IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering

PAPER • OPEN ACCESS You may also like

- Widespread mangrove damage resulting
Hurricane Damage Detection using Machine from the 2017 Atlantic mega hurricane
season
Learning and Deep Learning Techniques: A Paul J Taillie, Rosa Roman-Cuesta, David
Lagomasino et al.

Review - Hurricane adaptation behaviors in Texas

and Florida: exploring the roles of negative
personal experience and subjective
To cite this article: Swapandeep Kaur et al 2021 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 1022 012035 attribution to climate change
Gabrielle Wong-Parodi and Dana Rose
Garfin

- Topography, drainage capability, and

legacy of drought differentiate tropical
View the article online for updates and enhancements. ecosystem response to and recovery from
major hurricanes
Mei Yu and Qiong Gao

This content was downloaded from IP address 14.99.57.10 on 28/10/2022 at 08:37

ICCRDA 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1022 (2021) 012035 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1022/1/012035

Hurricane Damage Detection using Machine Learning and

Deep Learning Techniques: A Review

Swapandeep Kaur1, Sheifali Gupta2 and Swati Singh3

1, 2, 3
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara
University, Punjab, India

swapandeep.kaur@chitkara.edu.in, sheifali.gupta@chitkara.edu.in, swati.singh@chitkara.edu.in

Email: swati.singh@chitkara.edu.in

Abstract. Hurricane is one of the most disastrous natural disasters causing immense harm to
the ecosystem and economic system worldwide. It is also known as a tropical cyclone. Heavy
rainfall and high winds accompanying hurricane inflict damage to property as well as loss of
human life. Hence, appropriate steps need to be taken to mitigate the damage caused by the
disaster. Recently, social media platforms are used that help in providing immediate relief to
the people affected by the disaster. Since, the difficulty arises in analysis of high volume data
of social media, satellite imagery is also being used for damage detection due to its ability to
cover large spatial and temporal areas. But manual damage detection is error prone. Therefore,
machine learning and deep learning which automated methods are used for detection of
damage. This paper includes the use of machine learning and deep learning for detection of
damage caused by natural disasters with a special focus on hurricane damage.

Keywords: Hurricane, natural disaster, social-media, satellite imagery, machine-learning,

deep-learning

1. Introduction
The Climate change is leading to a rise in natural disaster occurrences and also their severity [1].
Increase in population along with global warming has been resulting in the rise of natural disasters
[2].The aftermaths of the disasters need to be managed for which data related to them has to be
obtained on a timely basis. The most common natural disasters include hurricanes, floods, tsunami,
earthquake and wildfires. These disasters affect the environment and human beings adversely [3].
Hurricanes also known as tropical cyclones are regarded as the most dangerous among the natural
disasters occurring on earth [4]. Because of the warm seawater, the hurricanes occurrence is mostly
found in the sub- tropical or tropical areas. These occur in the United States and are estimated to affect
nearly 1.2 million residents of the US. They are accompanied with very high speed winds, rainfall and
flood which caused intense damage to humans and their property [5].
The following sub sections discuss the importance of detection of hurricane damage and use of
satellite imagery and social media images in detecting that damage since satellites provide a complete
spacial as well as temporal view of the disaster and social media images help in providing disaster
relief on an immediate basis.

Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
ICCRDA 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1022 (2021) 012035 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1022/1/012035

1.1 Social Media Images

Social media images are gaining popularity since they can be easily obtained through social media
sites such as Twitter and help in providing relief to people on an immediate basis. The data obtained
from social media helps to give a voice to people and they are able to contribute their views freely.
Since people are able to express their views on social media, it increases their chances of obtaining
relief and monetary donations.

1.2 Satellite Imagery

Satellite imagery provides enormous information to the emergency crews and also officials of disaster
management. It helps to assess, analyze and monitor natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods and
hurricane. The damage is assessed from small to greater regions across the world. The land areas are
assessed for the possibility and risk of disaster. This would help to prioritize, mitigate and create
preparedness activity for the particular area.

