[Algae General Characteristics] Dr.

Shah Rafiq

ALGAE
Algae is a group of simple chlorophyll containing thalloid plant having no true roots, stem and
leaves and lacking embryo formation. The branch of botany dealing with the algae is called
algalogy or phycology. It is derived from greek word phykos meaning sea weed/alga
Algae plural, Alga singular
Acording to Fritsch 1935 the designation algae must include all the holophytic organisms well
as their numerous colourless derivatives that fail to reach the level of differentiation
characteristics of archigoniates.
Father of modern algalogy of India is M.O.P. Iyenger
The important distinguishing features of algae are as follows:
(1) They are mostly chlorophyll containing autotrophic thalloid plants.
(2) They occur in a variety of habitats, but majority of them are aquatic.
(3) The plant body does not show differentiation into various tissue systems.
(4) They have mostly unicellular sex organs without a jacket of sterile cells around them.
Jacket cells, if present, have different initials. There is a progressive complexity in
reproduction.
(5) Embryo is not formed after gametic union.
(6) They show distinct alternation of generation.
General characters of algae

(1) Algae are chlorophyll containing autotrophic thalloid plants. The plant body is not
differentiated into true root, shoot and leaves. They have prokaryotic to eukaryotie organisation.
Blue green algae (cyanobacteria) are prokaryotes while as all other algae are eukaryotes.
(2) Plant body does not show differentiation into different tissues. The thallus is made up
of only one type of cells which are parenchymatous.
(3) They are predominantly aquatic and occur both in marine as well as fresh water habitats,
However, some are terristrial and occur in moist places, e.g., Nostoc. Some are epiphytic, e.g.,
Oedogonium; endophytes, e.g., Nostoc grows inside the thallus of Anthoceros; Epizoophytes,
e.g., Chlorella lives on the tissues of Hydra.
(4) Some algae grow in symbiotic association with other plants. e.g., Lichen. Some algae are
parasites on other plants and cause diseases, e.g., red rust of tea is caused by Cephaleuros.
(5) The vegetative structure (thallus) shows a great variation of forms. The plants may be
unicellular (Chlamydomonas) or multicellular colonial (Volvox) or filamentous (Oedogonium)
or non-filamentous, branched or unbranched, small microscopic or very large and highly
organised multicellular parenchymatous and heterotrichous (Sargassum, Chara).
(6) They have wide range of colours and composition of pigments present in their thalli. This
feature of algae is so interesting that earlier algologists divided algae into different groups on
the basis of specific pigments and colours.

P a g e 1 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

(7) There are five different types of chlorophylls namely chl. a, chl. b, chl. c, chl. d, chl. e
present in different groups of algae in different combinations.
(8) Chloroplast contains one to many protein starch granules called pyrenoid bodies surrounded
by starch sheath.
(9) They reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods.
(10) Vegetative reproduction occurs by fragmentation, adventitious branches, hormogonia,
tubers and bulbils.
(11) Asexual reproduction occurs by means of different types of asexual spores namely
zoospores, aplanospores, hypnospores, autospores, tetraspores, akinetes, etc.
(12) They have mostly unicellular sex organs without a jacket of sterile cells around them.
(13) There is a progressive complexity in sexual reproduction from isogamy to anisogamy to
oogamy. Sexual reproduction involves two processes namely meiosis and fertilization. Embryo
is not formed after fertilization.
(14) Isogamy involves the fusion of similar gametes. E.g., Chlamydomonas. Anisogamy
involves the fusion of dissimilar gametes. E.g., Volvox. In oogamy male and female sex
organs are formed.
(15) Sporophytic and gametophytic generations if present are independent.
(16) There is clear cut alternation of generation in higher algae but in lower algae alternation
of generation is not clear. Different types of life cycle patterns are found in different algae.
Habit and Habitat
Algae are of universal occurrence and they are found in a variety of habitats, such as freshwater,
sea water, on snow, on rocks and on/or within the plant and animal bodies. Of these, aquatic
forms are most common. On the basis of habitat, they may be classified into the following three
groups:
(1) Aquatic algae (2) Terrestrial algae (3) Algae of unusual habitats
[I] Aquatic algae
Aquatic forms are found in fresh water or in saline water of the sea.
1. Fresh water forms. These forms occur in fresh water (low salinity water) of ponds, pools,
lakes, rivers etc. Some fresh water forms like Cladophora, Oedogonium, Ulothrix and Chara
are found in slow running water, whereas others like Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Hydrodictyon
and Spirogyra occur in stagnant water.
2. Marine forms. These forms occur in saline water of the sea and are represented by the
members of Phaeophyceae (e.g., Ectocarpus, Sargassum, Fucus) and Rhodophyceae (e.g.,
Polysiphonia).

