ABSTRACT

In this project a Finger print sensor based Machine ON & OFF system with speed control
system for DC motor has been designed, constructed and tested. The main advantage in using a DC
motor is that the Speed-Torque relationship can be varied to almost any useful form. To achieve the
speed control, an electronic technique called Pulse Width Modulation is used which generates High
and Low pulses. These pulses vary the speed in the motor. For the generation of these pulses a
microcontroller is used. As a pic microcontroller is used setting the speed ranges as per the
requirement is easy which is done by changing the duty cycles time period in the program. Different
speed grades and the direction are depended on different buttons.

The traditional method of control speed was that the resistance is strung in the rotor circuit or
adjust the voltage of electrical machinery circuit, the two methods is easy, but they exist some
shortcomings: The smooth character is bad and the characteristic is soft in low speed, The motor speed
will be changed larger when the load is changed; The motor speed is very hard to get a low when the
load is light ;The larger the I resistance are, the greater its losses are, the Efficiency reduce noticeably.
Therefore, a new kind of speed control method is called PWM (pulse width modulation) speed
regulating system has been widely used in the motor control speed.

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INTRODUCTION

Control system design and analysis technologies are widely suppress and very useful to be
applied in real-time development. Some can be solved by hardware technology and by the advance
used of software, control system are analyzed easily and detailed. Motors can be used in various
applications and can be used in various sizes and rates as per our applications. The DC-Motor is used
in domestics and industrial purpose.

Whenever we think about any programmable devices then the embedded technology comes
into fore front. The embedded is now-a- days very much popular and most of the product are
developed with Microcontroller based embedded technology.

The advantages of using the microcontroller is the reduction of the cost and also the use of
extra hardware such as the use of timer, RAM and ROM can be avoided. This technology is very fast
so controlling of multiple parameters is possible; also the parameters are field programmable by the
user. In this project we are controlling speed of DC motor and to access the machine to only
authenticated persons to ON and OFF that machine.

As we increase the speed of DC Motor as a result an increase in the productivity of material.

The application of this is used in domestic’s purpose examples are hair dryer, mixer, zero machine,
elevator and industrial purpose examples are traction and elevator.

In this project we have control the actual speed of dc motor as per our requirement. This can
be achieved through PIC microcontroller. The microcontroller & arm controller unit activates the
speed control and access the authenticated persons to ON & OFF the machine.

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 BLOCK DIAGRAM

1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig 1.1 Block Diagram

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1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

The main core of this project is to design a speed control system of DC Motor and to ON/OFF
the machine by using ARM & PIC controller. This system will be able to control the DC motor speed
at desired speed regardless the changes of load.

The following procedures are carried out for the finger print sensor to access the machine and
to DC motor speed control operation using Pic microcontroller. Here we uses switches that are
interfaced to MC to control the speed of motor and for ON and OFF the machine.

CASE I:

While a person is pressing the finger print module to ON the machine it value is searched in
the ARM controller unit and it is compared with the data base value if both matched machine start to
run, the motor starts rotating in minimum to maximum speed being driven by a motor driver unit that
receives control signal continuously from the microcontroller. When other switch is pressed the motor
speed various as per the logic provided by the program from the microcontroller to the motor.

CASE II:

Else if unauthenticated person is pressing the finger print module, the buzzer starts to vibrate
and display a message authentication access of a machine is failed.

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 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

2.1. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 2.1 Circuit Diagram

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2.2. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OPERATION

40-Pin Enhanced Pic controller has 8 channels of 10bit built in ADC, 35 instruction set, lowest
cost. Low-power, high-speed flash/EEPROM Technology, fully static design, wide operating voltage
range (2.0V to 5.5v), commercial and industrial temperature ranges, low-power consumption. Special
Microcontroller Self-reprogrammable under software control, In-circuit serial programming™
(ICSP™) Via two pins, Single-supply 5V in-circuit serial programming, Watchdog timer (WDT) with
its own on-chip RC Oscillator for reliable operation, Programmable code protection, Power saving
sleep mode, Selectable oscillator options, In-circuit debug (ICD) via two pins.

This system includes PIC controller as heart of project with the finger print sensor module
controlled by Arm controller to ON and OFF the machine, DC motor module to speed control and
interface with LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) for displaying output of all finger print data values and
speed values.

PWM switch is used to rotate the motor at varying speed by delivering from the
microcontroller a varying duty cycle to the enable pin of the motor driver IC. It starts from 100% duty
cycle and reduces in steps of 10% when it is pressed again and finally reaches to 10% duty cycle and
the process repeats. Stop button is used to switch OFF the motor by driving the enable pin to ground
from the microcontroller command accordingly.

The practical implementation of the speed control of the DC motor is shown in figure 2.1 The
hardware is designed and the operation has been done based upon the program written in the
microcontroller for the finger print sense operation of the DC motor to on & off as well as speed
controlling of DC motor by using PWM technique which instantaneous changes the speed situation as
applied to the motor.

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 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

3.1. PIC MICRO CONTROLLER

3.1.1. INTRODUCTION

A micro-controller, in simple words, is a miniature computer with a central processing unit and
some peripherals integrated into a single integrated circuit package. The central processing unit can
execute some instructions resulting in some outcomes. These instructions define the architecture of the
controller’s central processor in a macro scale. This gives rise to the a major classifications in
processor architecture as
 Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)

Or

 Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

To learn about controllers, processors and architectures in a general and abstract manner is
tedious, time consuming and at-times dry. So here we are considering a simple microcontroller – the
PIC 16F877a as an example to begin with PIC 16F877a is a mid-range microcontroller from microchip
inc (www.microchip.com). It is a CMOS FLASH-based 8-bit microcontroller with a RISC architecture
that can handle 35 instructions. When studying any electronic device or part, the bible is its datasheet.
The data sheet describes in detail the architecture, capabilities and requirements of the part.
PIC16F877a‘s datasheet can be found here. Download it and keep it for further reference throughout
the tutorial. A printout of section 15 of the datasheet (only 6 pages) will be a great help during the
programming exercises.