1.3 Hurricanes
Hurricanes which are also known as tropical cyclones are basically low-pressure system that take
place in subtropical and tropical waters. They are accompanied with thunderstorms and strong winds
with a speed of upto 200 miles/hour and cause huge damage especially to coastal towns and cities.
Around ten thousand people die every year around the world due to tropical storms and hurricanes.
Steps need to be taken on an immediate basis so that relief is provided and rescue operations to the
people who are affected is provided [6-7].

1.4 Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) also known as machine intelligence refers to programming a machine to
think in a way similar to the humans and mimicking human actions. The main features of AI is to take
the best decision to achieve a particular goal. Since, the natural disasters like hurricanes are out of the
reach of humans, artificial intelligence comes into the picture that can help in a potential manner to
save huge amount of lives. AI can make the efforts of the rescue team more efficient.

1.4.1 Machine Learning

Machine learning (ML) is a branch of AI and is composed of a family of algorithms allows computers
to learn from experience automatically. It also allows computers to perform better through adaptation
to new conditions. It helps in facilitation of computers to build models from training data and
automates the process of decision making.
Figure 1 shows the various steps involved in detection of damages caused by natural disasters using
machine learning.

Figure 1. Steps of Damage Detection by Machine Learning.

(a) Preprocessing
This is the first step in assessing the damage after the input is applied to the model as there is presence
of noise and haze in the images. Preprocessing is done to enhance the image and make it suitable for
applying machine learning algorithms. Adaptive histogram equalization technique can be applied to
sharpen contrast in the images. Adaptive filtering can be used to remove the Gaussian noise [8].

2
ICCRDA 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1022 (2021) 012035 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1022/1/012035

(b) ROI Segmentation

ROI stands for Region of Interest and the process of separating the object of interest from the not
required one is called segmentation. ROI is normally calculated through the intensity of pixels. When
segmentation is done on the basis of intensity, a range is defined by the user of pixel intensity which
gives the object of interest.

(c) Feature Extraction

After application of segmentation technique, feature extraction is done which is followed by
classification and post processing methods. Feature extraction is basically reduction in dimensionality
through which raw data is converted to more manageable form. Feature extraction reduces the amount
of redundant data and helps in finding the required feature. Feature extraction techniques could be
statistical like mean and variance or wavelet like wavelet entropy.

(d) Classification
Classification is a process in which data is categorized into classes. Classification could be performed
on unstructured or structured data. Classes are also referred as categories or labels. The common
classification algorithms used are Logistic Regression, Naïve Bayes classifier, Support vector
machine, Decision Tree and Random Forest.

1.4.2 Deep Learning

Deep learning (DL), a broader family of machine learning and based on artificial neural networks
work in the same way as the human brain works. It helps to process data for detection of objects and in
speech recognition. Convolutional Neural networks (CNN) can be applied for successfully
understanding the disaster images [9-10].
The several adaptations of DL for detecting damage caused by disasters are shown in figure 2.

Figure 2. Types of Deep Learning.

1.4.2.1 Convolutional Neural Network

CNN which is a deep learning algorithm comprises of an image as an input, assigns biases and weights
to the various features present in the image and differentiates one feature from the other. The prime
component of CNN comprises of the convolutional layer. The convolutional layer comprises of filters
and help in producing feature maps when convolved with the image. The other major components
include the pooling layer which works on the feature maps individually. The Rectified Linear Unit
(ReLU) layer makes the network non-linear and the fully connected layer is the one in which there is
complete connection between every neuron and previous activations [11-12].

3
ICCRDA 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1022 (2021) 012035 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1022/1/012035

1.4.2.2 Recurrent Neural Network

Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN) are the networks which work on sequences [13].These networks
are mostly used for Natural Language Processing. In traditional networks, input and output are
independent in nature but if there is a requirement of predicting next word in a sentence, then the
traditional networks cannot be used and hence, RNN’s come into the picture.