P a g e 2 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

The aquatic algae are either free-floating (e.g., Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Spirogyra) or are
attached to a substratum with the help of an attachment disc, known as holdfast (e.g.,
Oedogonium, Ulothrix). Many free-floating algae, together with other similar organisms, form
colonies on the surface of water which are called water blooms or phytoplanktons. Algae like
Dictyosphaerium, Fragilaria, Cosmarium, Volvox, Asterionella and Golenkinia are commonly
found in fresh water planktons, whereas Actinocyclus, Chaetoceros and Coscinodiscus are
common in marine planktons. Many algae are found attached to rocks along the edges of lakes
and seas and these forms are called phytobenthos.
[II] Terrestrial algae
Some algae are found in terrestrial habitats like soils, rocks, logs, etc. Forms like Vaucheria,
Botrydium, Fritschiella and Euglena, which are found on the surface of the soil, are known as
saphophytes, whereas many blue-green algae (e.g., Nostoc, Anabaena), which occur under the
surface of the soil, are called cryptophytes. Some algae are also found on tree trunks and moist
walls, and they absorb carbon dioxide and water from the atmosphere (e.g., Protococcus,
Scytonema).
[III] Algae of unusual habitats
1. Halophytic algae: There are many algae which occur in saline
Water of seas, but some others can withstand high concentration of
salts and occur in salt lakes. They are called halophytes, and include
Chlamydomonas ehrenbergii, Dunaliella and Stephanoptera.
2. Epiphytic algae: They grow on larger algae or on bryophytes and
angiosperms. For example, species of Bulbochaete, Oedogonium and
Microspora are found attached to the larger species of Cladophora,
Rhizoclonium and Vaucheria. Bryophytic and angiospermic flora of
rivers and lakes harbour many algal members on their surface. Algae
with mucilaginous thalli like Chaetophora, Oedogonium and
Zygnema are epiphytic on Achnanthes, Eunotia, Synedra, etc
3. Epizoic algae. Many algae grow on animals like snails, fishes and
tortoise, and they are known as epizoic. For example, Cladophora
crispata grows on snails, and species of Stigeoclonium are found in the
gills of fishes. Similarly, species of Characiopsis and Characium are
found on the legs of Branchipus.
4. Endozoic algae. Algae which occur in the tissues of animals
are known as endozoic. For example, species of Zoochlorella are
found in Hydra viridis. Chlorella like algae are found living
within Paramecium, Hydra and certain molluscs and sponges.
Zooxanthellae live in intimate association with coral community.
5. Symbiotic algae. Several members of Chlorophyceae and
Cyanophyceae form symbiotic association with fungi, bryophytes,
P a g e 3 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

gymnosperms and angiosperms. Lichens re important example of

symbiotic life and their algal components belong to Cyanophyceae (e.g.,
Nostoc, Gloeocapsa, Microcystis) or Chlorophyceae (e.g., Coccomyxa,
Chlorella, Protococcus). Colonies of Nostoc and Anabaena are found in
symbiotic association in the thallus of Anthoceros and the coralloid roots
of cycas.
6. Cryophytic algae. Algae growing on ice or snow are called
cryophytic. These algae provide attractive colours to snow covered
mountains. The alpine and arctic mountains become red due to the
growth of Haemotococcus nivalis. Green snow in Europe is due to
Chlamydomonas yellowstonensis. Sometimes snow becomes black due to
Scotiella nivalis and Raphidonema brevirostri and brownish purple due
to Ancyclonema nordenskioldii.
7. Lithophytic algae. Algae growing on moist rocks and stones
are known as lithophytic. Many blue-green algae like Nostoc,
Rivularia and Gloeocapsa commonly grow on moist and shady
rocks. Scytonema is common on moist walls during rainy season.
8. Parasitic algae. Algae also grow as parasites on many plants and
Animals Cephaleuros virescens (Chlorophyceae) causes red rust in
tea and coffee plantations in Assam and adjoining areas.
Phyllosiphon (Chlorophyceae) is a parasite on the leaves of
Arisarum vulgare. Polysiphonia fastigiata (Rhodophyceae) is a
semiparasite on Ascophyllum nodosum.
9. Thermophytes (Thermal algae). Many bluegreen algae (e.g., Oscillatoria
brevis, Synechococcus elongatus, Heterohormogonium sp., Haplosiphon
lignosum) are found in hot water springs (65-85°C), where normal life is not
possible. They are able to survive such high temperatures due to the absence
of well organised nucleus.
Range of Thallus Structure
The vegetative structure of algae shows a wide variety and it ranges in form from unicellular
to complex multicellular thalli. On the basis of thallus organisation, algae are divided into the
following five groups:
(1) Unicellular forms
(2) Colonial forms
(3) Siphonaceous forms
(4) Filamentous forms
(5) Parenchymatous forms

P a g e 4 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

1. Unicellular Thallus: The plant body is made up of single cell. Unicellular forms are present
in all phyla (except Charophyta and Phaeophyta), which may be motile or nonmotile.
(i) Motile Forms: Unicellular motile forms may be motile due to the presence of flagella or
due to their periplastic nature.
(a) Flagellated motile forms: They possess flagella on
their bodies which help in their movement. Examples:
Chlamydomonas, Pbacotus, Chlorochromonas,
Euglena, etc.