3.1.2. ARCHITECTURE – A GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Shown above is simplified processor architecture. (A more proper ‘Processor Architecture’ is

to indicate the memory connectors as buses since most processors maintain an external program and
data memory, while controllers have them in-built along with other peripherals.

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 Fig 3.1 General Processor Architecture

The firmware (program) resides in the program memory. Once the processor is reset and ready
to go, the program counter, which is simply a counter that acts as a pointer to the program instructions
points to the initial location of the program memory.

The execution unit fetches the program instruction in this first location. This will be one of
the 35 instructions that the PIC can handle in our case. These instructions are stored in the program
memory in an encoded fashion. It will be a binary number that has encoded information relevant to the
instruction. For example, the instruction mov lw 0xff will be encoded as 11 0000 11111111 when
stored in the PIC 16f877a program memory.

This 14 bit encoded binary contains the instruction, the scratch pad memory location to be used
and the literal value 0xff.

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 Fig 3.2 Central Processing Unit

The task of the execution unit, in simple words, is to fetch the instructions pointed to by the
program counter (PC), understand it (Decode) and execute it. Execution of a command can include a
wide variety of tasks like moving some data from one RAM location to another, or storing it in a non-
volatile, EEPROM location, or communicating with an external device like a PC. These tasks vary
from micro controller to micro controller. A user side view of these tasks can be obtained by analyzing
the instruction set of the specific device we are planning to use.

RAM is the volatile memory integrated within the controller package. It provides working
space for the data manipulation during the command execution. The amount of RAM available is an
important metric as the speed of operation and instruction set for a micro controller. Scratch pad
memory registers are high speed memory registers which are integral to the processing center
architecture. The concept is from processor architecture, since the external memory access which will
be much slower can be a bottleneck to the high speed operations within the processor.
Microcontrollers usually have one or two such registers only.

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3.1.3. PIC ARCHITECTURE

Based on the memory organization, processor architectures can be divided into two as

 Von Neumann Architecture and

 Havard Architecture

Our point of interest here is that the Von Neumann architecture has a common bus for program
memory and data memory (RAM), where as the Havard architecture maintains separate
buses.PIC 16F877a has the Havard architecture, as it can be noticed from the architecture diagram
above.

We will analyze the architecture in light of the general introduction in the previous section. The
blocks are identified below.

 Section marked 1 (blue) is the program memory.

 Section marked 2 (green) is the Data Memory (RAM).

 Section marked 3 (red) is the Execution Unit.

Section marked 4 (yellow) is the ALU.

The instructions are encoded and stored in the non-volatile Flash Program memory. Upon
reset, the program counter points to memory location 0x00. This point is the reset vector and contains
the first instruction of the steps that are to be done once the controller is reset. Details of the actual
reset mechanism and other details will be dealt with later on. Under regular circumstances, the
program counter increments by one every execution cycle (explained later, as of now, consider it as
each clock). This new location is used by the execution unit to fetch the next instruction.

When the execution unit receive jump or loop instructions, it stores the current program
counter value to the stack and loads the new program location to go to into the PC. Thus these
instructions take two execution cycles to complete. (A complete listing of the execution times can be
found in page 160 of the data sheet).

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 The stack has 8 levels. i.e the PIC can perform up to 8 jump instructions after which it can return
to the original location without errors in execution. A detailed explanation if the instruction set will
follow later on in the tutorial, but for easy understanding of many of the concepts, it is advised to
thoroughly go through the instruction set summary given in section 15 of the datasheet (6pages) before
proceeding further. A port is the microcontrollers interface into the real world. All the data
manipulation and operations that are done within the microcontroller ultimately manifests as output
signals through the ports.

To make the concept clear, let us consider an air conditioning system built around a
microcontroller. The temperature sensors measure the room temperature and give it as input to the
microcontroller through the ports. The data coming in through the ports will be stored in some GPR by
the microcontroller. The data in this GPR will be compared against a set temperature. If the external
temperature reported by the sensor is higher that the threshold, the microcontroller switches on the air
conditioning mechanism. This is done by switching on the corresponding port pin.

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Fig 3.3 Pic16f877a Architecture

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 Physically, ports are some of the pins that are seen in the IC package. There are 6 ports for
PIC 16f877a. They are named as PORTA, PORTB, PORTC, PORTD and PORTE. Ports B, C and D
are 8 bit wide (8 pins each), while PORTA is 5bitand PORTE is 3 bit wide. The pin allocations of the
ports are given in the IC pin diagram in page 3 of the data sheet and are reproduced below. The
individual port pins are named 0 through. For example 1st pin of PORTA will be RA0.

3.1.4. PIN DIAGRAM OF PIC16F877A

Fig 3.4 PIC16f877A Pin Diagram

As it can be seen from the pin diagram, the port pins are bi-directional and most of them are
multiplexed in function. I.e. the pins act as regular general purpose I/O as required for the air
conditioning example, or as the I/O s of some of the internal modules of the microcontroller. For
example, port pins RC7 and RC6 (pin number 25 and 26) are regular I/Os as well as the interface to
the UART module that handles the RS-232 protocol, which is commonly used to interface the PIC to a
regular computer.

