases the quality of soil
over time and cause degradation of land.
2.Deforestation: Because of deforestation and forest
fires, soils lose their vegetation cover. The erosion
process is thus accelerated, creating soil degradation
as well as water pollution. Deforestation leads to the
loss of the land’s value as, once converted into a dry
or barren land, it can never be made fertile again.

3.Urbanization: Urbanization is another source of

land degradation. The artificialization of soils can
cause a rapid and consequent carbon depletion, which
contributes to climate change. Besides, it fragments
natural habitats, ecosystems and landscapes, affecting
biodiversity.
4.Mining: Mining waste is usually left behind in
the form of spoil tips. These pit heaps can contain
a wide variety of toxic substances that then seep
into the ground as a result of rain. This can have a
big impact on the regeneration of the vegetation.

5.Industrial waste: Heavy industry often

produces quantities of undesirable chemicals. If
cleaning agents such as detergents are released
irresponsibly, they can cause significant pollution
on the ground. Storage tanks can also be a major
source of land pollution in case of leakage.
6.Waste disposal: We produce large quantities of
household waste every year, many of which could and
should be recycled or degrade naturally. Much of our
waste is either incinerated - causing potential air
pollution issues - or buried in land fills, causing soil
pollution problems.

7. Accidental Oil Spills: Oil leaks can happen during

storage and transport of chemicals. This can be seen at
most of the fuel stations. The chemicals present in the
fuel deteriorates the quality of soil and make them
unsuitable for cultivation. These chemicals can enter
into the groundwater through soil and make the water
undrinkable.
8. Acid Rain: Acid rain is caused when
pollutants present in the air mixes up with the
rain and fall back on the ground. The polluted
water could dissolve away some of the important
nutrients found in soil and change the structure
of the soil.
 Effects of Soil Pollution
Soil pollution is not only the problem in India but it is a
global problem. It causes harmful effect on the soil and the
environment at large. Contamination of soil will decrease the
agricultural output of a land. Major soil pollution after
effects are:
1.Inferior Crop Quality
It can decrease the quality of the crop. Regular use of
chemical fertilizers, inorganic fertilizers, pesticides will
decrease the fertility of the soil at a rapid rate and alter the
structure of the soil. This will lead to decrease in soil quality
and poor quality of crops. Over the time the soil will become
less productive due to the accumulation of toxic chemicals in
large quantity.
2.Harmful Effect on Human Health
It will increase the exposure to toxic and harmful
chemicals thus increasing health threats to people living
nearby and on the degraded land. Living, working or
playing in the contaminated soil can lead to respiratory
diseases, skin diseases, and other diseases. Moreover, it
can cause other health problems.
3.Water Sources Contamination
The surface run-off after raining will carry the polluted
soil and enter into different water resource. Thus, it can
cause underground water contamination thereby causing
water pollution. This water after contamination is not fit
for human as well as animal use due to the presence of
toxic chemicals.
4.Negative Impact on Ecosystem and
Biodiversity
Soil pollution can cause an imbalance of the
ecosystem of the soil. The soil is an important
habitat and is the house of different type of
microorganisms, animals, reptiles, mammals,
birds, and insects. Thus, soil pollution can
negatively impact the lives of the living
organisms and can result in the gradual death of
many organisms. It can cause health threats to
animals grazing in the contaminated soil or
microorganisms residing in the soil.
5. Toxic Dust
The emission of toxic and foul gases from landfills
pollutes the environment and causes serious effects
on health of some people. The unpleasant smell
causes inconvenience to other people.
6. Changes in Soil Structure
The death of many soil organisms (e.g.
earthworms) in the soil can lead to alteration in soil
structure. Apart from that, it could also force other
predators to move to other places in search of food.
 Land pollution solutions
1.Cleanup
Environmental remediation consists of
removing pollution from the soil, groundwater
or surface water. Bioremediation (microbes)
and phytoremediation (plants) can be used to
convert the pollutants into harmless products.
These are natural solutions that need to be
supported by in depth actions.
2.Green agriculture
Sustainable agriculture is essential as it is meant to
control the impact on the cultivated environment, by
minimizing the external contributions (phyto
sanitary products), by diversifying the cultures and
by using biological treatments.

3.Sustainable forest management

Conservation of the forests is key. Without the
protection of the trees, the land becomes dry and
starts to erode. Therefore, sustainable forestry or
logging is crucial to saving the soil from pollution.
4.Proper waste disposal
Be it for industrial or household waste, efficient waste
disposal is one of the most effective ways of curbing
land pollution. This especially applies to toxic and
hazardous waste disposal.

5.The "3 R's" Rule & Education

Reducing the use of non-biodegradable products will
lower plastic pollution and eventually have an impact
on land pollution. This is why it is very important to
reuse and recycle every possible item. Education
should also play a major role in efforts to protect the
environment from land pollution.