(b) Periplastic forms: Their cell walls are

soft and flexible and not rigid. They possess
five protoplasmic projections known as
rhizopodia, which help in their amoeboid
movement. Examples: Rhizochloris,
Rbizocbrysis, Cbrysamoeba, etc.
(ii) Non-motile forms: These unicellular forms lack
flagella the organ of locomotion and thus are unable to
move. Examples: Diatoms, Chlorella, Cblorococcum,
Porphyridium, and bluegreen algae, (Chroococcus,
Gloeocapsa, Anacystis, Spirulina), etc.

2. Colonial Thallus: In colonial thallus, the daughter cells which arise as a result of cell
division, remain loosely held together in the common gelatinous mass. The colonial forms are
of the following two types on the basis of their cell arrangement:
(i) Coenobial Forms: A coenobium is a colonial form
with definite number of cells arranged in a definite
predetermined manner (pattern) The coenobial forms are
of the following two types:
(a) Motile: They have flagella on their bodies and are
able to move, e.g., Volvox, Eudorina, Pandorina, etc.
(b) Non-motile: They lack flagella and are thus non-motile, e.g., Hydrodictyon, Pediastrum,
Scenedesmus, etc.

P a g e 5 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

(ii) Cell Aggregations: The daughter cells in a colony are not aggregated in a definite manner
and thus the colonies are not of constant size and shape. They are further of following three
types:
(a) Palmelloid forms: In palmelloid forms, cells remain irregularly arranged in a common
gelatinous matrix. They function as independent entities. Palmelloid forms may be
temporary (Chlamydomonas) or permanent (Tetraspora).

(b) Rhizopodial forms: In these colonial forms, cells are aggregated with each other through
rhizopodia, e. g., Chrysidiastrum.
(c) Dendroid forms: In these colonial forms, cells are aggregated with each other in a
branching pattern through mucilaginous strands arising from the base of each cell. Such
colonies look-like a microscopic tree in appearance, e.g., Ecballocystis, Chrysodendron, etc.
3. Siphonaceous Thallus: In Siphonaceous thallus,
plant body is unicellular and elongated tubular
structure. Thallus is tubular uninucleate structure in
Chracium and it is umbrella shaped uninucleate in
Acetabularia. In more advanced Siphonaceous algae,
thallus is aseptate and multinucleate structure known as
coenocyte. Septa develop only to delimit the
reproductive organs or to seal off the damaged parts.
Simple vesicular coenocytic thallus is a feature of
Protosiphon and Botrydium while it is more advanced

P a g e 6 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

and branched in Vaucheria. It is highly elaborate in

Caulerpa.
4. Filamentous Thallus: A thread-like multicellular
thallus is known as filamentous thallus. It arises as
a result of repeated cell division of non-motile cells
in one plane. The filamentous thallus may be
branched or unbranched. On the basis of their
organization, filamentous thallii are of three types:
(i) Simple unbranched thallus: The thallus is
simple and unbranched and may be free floating as
in Spirogyra or may be attached to the substratum
with the help of a modified rhizoidal cells as in
case of Ulothrix, Oedogonium, Zygnema, Nostoc,
Anabaema, Oscillatoria etc.
(ii) Branched filamentous thallus: The thallus in some algae gives rise to lateral out growths
or branches which may be true or false branches.
(a) True branches: True branches arise as a result of occasional cell division in a second
plane, e.g., Cladophora.
(b) False branches: False branches arise in blue-green algae (e.g., Scytonema) due to
breakage and subsequent resumption of growth by trichomes in the mucilaginous sheath of
filaments.

(iii) Heterotrichous thallus: It is highly

evolved filamentous habit where thallus is
differentiated into prostrate and erect
branching systems. Both the systems are
equally well developed in Stigeoclonium,
Ectocmpus, and Fritschiella, etc. There is
P a g e 7 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

reduction or suppression of prostate system in

Draparnadia and Drapnaldiopsis and erect
system in Coleochaete.
5. Parenchymatous Thallus: It is multicellular where cell division takes place in two or more
planes. If cell division takes place in one plane only, flat foliaceous structures are formed as in
Ulva. If cell division takes place in more than two planes, tubular (as in Codium, Cytosiphon etc.)
or complex structures (as in Sargassum) may be formed. Sometimes parenchymatous thalli are
formed by juxtaposition of branched filaments of a single (Batrachospermum) or many
(Nemalion, Polysiphonia) axial filaments. Such thalli are known as pseudoparenchymatous.