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 The RS-232 based UART module requires only two data lines to effectively transmit and
receive data from a regular computer to the PIC or even a printer or PDA with a serial port. This
module is integrated into the PIC package and can be configured using firmware instructions. Exact
way of doing this will be discussed later.

Each port has a corresponding SFR in the RAM register block. Therefore, when we are
referring to switching a port pin on as in the air conditioner, it is actually writing data into the
corresponding port register. Similarly, receiving data from the registers is actually, reading the data
stored in the corresponding data register.

Along with the data holding port registers, there is a set of configuration registers associated
with the ports. These are the TRIS registers that configure the ports to be in input or output mode.
These also reside in the RAM register banks as SFRs. Writing a 1 into the corresponding TRIS bit
configure the port pin as an input pin, and the data coming in through the port pin will be latched into
the corresponding PORT bit in the immediately next execution cycle.

The code snippet below is to read a byte from PORTB and write it to file location 0x120. Note
that the TRIS registers are in bank1 whereas the PORT registers are in bank 0 and file
register 0x120 is in bank 2. This bank selection concept is to be kept in mind whenever we are dealing
with RAM registers of the PIC. The list bank location listing is in page 17of the data sheet.

3.1.5. APPLICATIONS OF MICROCONTROLLERS

Microcontrollers are designed for use in sophisticated real time applications such as

1. Industrial Control

2. Instrumentation and

3. Intelligent computer peripherals

They are used in industrial applications to control

 Motor

 Robotics

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  Discrete and continuous process control

 In missile guidance and control

 In medical instrumentation

 Oscilloscopes

 Telecommunication

 Automobiles

 For Scanning a keyboard

 Driving an LCD

 For Frequency measurements

 Period Measurements

3.2. DC MOTOR
A DC motor is an AC synchronous electric motor that from a modeling perspective looks very
similar to a DC motor. Sometimes the difference is explained as an electronically-controlled
commutation system, instead of a mechanical commutation system, although this is misleading, as
physically the two motors are completely different. (The rest of this article assumes the reader is
familiar with the principles of electrical motors.)

Three subtypes exist:

 The three-phase AC synchronous motor type has three electrical connections

 The stepper motor type may have more poles on the stator.
 The reluctance motor has all its poles on the stator, and a magnetic core on the rotor.
In a conventional (brushed) DC-motor, the brushes make mechanical contact with a set of
electrical contacts on the rotor (called the commutator), forming an electrical circuit between the DC
electrical source and the armature coil-windings. As the armature rotates on axis, the stationary
brushes come into contact with different sections of the rotating commutator. The commutator and
brush-system form a set of electrical switches, each firing in.
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3.2.1. DC MOTOR CONTROL CIRCUIT

This circuit is designed to control the speed of the 12v motor. Here the Variable resistor is used
to give the different voltage signal to amplifier circuit. The amplifier circuit is constructed by the LM
741 operational amplifier. The variable voltage is given to non inverting input terminal. Then the
amplified signal is given to SL 100 power transistor. The 12v motor is connected in the transistor side.
Depending on the amplified signal current through the transistor is controlled due to that the motor
speed is controlled.

Fig 3.5 DC Motor Control Circuit

3.3. FINGER PRINT SENSOR

This identification device has been commercialized from the late 19th century. The device is
the most popular among all the identification devices because of its ease in acquisition, and also the
number of sources that are available for its data collection. It has found its vast use in law enforcement
and immigration purposes. The basics of this identification process comes from “Galton points” – a
certain characteristics defined by Sir Francis Galton, through which the fingerprints / Security module
can be identified.
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 The exact automation of this technology began in the year 1969, when the FBI wanted an
identification system using fingerprints. For this the FBI made deals with the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST), to make developments on the searching, matching as well as
scanning process. For this, the NIST worked with the minutiae technology, which is actually a smaller
version of Galton points to develop the fingerprint / Security module scanning technology. The two
main problems they faced were extracting the minutiae from each fingerprint / Security module and
also comparing, matching and also searching the lists of minutiae from large list of fingerprints. The
best prototype was first exhibited in the year 1975 by the FBI. A capacitive scanning technique was
used as its working basics. More work on making automatic digital inked fingerprints, compression of
the image and so on is still being done.

Fig 3.6 Fingerprint Characteristics

The two types of scanners used are

3.3.1. OPTICAL SCANNER

The main part of an optical scanner is the Charge Coupled Device. To know more about it
clicks on the link below.

The electrical signal created in response to the light hitting on the CCD forms pixels which are
collectively joined to form an image. These pixels are converted using and ADC to make a digital
image.

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 The scanning device consists of a glass plate, on top of which you are supposed to place your
finger. After the scanning takes place, an inverted image of the finger is stored. This image will show
the ridges and valleys of your finger. The ridges can be spotted by the darker areas where the light
reflection is greater. The valleys can be spotted by the lighter areas, where the light reflected is lesser.

The scanner is also designed to recheck the image captured. The scanner checks whether the
image captured has an satisfactory pixel darkness. If a problem is seen in the checking process, the
image will be rejected and the suitable adjustments will be made so as to get a better quality picture.
After all these procedures, the image will be compared with the existing stored images.

3.3.2. CAPACITANCE SCANNER

The figure of a simple capacitance sensor is shown below. Take a look.