1.4.2.3 Auto-Encoders
To allow for representation learning, an unsupervised learning method is used which is known as an
auto-encoder. This method makes use of backpropagation, making the target and input values equal to
each other. An auto-encoder is used for reduction of input size so that the output is smaller than the
original size. An auto-encoder is used for image colouring and also to remove watermarks and noise
from an image [14-15]

1.4.2.4 Deep Neural Network

A deep neural network is a network that consists of several layers between the input layer and output
layer. In traditional CNN’s, there is degradation in the performance on increase in the number of deep
or hidden layers whereas these networks allow the training of deeper networks [16].

2. Literature Studied
The Deep learning and machine learning techniques that is Convolutional neural networks, VGG,
support vector machine have been used for the research work. These methods have been discussed in
the following sections which includes the previous work done in this field. Hurricanes, floods and
earthquakes are the natural disasters whose literature review has been discussed. The literature review
includes two subsections that are deep learning and machine learning.

2.1 Literature of Natural Disasters Based on Deep Learning Techniques

Deep learning is becoming popular to manage disasters through social media and also remote sensing
[17]. This section presents the literature survey of natural disasters using social media and satellite
imagery using deep learning techniques that have been summarized in table 1.

Table 1. Literature Survey of Deep Learning Techniques

Year Author/s Source Summary

Huan International Journal of For the detection of flood images obtained from social
2020 Ning et Geo-Information,MDPI media, a CNN was developed.
al. Journals when more flooding images were available
2019 Muham International Journal of In order to identify content and time-related context of
med Ali Digital Earth, Taylor and social media data related to the disasters, Deep
Sit et al. Francis learning, spatial temporal analysis and natural
language processing were used.
2019 Brett W Progress in Disaster On the basis of urgency and time period, images were
Robertso Science, Elsevier classified using Multilayer perceptron and VGG-16
n et al. CNN network.
2019 Muham Neural Computing and Satellite images of hurricane were used to determine
mad Applications, Springer hurricane intensity using deep CNN method in an
Dawood automatic manner.

4
ICCRDA 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1022 (2021) 012035 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1022/1/012035

et al.
2019 Yundong MDPI journal Applied Damage caused to buildings during Hurricane Sandy
Li et al. Science during the year 2012 was detected using a deep
learning method that is Single shot Multibox detector
by the use of aerial images.
2018 Dwarte ISPRS Annals of the Flood severity was detected using Gated Recurrent
et al. Photogrammetry,
D.Duarte Unit (GRU) - Convolutional Neural network(CNN).
Remote Sensing and
Spatial Information
Sciences, Volume IV-2,
2018
2018 Ritesh IEEE Transactions on Tropical cyclones occurrence during 1998-2012 was
Pradhan Image Processing studied and the intensity of hurricanes were estimated
et al. using deep convolutional neural network.
2018 Yundong Journal of Applied Damage occurred during Hurricane Sandy in the year
Li et al. Remote Sensing 2012 was determined using semi-supervised deep
learning system applied on aerial images of the
disaster.
2018 German Springer International Damage caused by the wildfires in California in 2017
Novikov Publishing AG, part of was determined by deep learning using satellite
et al. Springer Nature 2018 images.

2.2 Literature of Natural Disasters Based on Machine Learning Techniques

Machine learning also is being used immensely as its helps in disaster damage detection and further to
help in providing relief to people. This section includes the literature survey of disaster detection using
machine learning techniques based on both social media images and satellite imagery.
Table 2 summarizes the literature survey of natural disasters based on machine learning techniques.