Cell Structure in Algae

On the basis of their organization algal cells may be differentiated into prokaryotic,
mesokaryotic and eukaryotic types. The prokaryotic cell organization is found in Cyanophyceae
which is characterized by:
Prokaryotic cell organization: The prokaryotic cell
organization is found in Cyanophyceae which is
characterized by:
(i). The presence of incipient nucleus,
(ii). Cell size ranges from 1-10 µm,
(iii) The absence of membrane bound organelles like
plastids, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies and
mitochondria,
(iv) The absence of basic proteins-the histones in DNA,
(v) The presence of mucopeptide in the cell wall, and
(vi) the absence of mitosis.
An intermediate type of cell organization, i.e., mesokaryotic is found in the members of
Dinophyceae, where although the nucleus has a nuclear membrane and chromosomes (eukaryotic
P a g e 8 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

characters), basic proteins are absent (prokaryotic character). Nucleus my contain 12-400
chromosomes attached to nuclear membrane.
A eukaryotic cell, on the other hand, is
characterized by the presence of a well
organized nucleus and membrane bound
organelles like plastids, mitochondria and
Golgi bodies Majority of algae show this
type of cell organization.
Flagella
Motile vegetative or reproductive cells are found in all groups of algae except Cyanophyceae and
Rhodophyceae. Their motility is due to small filiform (thread like) protoplasmic appendages,
called flagella. The number of flagella varies from one to four to many (Oedogonium, Vaucheria).
They are mainly of the following two types:
1. Whiplash or acronematic flagella. Such flagella have a smooth surface.
2. Tinsel or pleuronematic flagella. The surface of these flagella is covered with fine
fiiamentous appendages, known as mastigonemes or flimmers. They are further divided into
three categories on the basis of arrangement of mastigonemes.
(a) Pantonematic. In this type mastigonemes are arranged in two opposite rows or show
radial arrangement
(b) Pantocronematic. A pantonematic flagellum with a terminal fibril is known as
pantocronematic
(c) Stichonematic. Here mastigonemes develop only on one side of the flagellum. A motile cell
may have either one or both the above mentioned types of flagella. It is a specific character.
If all flagella of a cell are similar, it is known as isokont and when dissimilar it is called
heteokont. Their number, nature and mode of orientation are important characters for
primary classification of algae. Green algae were earlier Classified into 4 major groups,’i.e.,
Isokontae (cells possessing two equal flagella), Heterokontae (with unequal flagella),
Akontae (without flagella) and stephanokontae (algae with motile Stage possessing a whorl
of flagella).

P a g e 9 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

Eye-spot or stigma
Eye Spot or Stigma: Stigma or eye spot is a small, pigmented, light sensitive dot like or elongated
organelle present in some motile and reproductive cells of algae. It may be located in the anterior,
middle or posterior part of the cell. It consists of a pigmented cup covered by a light sensitive
substance. Sometimes, it consists of a lens external to the pigmented cup. It consists of randomly
arranged pigmented membrane bound lipid droplets in Euglena. These lipid droplets are arranged
in two rows in Chlamydomonas with the central part consisting of a pair of thylakoids. They can
be present in the anterior, posterior or lateral positions of the motile cells. In some algae, they are
located in the chloroplast, while they are independent clusters of osmophilic granules near the
flagellar bases in Euglenophyta and Dinophyta.
Although the eye spot is
considered to be a light sensitive
organelle which directs the
movements of swimming cells,
certain mutants of
Chlamydomonas lack eye spot
and are still phototactic. Some
workers consider the eye spot as
a shading organelle which
possibly modifies the optical
quality ‘of transmitted light
before it is focussed on the
flagellar swelling. According to
this view, flagellar swelling,
rather than eye spot, is the
primary receptor of light.
Pyrenoids:
Pyrenoids (Gr. Pyren = stone of a fruit + oides =
like) are small, round, differentiated and
proteinaceous regions in the chloroplasts of some
algae (except Cyanophyta, Charophyta and some
Rhodophyta) and Hornworts. They are the centres
of starch synthesis and storage inthese plant groups.
They are composed of closely packed
proteinaceous fibrils normally surrounded by starch
plates, but starch plates are absent in many cases like
Euglenophyta. They store lipids in Bacillariophyta.
Usually, there is only one pyrenoid per chloroplast
(e.g., Chlamydomonas) but there can be more than
one pyrenoid per chloroplast as in Oedogomium,
Spirogyra, etc. They are present outside the
chromoplasts in Phaeophyta. They are considered to
arise de now or by the division of preexisting
pyrenoids.
P a g e 10 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