Fig 3.7 Capacitance Scanner

While an optical scanner uses light to scan the image, a capacitance scanner uses electrical
current to display the image

The principle of capacitance is used in this device. As shown in the diagram, each sensor
consists of arrays of cells. These cells have two conductor plates, which are covered with an insulating
layer. Thus, they form a simple capacitor which is used to store the charge. The cells are so small that
their actual size will be smaller than the width of a ridge from our finger. These sensors will then be

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connected to an integrator. The output of the integrator will be given to the input of an inverting
operational amplifier. This op-amp will consist of hundreds of transistors, resistors and capacitors.
This op-amp is alters the input voltage with respect to the reference voltage provided to the other
input. The non-inverting input is connected to the ground. The inverting input is given to the reference
voltage and then to the feedback circuit. This feedback circuit is given to the amplifier output and also
includes the two conductor plates.

When the finger is placed for recognition, it acts as another capacitor plate. It is separated with
the help of insulating layers. When moving the finger from one point to another the capacitance
changes due to the variation in distance between the capacitor plates. Thus, the output voltage is
recorded with the change in output voltage according to the appearance of ridges and valleys. A
perfect output image of the fingerprint is thus obtained.

This device is much better than an optical scanner as it is very compact and harder to trick. The
device needs a real fingerprint shape to get the output. The optical scanner a dark and light pattern is
more than enough to make an output image. Though an optical scanner needs CCD devices for
sensing, a capacitance scanner needs only semi-conductor chips.

3.3.3. LPC2148 ARM PROCESSOR

A fingerprint is an impression of the friction ridges found on the inner surface of a finger or a
thumb. Personal Safes are revolutionary locking storage cases that open with just the touch of your
finger. These products are designed as "access denial" secure storage for medications, jewelry,
weapons, documents, and other valuable or potentially harmful items. These utilize fingerprint
recognition technology to allow access to only those whose fingerprints you choose. It contains all the
necessary electronics to allow you to store, delete, and verify fingerprints with just the touch of a
button. Stored fingerprints are retained even in the event of complete power failure or battery drain.
These eliminates the need for keeping track of keys or remembering a combination password, or PIN.

It can only be opened when an authorized user is present, since there are no keys or
combinations to be copied or stolen, or locks that can be picked. There are several ways a security
system can verify that somebody is an authorized user. Fingerprint recognition uses Minutiae
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Extraction Analysis to compare “real-time” fingerprints / security value with those previously stored in
a database. Fingerprint sensor / Security module captures the fingerprint images, matches the
uniqueness of each print read by the sensor and compares it to the one stored in its module or local
system database. The goal of this paper is to develop a finger print authentication system with the help
of LPC2148. Initially we are storing user fingerprint information in fingerprint module / Security
module data base. Here after pressing one switch we are scanning the finger print / Security module
and we have to check with the predefined data using microcontroller. After identifying, user name is
displayed on the LCD.

3.4. LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

Liquid crystal displays (LCD’s) have materials, which combine the properties of both liquids
and crystals. Rather than having a melting point, they have a temperature range within which the
molecules are almost as mobile as they would be in a liquid, but are grouped together in an ordered
form similar to a crystal.

An LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal material sand witched in between
them. The inner surface of the glass plates are coated with transparent electrodes which define the
character, symbols or patterns to be displayed polymeric layers are present in between the electrodes
and the liquid crystal, which makes the liquid crystal molecules to maintain a defined orientation
angle.

One each polarizes are pasted outside the two glass panels. These polarizes would rotate the
light rays passing through them to a definite angle, in a particular direction. When the LCD is in the
off state, light rays are rotated by the two polarizes and the liquid crystal, such that the light rays come
out of the LCD without any orientation, and hence the LCD appears transparent.

When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystal molecules would be
aligned in a specific direction. The light rays passing through the LCD would be rotated by the
polarizes which would result in activating / highlighting the desired characters. The LCD’s are
lightweight with only a few millimeters thickness. Since the LCD’s consume less power, they are
compatible with low power electronic circuits, and can be powered for long durations

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 The LCD does not generate light and so light is needed to read the display. By using
backlighting, reading is possible in the dark. The LCD’s have long life and a wide operating
temperature range. Changing the display size or the layout size is relatively simple which makes the
LCD’s more customers friendly.

The LCDs used exclusively in watches, calculators and measuring instruments are the simple
seven-segment displays, having a limited amount of numeric data. The recent advances in technology
have resulted in better legibility, more information displaying capability and a wider temperature
range. These have resulted in the LCDs being extensively used in telecommunications and
entertainment electronics. The LCDs have even started replacing the cathode ray tubes (CRTs) used
for the display of text and graphics, and also in small TV applications.

Crystalonics dot–matrix (alphanumeric) liquid crystal displays are available in TN, STN types,
with or without backlight. The use of C-MOS LCD controller and driver ICs result in low power
consumption. These modules can be interfaced with a 4-bit or 8-bit microprocessor /Micro controller.

 The built-in controller IC has the following features:

 Correspond to high speed MPU interface (2MHz)
 80 x 8 bit display RAM (80 Characters max)
 9,920-bit character generator ROM for a total of 240 character fonts. 208 character fonts (5 x 8
dots) 32 character fonts (5 x 10 dots)
 64 x 8 bit character generator RAM 8 character generator RAM 8 character fonts (5 x 8 dots) 4
characters fonts (5 x 10 dots)
 Programmable duty cycles
 1/8 – for one line of 5 x 8 dots with cursor
 1/11 – for one line of 5 x 10 dots with cursor
 1/16 – for one line of 5 x 8 dots with cursor
 Wide range of instruction functions display clear, cursor home, display on/off, cursor on/off,
display character blink, cursor shift, display shift.
Automatic reset circuit, which initializes the controller / driver ICs after power on.