Table 2. Literature Survey Based on Machine Learning Techniques

Year Authors Source Summary

2018 Alexey Cornell University, arXiv Application of ML and computer
Trekin et al. 2018 vision were done on the satellite
imagery obtained from California
wildfire in the year 2017.
2017 Aparna R. 2017 IEEE Global Extent of damage occurrence was
Joshi et al. Humanitarian Technology found out using ML algorithms of the
Conference (GHTC), IEEE earthquake occurred in Japan in the
year 2011.
2016 Bhuvaneswa 2016 IEEE 23rd In order to determine the damage
ri Anbalagan International Conference on caused due to Chennai floods occurred
et al. High Performance in 2015, ML algorithms that is Naïve

5
ICCRDA 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1022 (2021) 012035 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1022/1/012035

Computing Workshops, Bayes and SSVM (Structured Support

IEEE Vector Machine) were applied.
2014 Zahra Proceedings of the 11th The tweets of twelve crisis in the US
Ashktorab International ISCRAM were validated since 2006 using a
Et al. Conference – University Twitter tool known as Tweedr which
Park, Pennsylvania, USA found out the important data during the
natural disasters.
2013 Muhammad Proceedings of the 10th Extraction of essential data during the
Imran et al. International ISCRAM disasters was done from social media
Conference – Baden-Baden, sites such as Twitter through ML.
Germany
2013 Peter Journal of Applied Remote Determination of damage due to 2007
Lamovec et Sensing flash floods was done through ML .
al. ML was applied on the satellite
images.
Majid International Conference on Extraction of awareness information
2010 Bahrepour et Intelligent Networking was done using semi-supervised ML .
al. andCollaborative Systems, The natural disaster data was obtained
IEEE from the social-media.

3. Present State of Art

Presently, work is being done on the various disasters such as earthquakes, floods, wildfire and
hurricanes and the damage caused during the disasters. In deep learning, various types of CNN models
like VGG, AlexNet, ResNet depending upon the number of convolutional layers are mainly used for
finding the damage caused to the buildings. In machine learning, Support vector machine, Naïve
Bayes algorithm, Decision trees are used for classifying data into damaged and undamaged buildings.
Table 3 and 4 represent the work done in deep learning and machine learning on the natural disasters
along with the technique applied and the accuracy obtained.

Table 3. Summary of Different Deep Learning Methods

Paper ID Dataset Type of Disaster Technique Used Accuracy

[18] Tweets of Hurricane Hurricane VGG 16 CNN 89.54%

Harvey 2017

[19] Hurricane images Hurricane Deep CNN with 5 80.66%

from tropical cyclone convolutional layer and 3
repository fully connected layers

6
ICCRDA 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1022 (2021) 012035 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1022/1/012035

[20] Hurricane Sandy 2012 Hurricane Convolutional auto-encoders 88.3%

[21] AIDR dataset Hurricane VGG – 16 74%

[22] Tweet dataset of Flood VGG 16, Inception, 93%

Houston flood in Res Net152, Dense Net
2017

[23] Flood videos Flood Base CNN and CNN-GRU 70%

(Gated Recurrent Unit)

[24] Flash flood in Flood Deep Learning Neural 92.05%

Vietnam Network

[25] World View – 2 Earthquake U-net Convolutional 70.9%

image of 2011 network, Deep Residual U-
Tohoku Earthquake- net model
Tsunami

Table 4. Summary of Different Machine Learning Methods

Paper ID Dataset Type of Disaster Technique Used Accuracy

[26] Chennai Flood 2015 Flood Naïve Bayes, SSVM 91%

[27] Flash flood in 2007 Flood Naïve Bayes, Bayes Net, 88%
J48, Random tree

[28] Rapid Eye satellite Flood J48, JRip, Random 89%

images of flood forest(C45)
[29] 2003 Earthquake Earthquake Genetic Algorithm 74.4%

[30] NIST Residential fire Wildfire Decision trees 93%

data

Deep learning and machine learning techniques were applied to social media data and satellite
imagery. Deep learning techniques like CNN, VGG-16, ResNet were applied. Machine learning
techniques like Support Vector Machine, Decision trees, random forest, J48 were applied.

7
ICCRDA 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1022 (2021) 012035 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1022/1/012035

4. Discussion
Disaster detection can be done through social media and satellites. Images obtained from satellites are
widely used since capturing and processing of these images can be done in a shorter span of time.
Satellite images help to recognize damage pattern caused by the disasters. The images from social
media are also useful since they provide information on an immediate basis. Since manual methods are
error-prone, deep learning and machine learning are used which used for detecting the damage caused
by disasters effectively.