PIGMENTATION IN ALGAE
Pigments are chemical compounds which impart different colours to the plant parts in different
combinations. The colour of the algal thallus which varies in different classes of algae is due to the
presence ofdefinite pigments in their cells. Each pigment has its own characteristic colour. Various
pigments such as red, yellow, green and blue green have been found in different algae.
In all classes, except cyanophyceae, these pigments are present within membrane bound organelles called
plastids. In Cyanophyceae, the pigments are concentrated in the peripheral cytoplasm, called
chromoplasm.
Plastids are of the following two types:
1. Leucoplast. These are colourless plastids.
2. Chromoplast. These are coloured plastids; those containing both chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are
called chloroplasts and those lacking chlorophyll b as chromatophores. Different forms of chromatophores
occur in algae. The following are the main types:
i) cup-shaped, e.g. Chlamydomonas and Volvox;
(ii) discoid, e.g. Charales, Dinophyceae;
(iii) parietal, e.g. Chaetophorales, Phaeophyta;
(iv) girdle shaped or C-shaped, e.g. Ulothrix;
(v) basin-shaped or ribbed, e.g. Volvocales;
(vi) reticulate, e.g. Oedogoniales;
(vii) spiral or ribbon-shaped, e.g. Spirogyra; and
(viii) stellate, e.g. Zygnema.

The various types of pigments found in the algal cell are given below.
1. Chlorophyll. There are five types of chlorophylls, viz. chl a, b, c, d and e. Of these, chlorophyll
a is present in all groups of algae, chlorophyll b only in Chlorophyceae and Euglenophyceae,
chlorophyll c largely in algae of marine habitats (Phaeophyceae, Cryptophyceae,
Bacillariophyceae and Chrysophyceae), chlorophyll d in some red algae only as a trace
constituent and chlorophyll e in certain Xanthophyceae such as Vaucheria hamata and Tribonem
abombycinum.
2. Xanthophyll. More than 20 types of xanthophylls are known. They are formed by the
incorporation of molecular oxygen into carotene molecule. Many xanthophylls, common in
higher plants (lutein, violaxanthin, and neoxanthin), are found in the members of Chlorophyceae
and Phaeophyceae. Fucoxanthin is the main xanthophyll pigment of Phaeophyceae and diatoms
whereas myxoxanthophyll, myxoxanthin and oscilloxanthin are found only in Cyanophyceae.
3. Carotenes. These are oxygen free alicyclic compounds, composed of isoprene units. The five
types of carotenes occur in algae are: a -carotene in Chlorophyceae; Cryptophyceae and
Rhodophyceae; β-carotene in all algal groups, except Cryptophyceae, c-carotene in

P a g e 11 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

Chlorophyceae; E-carotene in Bacillariophyceae, Cryptophyceae, Phaeophyceae and

Cyanophyceae and flavacene in members of Cyanophyceae.
4. Phycobilins. These are water soluble complexes of protein and bile pigments, present in the
photosynthetic tissue of plants. Phycobilins are red (phycoerythrin) and blue (phycocyanin)
pigments which are confined to Rhodophyceae and Cyanophyceae respectively. They act as light
harvesting pigments in photosynthesis and the light absorbed by them is transferred to
chlorophyll a. Thus, like carotenoids, phycobilins are also accessory Pigments.
Nature of food reserve:
The primary product of photosynthesis are the same in all algae as the initial stages in carbon
dioxide fixation are probably the same in all photosynthetic organisms. However, the insoluble
products which accumulate over a longer period of time are more variable and they provide useful
taxonomic criteria. Various polysaccharides are the most widespread and most helpful compound
used in primary classification of algae. Polysaccharides in which glucose subunits are joined with
a 1-4 linkages are true starch, floridean starch and myxophycean starch.
(i) Starch: True starch similar to that found in higher plants (composed of amylose and
amylopectin) is only found in Chlorophyceae and Charophyceae. It occurs inside the chloroplast
in the form of starch grains. In Cryptophyceae strach has unusually high content of amylose
(45%) and is found as grains between the chloroplast envelope and the chloroplast endoplasmic
reticulum. In the cytoplasm of Dinophyceae outside the chloroplast, starch also occurs but its
structure is not known.
(ii) Floridean starch: This characteristic starch is found in Rhodophyceae and is similar to the
amylopectin of higher plants. It occurs as bowl-shaped grains outside the chloroplast.
(iii) Myxophycean starch: It is characteristic and found in Cyanophyceae. The structure is
similar to glycogen. This reserve product occurs as granules (α-granules). The shape of these
granules vary from rod-shaped to elongate bodies. Three polysaccharides with β,1-3 linkages are
now recognised as being important constituents of algae. These are laminarin (Phaeophyceae),
chrysolaminarin orleucosin (Chrysophyceae and Bacillariophyceae) and paramylum or
paramylon (Euglenophyceae). Laminarin occurs as an oil like liquid outside chloroplast in form
of vesicle surrounding the pyrenoid.
Vacuole: All eukaryotic algal cells possess one or more vacuoles. They remain bounded by distinct
membrane called tonoplast. The vacuoles play an important role in the alga, specially in its osmotic
relations. There are only two contractile vacuoles in Chlamydomonas situated just adjacent to basal
granules, but in Chlorogonium several vacuoles are scattered throughout the cell. In Spirogyra,
large vacuoles are present, but in Charales, Siphonales and Bryopsidophyceae, a single large
central vacuole is generally present.
Two types of vacuolar apparatuses found in motile algae are:
1. Simple or contractile vacuoles: They show alternate contraction and expansion, and expel
out the excess of waste material and water, as in Chlorophyceae.
2. Complex vacuoles: They contain a canal or cytopharynx, a reservoir and many small vacuoles
of different size, as in Dinophyceae, Euglenineae.