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 Fig 3.8. LCD Unit

3.5. BUZZER SOUND ALARM

A buzzer or beeper is a signaling device, usually electronic, typically used in automobiles,

household appliances electrical devices. Such as a microwave oven or game shows etc. It most
commonly consists of a number of switches or sensors connected to a control unit that determines if
and which button was pushed or a preset time has lapsed, and usually illuminates a light on the
appropriate button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a continuous or intermittent
buzzing or beeping sound. Initially this device was based on an electromechanical system which was
identical to an electric bell without the metal gong (which makes the ringing noise).

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 Fig 3.9 Alarm circuit

Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall as a sounding
board. Another implementation with some AC-connected devices was to implement a circuit to make
the AC current into a noise loud enough to drive a loudspeaker and hook this circuit up to a cheap 8-
ohm speaker. Nowadays, it is more popular to use a ceramic-based piezoelectric sounder like a
Sonalert which makes a high-pitched tone. Usually these were hooked up to "driver" circuits which
varied the pitch of the sound or pulsed the sound on and off.

3.5.1. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

The circuit is designed to control the buzzer. The buzzer ON and OFF is controlled by the pair
of switching transistors (BC 547). The buzzer is connected in the Q2 transistor collector terminal.

When high pulse signal is given to base of the Q1 transistors, the transistor is conducting and
close the collector and emitter terminal so zero signals is given to base of the Q2 transistor. Hence Q2
transistor and buzzer is turned OFF state.

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 When low pulse is given to base of transistor Q1 transistor, the transistor is turned OFF. Now
12v is given to base of Q2 transistor so the transistor is conducting and buzzer is energized and
produces the sound signal.

Voltage Signal from Transistor Q1 Transistor Q2 Buzzer

Microcontroller or PC

1 on off off

0 off on on

3.6. POWER SUPPLY DESCRIPTION

3.6.1. BLOCK DIAGRAM

The ac voltage, typically 220V rms, is connected to a transformer, which steps that ac voltage
down to the level of the desired dc output. A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage
that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage. This resulting dc voltage
usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation.

Fig 3.10 Block diagram (Power supply)

A regulator circuit removes the ripples and also remains the same dc value even if the input dc
voltage varies, or the load connected to the output dc voltage changes. This voltage regulation is
usually obtained using one of the popular voltage regulator IC units.

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3.6.2. WORKING PRINCIPLE

Transformer
The transformer will step down the power supply voltage (0-230V) to (0-6V) level. Then the
secondary of the potential transformer will be connected to the precision rectifier, which is constructed
with the help of op–amp. The advantages of using precision rectifier are it will give peak voltage
output as DC; rest of the circuits will give only RMS output.

Bridge rectifier
When four diodes are connected as shown in figure, the circuit is called as bridge rectifier. The
input to the circuit is applied to the diagonally opposite corners of the network, and the output is taken
from the remaining two corners.

Let us assume that the transformer is working properly and there is a positive potential, at point
A and a negative potential at point B. the positive potential at point A will forward bias D3 and reverse
bias D4.

The negative potential at point B will forward bias D1 and reverse D2. At this time D3 and D1
are forward biased and will allow current flow to pass through them; D4 and D2 are reverse biased and
will block current flow.

The path for current flow is from point B through D1, up through RL, through D3, through the
secondary of the transformer back to point B. this path is indicated by the solid arrows. Waveforms
can be observed across D1 and D3.

One half cycle later the polarity across the secondary of the transformer reverse, forward
biasing D2 and D4 and reverse biasing D1 and D3. Current flow will now be from point A through
D4, up through RL, through D2, through the secondary of T1, and back to point A. This path is
indicated by the broken arrows. Waveforms (3) and (4) can be observed across D2 and D4. The
current flow through RL is always in the same direction. In flowing through RL this current develops a
voltage corresponding to that shown waveform. Since current flows through the load (RL) during both
half cycles of the applied voltage, this bridge rectifier is a full-wave rectifier.

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 One advantage of a bridge rectifier over a conventional full-wave rectifier is that with a given
transformer the bridge rectifier produces a voltage output that is nearly twice that of the conventional
full-wave circuit.

This may be shown by assigning values to some of the components shown in views A and B.
assume that the same transformer is used in both circuits. The peak voltage developed between points
X and y is 1000 volts in both circuits. In the conventional full-wave circuit shown—in view A, the
peak voltage from the center tap to either X or Y is 500 volts. Since only one diode can conduct at any
instant, the maximum voltage that can be rectified at any instant is 500 volts.

The maximum voltage that appears across the load resistor is nearly-but never exceeds-500
v0lts, as result of the small voltage drop across the diode. In the bridge rectifier shown in view B, the
maximum voltage that can be rectified is the full secondary voltage, which is 1000 volts. Therefore,
the peak output voltage across the load resistor is nearly 1000 volts. With both circuits using the same
transformer, the bridge rectifier circuit produces a higher output voltage than the conventional full-
wave rectifier circuit.

IC voltage regulators
Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC units contain the circuitry
for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device, and overload protection all in a single IC.
IC units provide regulation of either a fixed positive voltage, a fixed negative voltage, or an adjustably
set voltage. The regulators can be selected for operation with load currents from hundreds of milli
amperes to tens of amperes, corresponding to power ratings from milli watts to tens of watts.

26
 . Fig 3.11 Circuit diagram (Power supply)

A fixed three-terminal voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage, Vi, applied to one
input terminal, a regulated dc output voltage, Vo, from a second terminal, with the third terminal
connected to ground.