5. Conclusion
Social media is proving to be an important method to disseminate information during the times of
disaster that is hurricane. Social media data is easily available in the form of images or text. But the
challenge remains to find out the relevance of the data since the data may consist of irrelevant data
such as advertisements, posters or cartoons. Satellite imagery is gaining popularity to detect damage
during hurricane. Man-made things such as buildings are kept as reference and the change in the
building before and after the disaster are noted so as to provide the right information of the disaster
affected areas. But the problem with satellite images is that they are affected by cloud formation at the
time of hurricanes. Manual inspection is prone to errors, therefore automated methods such as deep
learning and machine learning are being used. Machine learning helps to extract important information
from both social media and satellite imagery. Deep learning is useful in case larger number of images
are to be analyzed.

6. References
[1] Pi, Y., Nath, N.D. and Behzadan, A.H., 2020. Convolutional neural networks for object detection
in aerial imagery for disaster response and recovery. Advanced Engineering Informatics, 43,
p.101009.
[2] Bui, D.T., Hoang, N.D., Martínez-Álvarez, F., Ngo, P.T.T., Hoa, P.V., Pham, T.D., Samui, P. and
Costache, R., 2020. A novel deep learning neural network approach for predicting flash flood
susceptibility: A case study at a high frequency tropical storm area. Science of The Total
Environment, 701, p.134413.
[3] Ahmad, K., Riegler, M., Pogorelov, K., Conci, N., Halvorsen, P. and De Natale, F., 2017, June.
Jord: a system for collecting information and monitoring natural disasters by linking social
media with satellite imagery. In Proceedings of the 15th International Workshop on Content-
Based Multimedia Indexing (pp. 1-6).
[4] Kovordányi, R. and Roy, C., 2009. Cyclone track forecasting based on satellite images using
artificial neural networks. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 64(6),
pp.513-521.
[5] Dawood, M. and Asif, A., 2019. Deep-PHURIE: deep learning based hurricane intensity
estimation from infrared satellite imagery. Neural Computing and Applications, pp.1-9.
[6] Cao, Q.D. and Choe, Y., 2020. Building damage annotation on post-hurricane satellite imagery
based on convolutional neural networks. Natural Hazards, pp.1-20.
[7] Doshi, J., Basu, S. and Pang, G., 2018. From satellite imagery to disaster insights. arXiv preprint
arXiv:1812.07033.
[8] Pritt, M. and Chern, G., 2017, October. Satellite image classification with deep learning. In 2017
IEEE Applied Imagery Pattern Recognition Workshop (AIPR) (pp. 1-7). IEEE.
[9] Brinker, T.J., Hekler, A., Utikal, J.S., Grabe, N., Schadendorf, D., Klode, J., Berking, C., Steeb,
T., Enk, A.H. and von Kalle, C., 2018. Skin cancer classification using convolutional neural
networks: systematic review. Journal of medical Internet research, 20(10), p.e11936.

8
ICCRDA 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1022 (2021) 012035 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1022/1/012035