P a g e 12 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

The vacuoles perform four major functions:

1. These are the organs of osmoregulation
2. They help in regulation and absorption of water or solutes
3. In some algae, they function as the stores of the reserve food, such as laminarin and
chrysolaminarin
4. In complex vacuoles, the cytopharynx functions as an emptying canal for the vacuoles.

Reproduction
[I] Vegetative reproduction
The vegetative reproduction includes all those processes of propagation in which portions of the
plant body become separated off to give rise to new individuals without any obvious changes in
the protoplast or in other words, it does not involve rejuvenation of the protoplasts. It is the most
common method of reproduction in algae and takes place by the following means:
a. Cell division or fission:
It is the simplest method of propagation and is
commonly found in unicellular algae (e.g., Euglena,
Chlamydomonas), desmids and diatoms. In this
process, the unicellular algal cell divides mitotically
to form two daughter cells, each eventually grows
into an independent organism.
b. Fragmentation:
In filamentous forms like Ulothrix, Oedogomium,
Spirogyra and Zygnema the thallus breaks into small
fragments. Each fragment has the capability to grow
independently and forms a new thallus. The
fragmentation of filaments may be due to
mechanical pressure, dissolution of transverse walls
or difference in turgor pressure between adjoining
cells. In colonial blue green algae, vegetative
propagation takes place by fragmentation of larger
colonies.
c. Hormogonia:
It is a characteristic method of reproduction in blue-
green algae. Under unfavorable conditions the
trichome breaks into motile segments of varying

P a g e 13 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

length, called hormogonia. The fragmentation of

parent filament into hormogonia may be due to the
formation of intercalary heterocysts, specialized
separation discs (necridia) or due to death and decay
of intercalary cells of the trichome. Hormogonia are
commonly found in Nostoc, Oscillatoria and
Cylindrospermum.
d. Formation of adventitious branches:
Adventitious branches are formed in some large
thalloid forms of algae. These branches, when get
detached from the parent thallus, develop into new
plants (e.g., Dictyota, Fucus).
e. Tubers:
On the rhizoids and the lower nodes of Chara some
tuber like structures are formed due to storage of
food material. When detached from the parent plant,
the tuber produces an independent plant. Examples:
Chara, Cladophoa.
f. Budding:
Bud like structures are formed due to proliferation of
vesicles. They eventually get separated from the parent
plant by the formation of the septum, and have the
capacity to form plants. Examples: Protosiphon.
Asexual Reproduction:
The reproductive process, involving the production of different kinds of motile and nonmotile
spores, which ultimately germinate to produce new plant bodies, is called asexual reproduction.
It involves the rejuvenation of the protoplasts. These reproductive bodies are either naked or
develop their own new walls. Asexual reproduction is accomplished through the following
methods.
1. Zoospores: Zoospores (Gr. Zoon = animal + spores = seed) are motile and naked
reproductive bodies developed inside the special structures known as zoosporangia. Generally,
they are pyriform in shape but can also be globose, oval or pointed. They possess two, four or
many flagella and are able to swim in water. Each zoosporangium may produce only one
(Oedogonium), in multiple of four (Ulothrix) or many (Cladophora) zoospores inside them.
Flagella may be present at the anterior end (Chlorophyceae) or on lateral side (Phaeophyceae) of
these motile cells.
P a g e 14 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

On the basis of number of flagella present on their bodies, they are of the following types:
(i) Biflagellate: having two flagella, e.g., Clylamydomonas, Ectocarpus.
(ii) Quadriflagellate: having four flagella, e.g., Macrozoospores of Ulothrix.
(iii) Octaflagellate: having eight flagella, e.g., Polyblepharis.
(iv)Multiflagellate: having many flagella, e.g., Oedogonium, Synzoospores of Vaucheria

Aplanospores:
These are non-motile spores, commonly found in
terrestrial algae, but some aquatic algae (e.g.,
Ulothrix, Microspora) also form them during
drought conditions. They differ from zoospores in
having a distinct wall and in the absence of flagella.
Each cell may form a single aplanospore or its
protoplast may divide to form many aplanospores.
Hypnospores:
Aplanospores of some algae like Pediastrum and
Sphaerella secrete thick walls to overcome
prolonged period of desiccation. Such thick walled
aplanospores are called hypnospores. Under
favourable conditions, hypnospores germinate and
grow into new individuals or their protoplast may
form zoospores. The hypnospores of
Chlamydomonas nivalis are red in colour due to the
deposition of a pigment, haematochrome, in their
walls.