The series 78 regulators provide fixed positive regulated voltages from 5 to 24 volts. Similarly,
the series 79 regulators provide fixed negative regulated voltages from 5 to 24 volts.

 For ICs, microcontroller, LCD --------- 5 volts

 For alarm circuit, op-amp, relay circuits ---------- 12 volts

27
3.7. MOSFET AND DRIVER UNIT

3.7.1. INTRODUCTION
The metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS
FET), is by far the most common field-effect transistor in both digital and analog circuits. The
MOSFET is composed of a channel of n-type or p-type semiconductor material (see article on
semiconductor devices), and is accordingly called an NMOSFET or a PMOSFET (also commonly
NMOSFET, PMOSFET, NMOS FET, PMOS FET, NMOS FET, PMOS FET).

The 'metal' in the name (for transistors up to the 65 nanometer technology node) is an
anachronism from early chips in which the gates were metal; They use polysilicon gates. IGFET is a
related, more general term meaning insulated-gate field-effect transistor, and is almost synonymous
with "MOSFET", though it can refer to FETs with a gate insulator that is not oxide. Some prefer to use
"IGFET" when referring to devices with polysilicon gates, but most still call them MOSFETs. With
the new generation of high-k technology that Intel and IBM have announced, metal gates in
conjunction with the high-k dielectric material replacing the silicon dioxide are making a comeback
replacing the polysilicon.

Usually the semiconductor of choice is silicon, but some chip manufacturers, most notably
IBM, have begun to use a mixture of silicon and germanium (SiGe) in MOSFET channels.
Unfortunately, many semiconductors with better electrical properties than silicon, such as gallium
arsenide, do not form good gate oxides and thus are not suitable for MOSFETs.

Specification

 Advanced Process Technology

 Ultra Low On-Resistance

 Dynamic dv/dt Rating

 175°C Operating Temperature
 Fast Switching

28
  Fully Avalanche Rated

Fig 3.12 Symbol of MOSFET

3.8. DRIVER UNIT

There is a severe risk that the result will be a smoking ruin. Principally, that FET is only very
marginally suited to the task.

It could be made to work if it was all you had but there are much more suitable FETs available,
probably at little or no extra cost.

The main issues are that the FET has a very bad (= high) on resistance, which leads to high
power dissipation and a reduced level of drive to the motor. The latter is not too significant but is
unnecessary.

3.8.1. INPUT

Either: X3 is the input from the microcontroller. This is driven high for on and low for off.
"PWM5V" is grounded.

As shown R1=270Ω.

Current is I= (Vcc−1.4) R1

Or Resistor is R= (Vcc−1.4) I
29
For VCC = 5V and 270Ω I here = ~13 mA. If you wanted say 10 mA then

R= (5V−1.4V) 10mA = 360Ω - say 330R

3.8.2. OUTPUT

R3 pulls FET gate to ground when off. By itself 1K to 10k would be OK - Value affects turn off time
but not too important for static drive. BUT we will use it here to make a voltage divider to reduce FET
gate voltage when on. So, make R3 the same value as R2.

R2 is shown go into +24 Vdc but this is too high for the FET maximum gate rating. Taking it to +12
Vdc would be good and +5Vdc would be OK if the logic gate FETs mentioned are used. BUT here I
will use 24 Vdc and use R2 + R3 to divide the supply voltage by 2 to limit Vgate to a safe value for
the FET.

R2 sets the FET gate capacitor charge current. Set R2 = 2k2 gives ~10 mA drive. Set R3 = R2 as
above. Also, add a 15V across R3, cathode to FET gate, Anode o ground, this provides gate protection
against over voltage transients.

D1 must be included - this provides protection against the back emf spike which occurs when the
motor is turned off. Without this the system will die almost instantly. The BY229 diode shown is OK
but is overkill. Any 2A or greater current rated diode will do. And just one of vast range of diodes that
would suit. A high speed diode here may help slightly but is not essential.

30
 Fig 3.13. Driver circuit

3.9. BUCK CONVERTER

3.9.1. INTRODUCTION
Step-down buck converter for distributed generation systems is the concept is to utilize two
capacitors and one coupled inductor. The two capacitors are charged in parallel during the switch-off
period and are discharged in series during the switch-on period by the energy stored in the coupled
inductor to achieve a high step-up voltage gain. In addition, the leakage-inductor energy of the coupled
inductor is recycled with a passive clamp circuit. Thus the voltage stress on the main switch is
reduced. The switch with low resistance RDS (ON) can be adopted to reduce the conduction loss. In
addition, the reverse-recovery problem of the diode is alleviated, and thus, the efficiency can be
further improved. The operating principle and steady-state analyses are discussed in detail. Finally, a
prototype circuit with 24-V input voltage, 400-V output voltage, and 200-W output power is produced.

31
3.9.2. OPERATION OF BUCK CONVERTER
The circuit topology of the converter, which is composed of dc input voltage Vin, main switch
S, coupled inductors Np and Ns, one clamp diode D1, clamp capacitor C1, two capacitors C2 and C3,
two diodesD2 andD3, output diode Do, and output capacitor Co. The equivalent circuit model of the
coupled inductor includes magnetizing inductor Lm, leakage inductor Lk, and an ideal transformer.
The leakage inductor energy of the coupled inductor is recycled to capacitor C1, and thus, the voltage
across the switch S can be clamped. The voltage stress on the switch is reduced significantly. Thus,
low conducting resistance RDS (ON) of the switch can be used.