[10] Chen, S.A., Escay, A., Haberland, C., Schneider, T., Staneva, V. and Choe, Y., 2018. Benchmark
dataset for automatic damaged building detection from post-hurricane remotely sensed
imagery. arXiv preprint arXiv:1812.05581.
[11] Sit, M.A., Koylu, C. and Demir, I., 2019. Identifying disaster-related tweets and their semantic,
spatial and temporal context using deep learning, natural language processing and spatial
analysis: a case study of Hurricane Irma. International Journal of Digital Earth, 12(11),
pp.1205-1229.
[12] Alam, F., Ofli, F., Imran, M. and Aupetit, M., 2018. A twitter tale of three hurricanes: Harvey,
irma, and maria. arXiv preprint arXiv:1805.05144.
[13] Mouzannar, H., Rizk, Y. and Awad, M., 2018, May. Damage Identification in Social Media Posts
using Multimodal Deep Learning. In ISCRAM.
[14] Nguyen, D.T., Ofli, F., Imran, M. and Mitra, P., 2017, July. Damage assessment from social
media imagery data during disasters. In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE/ACM International
Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining 2017 (pp. 569-576).
[15] Bui, D.T., Hoang, N.D., Martínez-Álvarez, F., Ngo, P.T.T., Hoa, P.V., Pham, T.D., Samui, P. and
Costache, R., 2020. A novel deep learning neural network approach for predicting flash flood
susceptibility: A case study at a high frequency tropical storm area. Science of The Total
Environment, 701, p.134413.
[16] Xu, J.Z., Lu, W., Li, Z., Khaitan, P. and Zaytseva, V., 2019. Building damage detection in
satellite imagery using convolutional neural networks. arXiv preprint arXiv:1910.06444.
[17] Robertson, B.W., Johnson, M., Murthy, D., Smith, W.R. and Stephens, K.K., 2019. Using a
combination of human insights and ‘deep learning’for real-time disaster communication.
Progress in Disaster Science, 2, p.100030.
[18] Chen, S.A., Escay, A., Haberland, C., Schneider, T., Staneva, V. and Choe, Y., 2018. Benchmark
dataset for automatic damaged building detection from post-hurricane remotely sensed
imagery. arXiv preprint arXiv:1812.05581.
[19] Bai, Y., Mas, E. and Koshimura, S., 2018. Towards operational satellite-based damage-mapping
using u-net convolutional network: A case study of 2011 tohoku earthquake-tsunami. Remote
Sensing, 10(10), p.1626.
[20] Nguyen, D.T., Ofli, F., Imran, M. and Mitra, P., 2017, July. Damage assessment from social
media imagery data during disasters. In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE/ACM International
Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining 2017 (pp. 569-576).
[21] Ning, H., Li, Z. and Hodgson, M.E., 2020. Prototyping a Social Media Flooding Photo Screening
System Based on Deep Learning. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 9(2), p.104.
[22] Hamdi, Z.M., Brandmeier, M. and Straub, C., 2019. Forest damage assessment using deep
learning on high resolution remote sensing data. Remote Sensing, 11(17), p.1976.
[23] Duarte, D., Nex, F., Kerle, N. and Vosselman, G., 2018. Satellite Image Classification Of
Building Damages Using Airborne And Satellite Image Samples In A Deep Learning
Approach. ISPRS Annals of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing & Spatial Information Sciences,
4(2).
[24] Li, Y., Ye, S. and Bartoli, I., 2018. Semisupervised classification of hurricane damage from
postevent aerial imagery using deep learning. Journal of Applied Remote Sensing, 12(4),
p.045008.
[25] Anbalagan, B. and Valliyammai, C., 2016, December. # ChennaiFloods: Leveraging Human and
Machine Learning for Crisis Mapping during Disasters Using Social Media. In 2016 IEEE 23rd
International Conference on High Performance Computing Workshops (HiPCW) (pp. 50-59).
IEEE.
[26] Resch, B., Usländer, F. and Havas, C., 2018. Combining machine-learning topic models and
spatiotemporal analysis of social media data for disaster footprint and damage assessment.
Cartography and Geographic Information Science, 45(4), pp.362-376.

9
ICCRDA 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1022 (2021) 012035 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1022/1/012035

[27] Peter, L., Matjaž, M. and Krištof, O., 2013. Detection of flooded areas using machine learning
techniques: Case study of the Ljubljana moor floods in 2010. Disaster Advances, 6(7), pp.4-11.
[28] Lamovec, P., Velkanovski, T., Mikos, M. and Osir, K., 2013. Detecting flooded areas with
machine learning techniques: case study of the Selška Sora river flash flood in September 2007.
Journal of applied remote sensing, 7(1), p.073564.
[29] Nia, K.R. and Mori, G., 2017, May. Building damage assessment using deep learning and ground-
level image data. In 2017 14th Conference on Computer and Robot Vision (CRV) (pp. 95-102).
IEEE.

10