P a g e 15 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

Tetraspores:
Diploid plants of some algae (e.g., Polysiphonia)
form aplanospores which are called tetraspores.
They are formed within tetrasporangium, usually by
meiosis, and are haploid. They germinate to form
haploid plants.
Autospores:
The aplanospores with a structure similar to the
parent cell are called autospores. In Scenedesmus
and many members of the order Chlorococcales
(e.g., Chlorella) the aplanospores acquire all
distinctive features of the parent cell before their
liberation from the sporangium. The so formed
autospores are infact replica of the parent cell; the
only difference is that they are smaller in size.
Akinetes:
In some algae vegetative cells develop into thick
walled spore like structure with abundant food
reserves, called akinetes. Akinetes always have
additional wall layers around the protoplast which
are fused with the parent wall. They are resistant to
unfavorable environmental conditions. They are
found in many blue-green and green algae.
Exospores and endospores:
In many blue green algae the protoplast divides to
form special type of aplanospores, known as
exospores and endospores. The cell that produces
endospores becomes somewhat enlarged and its
contents divide successively in three planes,
forming four to many endospores (e.g.,
Dermocarpa). The exospores are formed externally;
the protoplast of the cell comes out through a
terminal pore and successively cuts spherical
spores. (e.g., Chamaesiphon).

P a g e 16 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

Sexual Reproduction:
All groups of algae, except Cyanophyceae, reproduce sexually. It leads to the creation of new
combinations of genes by pooling together the genes derived from the different parents, thus
resulting in a reshuffling of the gene material. On the basis of the structure and physiological
behaviour of sex organs and their complexity, the following six types of sexual reproduction are
recognised in different groups of algae.
Autogamy:
When two gametes of the same mother cell fuse to
form a diploid nucleus, it is called autogamy. In this
process there is only karyogamy (fusion of two
gametic nuclei). The autogamy lacks incorporation of
external genes. Hence, plants developing as a result
of autogamy do not show new characters. Diatoms are
the common example of autogamy.
Hologamy:
In some unicellular forms (e.g., Chlamydomonas,
Dunaliella) the vegetative cells of different strains (+)
and (-) (female and male) behave as gametes and fuse
to form zygote. From evolutionary point of view
hologamy is more advanced than autogamy, as it
involves fusion of two cells having different genetic
constitution. But hologamy is an
inefficient process from the point of view of
propagation, as two vegetative cells fuse to
form only one zygote.
Isogamy:
In isogamy the two gametes which fuse to form
zygote, are morphologically and physiologically
similar. Such gametes are called isogametes, as they
are indistinguishable into plus and minus strains.
They are usually motile and flagellate.
Isogametes are found in Ulothrix, Chlamydomonas
eugametos, etc.
Anisogamy:
In anisogamy fusion takes place between
morphologically and physiologically distinct gametes
P a g e 17 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

(anisogametes). The male or microgametes are

smaller and more active, whereas the female or
macrogametes are larger and sluggish.
Chlamydomonas braunii and Pandorina are common
examples of anisogamy.
Oogamy:
This is the most advanced type of sexual
reproduction. In this process a
large nonmotile egg or ovum, fuses with a small
motile sperm or antherozoid (in
Rhodophyceae, sperms are nonmotile). Egg is formed
within the oogonium and
sperms within the antheridium. Volvox, Oedogonium,
Chara, Vaucheria, Sargassum,
Batrachospermum and Polysiphonia are common
examples of oogamy.
Conjugation or Aplanogamy:
Conjugation (L. conjugate = to join together) is
the fusion of two similar, non-motile gametes or cells
which facilitate the transfer of
genetic material from one cell to another. The fusing
gametes are known as
aplanogametes. Examples: Members of order
Conjugales such as Spirogym, Zygnema,
etc.
Zygote and its Germination: Post-fertilization Events:
Soon after sexual fusion, the zygote forms a thin wall, which later becomes as thick as 3-
layered. The zygote in this condition can undergo complete desiccation without harm.
Usually the zygote undergoes a period of rest of a shorter or a longer duration before
germination. In marine forms, the zygote generally germinates immediately and does not
develop a thick wall.
The two gametic nuclei generally fuse immediately after fusion but in many cases (e.g.,
Zygnema) they do not fuse until just before the germination of the zygote. .
Meiosis generally takes place during the germination of zygote and thus a haploid plant
body is formed (e.g., Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Zygnema, Oedogonium,
Vaucheria, etc.). However, in a number of forms (e.g., Sargassum), the zygote nucleus