Figure 3.14 Circuit diagram of buck converter

The original voltage-reduce circuit was first proposed in to recycle the energy stored in the
leakage inductor. Based on the topology, the proposed converter combines the concept of switched-
capacitor and coupled-inductor techniques. The Switched-capacitor technique in has that capacitors
can be parallel charged and series discharged to achieve a high step-up gain. Based on the concept, the
converter puts capacitors C2 and C3 on the secondary side of the coupled inductor. Thus, capacitors
C2 and C3 are charged in parallel and are discharged in series by the secondary side of the coupled
inductor when the switch is turned off and turned on. Because the voltage across the capacitors can be
adjusted by the turn ratio, the high step-up gain can be achieved significantly. Also, the voltage stress
of the switch can be reduced. Compared to earlier studies, the parallel-charged current is not inrush.
Thus, the proposed converter has low conduction loss. Moreover, the secondary-side leakage inductor
of the coupled inductor can alleviate the reverse-recovery problem of diodes, and the loss can be
reduced. In addition, the proposed converter adds capacitors C2 and C3 to achieve a high step-up gain

32
without an additional winding stage of the coupled inductor. The coil is less than that of other coupled
inductor converters. The main operating principle is that, when the switch is turned on, the coupled-
inductor-induced voltage on the secondary side and magnetic inductor Lm is charged by Vin. The
induced voltage makes Vin, VC1, VC2, and VC3 release energy to the output in series. The coupled
inductor is used as a transformer in the forward converter. When the switch is turned off, the energy of
magnetic inductor Lm is released via the secondary side of the coupled inductor to charge capacitors
C2 and C3 in parallel. The coupled inductor is used as a transformer in the fly back converter.

3.9.3 OPERATING MODES

Mode I [t0, t1]
During this time interval, S is turned on. Diodes D1 and Do are turned off, and D2 and D3 are
turned on. The current-flow path is shown in Fig.3.15. The voltage equation on the leakage and
magnetic inductors of the coupled inductor on the primary side is expressed as Vin = VLk + VLm.

Figure 3.15 Mode I operation

The leakage inductor Lk starts to charge by Vin. Due to the leakage inductor Lk, the
secondary-side current is of the coupled inductor is decreased linearly. Output capacitor Co provides
its energy to load R. When current iD2 becomes zero at t = t1, this operating mode ends.

Mode II [t1, t2]

During this time interval, S remains turned on. Diode D1, D2, and D3 are turned off and Do is
turned on. The current-flow path is shown in Fig.3.16 Magnetizing inductor Lm stores energy
generated by dc source Vin. Some of the energy of dc-source Vin transfers to the secondary side via
the coupled inductor.

33
 Figure 3.16 Mode II operations

Thus, the induced voltage VL2 on the secondary side of the coupled inductor makes Vin, VC1,
VC2, and VC3, which are connected in series, discharge to high-voltage output capacitor Co and load
R. This operating mode ends when switch S is turned off at t = t2.

Mode III [t2, t3]

During this time interval, S is turned off. Diode D1, D2, and D3 are turned off and Do is
turned on. The current-flow path is shown in Fig.3.17.

Figure 3.17 Mode III operations

The energies of leakage inductor Lk and magnetizing inductor Lm charge the parasitic
capacitor Cds of main switch S. Output capacitor Co provides its energy to load R. When the capacitor
voltage VC1 is equal to Vin + Vds at t = t3, diode D1 conducts, and this operating mode ends.

34
Mode IV [t3, t4]

During this time interval, S is turned off. Diodes D1 and Do are turned on, and D2 and D3 are
turned off. The current-flow path is shown in Fig.3.18 The energies of leakage inductor Lk and
magnetizing inductor Lm charge clamp capacitor C1.

Figure 3.18 Mode IV operations

The energy of leakage inductor Lk is recycled. Current iLk decreases quickly. Secondary-side
voltage VL2 of the coupled inductor continues charging high-voltage output capacitor Co and load R
in series until the secondary current of the coupled inductor is equal to zero. Meanwhile, diodes D2
and D3 start to turn on. When iDo is equal to zero at t = t4, this operating mode ends.

Mode V [t4, t5]

During this time interval, S is turned off. Diodes D1, D2, and D3 are turned on, and Do is
turned off. The current-flow path is shown in Fig.3.19. Output capacitor Co is discharged to load R.
The energies of leakage inductor Lk and magnetizing inductor Lm charge clamp capacitor C1.

Figure 3.19 Mode V operations

35
Magnetizing inductor Lm is released via the secondary side of the coupled inductor and charges
capacitors C2 and C3. Thus, capacitors C2 and C3 are charged in parallel. As the energy of leakage
inductor Lk charges capacitor C1, the current I Lk decreases, and is increases gradually. This mode
ends at t = t6 when S is turned on at the beginning of the next switching period.

3.9.4. ADVANTAGES OF BUCK CONVERTER.

 Step down converters are operated for high ratios

 To avoid the high level switching losses.

 Ripple current rejection.

 To reduce loss minimum.

3.10. SOFTWARE TOOL: MPLAB

MPLAB IDE is an integrated development environment that provides development engineers

with the flexibility to develop and debug firmware for various Microchip devices.

MPLAB IDE is a Windows-based Integrated Development Environment for the Microchip

Technology Incorporated PIC microcontroller (MCU) and DSPIC digital signal controller (DSC)
families. In the MPLAB IDLE, you can.

• Create source code using the built-in editor.

• Assemble, compile and link source code using various language tools. An assembler, linker
and librarian come with MPLAB IDE. C compilers are available from Microchip and other
third party vendors.