P a g e 18 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

does not undergo reduction division but divides equationally and gives rise to a diploid
plant body, reduction division does not take place until just before reproduction
Types of Life-cycle Pattern in Algae
The growth and development of an alga passes through a number of distinct
morphological and cytological stages. The sequence of these orderly changes is said to be
life cycle or life history. In other words, the sequence of all the different phases or
events, through which an organism passes from the zygote of one generation up to
the zygote of next generation, is known as its life-cycle. The union of male and
female gametes results in the formation of zygote. As there is doubling of chromosomal
complement in zygote, it represents diploid state.
In some groups the original chromosome number is achieved by meiotic division of the
zygote nucleus. Thus on germination the zygote produces haploid plants. In others, the
zygotic nucleus divides mitotically and the resulting cells form a diploid phase, which
later produces cells which are capable of meiotic division.
The various types of life-cycle met among algae can be broadly classified into the
following five categories.
[I] Haplontic type
In this type, plant is haploid and bears haploid
gametes in the gametangium. The gametic fusion
results in the formation of a diploid zygote which is
the only diploid phase in the life cycle. The zygote
nucleus divides meiotically to produce four
meiospores, each of these develops into a new
individual. Thus there is an alternation of a haploid
plant with a diploid zygote. This type of life-
cycleoccurs in the motile unicellular forms (e.g.,
Chlamydomonas) and most multicellular green
algae like Ulothrix, Oedogonium, Spirogyra,
Zygnema and Chara.
[II] Diplontic type
Here the plant is diploid and it bears sex organs
(gametangia) which are also diploid. The reduction
division takes place at the time of the formation of
gametes and as such the gametes are haploid. Alter
gametic fusion diploid stage is re-established in the
form of zygote.

P a g e 19 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

The zygote does not undergo any reduction division and it gives rise to a diploid plant body.
Thus, there is an alternation of a diploid plant with haploid gametes. The gametes representing
the only haploid stage in the life cycle of the plant. This type of life-cycle is found in some
members of Chlorophyceae (e.g., Cladophora glomerata) and Phaeophyceae (e.g., Fucus,
Sargassum) and nearly-all Bacillariophyceae (diatoms).
Diplohaplontic Life-Cycle:
Two distinct vegetative individuals, of which one is haploid or gametophytic and the other is
diploid or sporophytic in nature. Haploid and diploid phases are equally prominent.
These are of two categories as discussed below:
I. Isomorphic Diplohaplontic Life-Cycle:
Both the diploid and haploid vegetative plants are morphologically similar (=isomorphic) and
come alternately in the life-cycle. Examples: Cladophora, Ulva, Ectocarpus, etc.
II. Heteromorphic Diplohaplontic Life-Cycle:
Both the diploid and haploid vegetative plants are morphologically dissimilar
(=heteromorphic) and come alternately in the life-cycle. It has been variously named
heterologous diplohaplontic type, heteromorphous diplohaplontic type, or simply Heteromorphic
alternation of generation or heteromorphic (antithetic) alternation.Examples: Laminariales, some
Fucales and also in some Ectocarpales (all Phaeophyceae)

Haplobiontic or Diphasic Life-Cycle:

In Batrachospermum, Nemalion, etc. there are present two
well-developed haploid phases in the life-cycle and hence

P a g e 20 | 21
 [Algae General Characteristics] Dr. Shah Rafiq

called haplobiontic type. The diploid phase is represented

only by a zygote.
The plant body in Batrachospermum is gametophytic and
haploid. Spermatangia and carpogonia are the
two sex organs which develop on gametophytic plants.
Sex organs bear haploid gametes called spermatium and
egg. By fertilization they fuse and form a diploid zygote
which divides meiotically and forms four haploid nuclei.
Gonimoblast filaments are formed from the basal part of
the carpogonium. The uppermost cell of these filaments
starts to function as carposporangium. The haploid
carposporangium bears a haploid carpospore.
All gonimoblast filaments, carposporangia and
carpospores are haploid, get enveloped by
many sterile filaments, and together represent the
carposporophyte, which remains parasitic on the parent
gametophytic plant. Carpospores are liberated and
germinate into a heterotrichous Chantransia-stage, from
the erect filaments of which develop the new
gametophytic Batrachospermum filaments.
Haplodiplobiontic or Triphasic Life-cycle
In some genera of Rhodophyceae, such as Polysiphonia, there are present one haploid phase and
two diploid phases in the life-cycle, and hence such life-cycles are called haplodiplobiontic type.
Because of the presence of one haploid and two diploid phases, it may also be named triphasic
life-cycle.
In such a life-cycle the haploid phase is represented by male and female gametophytic plants,
sex organs and gametes. The first diploid phase is represented by zygote, gonimoblast filaments,
carposporangia and carpospores. All these together represent the carposporophyte which
depends on the gametophyte. The second diploid phase is represented by tetrasporophytic plant,
bearing tetrasporangia. Owing to the presence of one haploid and two diploid phases it is called
haplodiplobiontic life-cycle or triphasic life-cycle.

P a g e 21 | 21