• Debug the executable logic by watching program flow with a simulator, such as MPLAB
SIM, or in real time with an emulator, such as MPLAB ICE. Third party emulators that work
with MPLAB IDE are also available.

• Make timing measurements.

• View variables in Watch windows.

36
 • Program firmware into devices with programmers such as PICSTART Plus or PRO MATE
II.

• Find quick answers to questions from the MPLAB IDE on-line Help.

3.10.1. MPLAB SIMULATOR

MPLAB SIM is a discrete-event simulator for the PIC microcontroller (MCU) families. It is
integrated into MPLAB IDE integrated development environment. The MPLAB SIM debugging tool
is designed to model operation of Microchip Technology's PIC microcontrollers to assist users in
debugging software for these devices

3.10.2. IC PROG
The PRO MATE II is a Microchip microcontroller device programmer. Through
interchangeable programming socket modules, PRO MATE II enables you to quickly and easily
program the entire line of Microchip PIC micro microcontroller devices and many of the Microchip
memory parts.

PRO MATE II may be used with MPLAB IDE running under supported Windows OS's (see
Read me for PRO MATE II.txt for support list), with the command-line controller PROCMD or as a
stand-alone programmer.

3.10.3. COMPILER- HIGH TECH C

A program written in the high level language called C; which will be converted into PIC micro
MCU machine code by a compiler. Machine code is suitable for use by a PIC micro MCU or
Microchip development system product like MPLAB IDE.

3.10.4. PIC START PLUS PROGRAMMER

The PIC start plus development system from microchip technology provides the product
development engineer with a highly flexible low cost microcontroller design tool set for all microchip
PIC micro devices. The pic start plus development system includes PIC start plus development
programmer and MPLAB IDE.

37
The PIC start plus programmer gives the product developer ability to program user software in to any
of the supported microcontrollers. The PIC start plus software running under MPLAB provides for full
interactive control over the programmer.

3.10.5. Reason to use MPLAB

The MPLAB X is an IDE for Microchip PIC microcontrollers. It has a lot of added features
when compared to the older MPLAB IDE v8.xx. The MPLAB X is not a new version of the current
MPLAB IDE v8 framework but is instead based on Oracle‘s open-source Net Beans platform.

It has following features:

 Docked workstation

 Ease of use

 Auto completion

 Macro and Variable Grouping

 Live syntax checker

 Dashboard Window

 One click Comment and Un-Comment of code

 Variable, headers and function Navigation

38
 PCB DESIGN

CONTROLLER DESIGN

Fig 4.1 Controller design

39
POWER SUPPLY DESIGN

Fig 4.2 Power supply design

40
 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATION

ADVANTAGES

1) Authorized access for speed control of DC motor.

2) Ease to access and more safety

APPLICATION

1) All manufacturing industries.

41
 ENTREPRENEURSHIP

1. Define the term entrepreneurship?

An entrepreneur is a person who establishes his own business or industry with a view to
make profit. He takes the role of an organizer in the process of production and tries to create
something new.

2. List the characteristics of an entrepreneur?

 They are self motivated.
 They are creative.
 They are strong willed.
 Build a top-notch business team.
 Become known as an expert.
 Be assessable.
 Get involved.

3. List the various stages of decisions an entrepreneur has to make before reaching the goal
of his project?
 Search for business ideas.
 Process the idea.
 Select the best idea.
 Assemble the necessary inputs resources.
 Establish the enterprise.

4. What is innovation?

Innovation is generally refers to renewing, changing or creating more effective process or

products. It is also a new way of making or doing something which is made useful.

5. State the major function of an entrepreneur?

 Idea generation and scanning of best suitable idea.
42
  Determination of the business objectives
 Products analysis and market research
 Competition of promotional formalities
 Raising necessary funds
 Procuring machine and material
 Recruitment of men

6. What are the critical elements of an entrepreneur?

 Risk bearing
 Organizing
 Innovating

7. State briefly the role of an entrepreneur in the economic growth of a country?

The roles of an entrepreneur are

 The introduction of a new product in market

 The opening of a new market into which the specific product has not previously
entered
 The discovery of a new source of supply of raw material

8. What are the qualities of an entrepreneur?

 Capacity to take risk
 Capacity to work hard
 Self confidence
 Intelligence and knowledge
 Ability to foresee future
 Willingness to change
 Ability to take decisions
 Willingness to take responsibility
 Handling failures
 Flexibility
43
9. What are benefits of entrepreneur?
 Benefits of personal finance
 Self employment, offer a more satisfactory work
 Future development of industry especially in rural areas
 Income and increase economic growth
 Development of new market
 Freedom from dependence

10. What are the advantages of becoming an entrepreneur?

 High degree of independence
 Getting to use a variety of skills and talents
 Freedom in making decisions
 Scope for taking challenges
 Experiencing feeling of achievement and pride in attaining goals

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

1. What is the responsibility of an engineer-in-charge of an industry with respect to public

health?
The responsibilities of an engineer-in-charge of an industry with respect to public
health are
 To control the pollution from an industry
 Provide safe drinking water to workers
 Provide waste water management arrange suitable drainage and effluent
 Provide disposal of solid waste
 Provide the industrial area as clean as possible.

2. Define Environmental Ethics?

Environmental Ethics is a branch of philosophy concerned with the moral relations
between humans and natural world. If refers to the issues, principles, and guides lines relating
to human interactions with their environment.
44
3. What is the necessity of pollution control? What are all the different organizations you
know, which deal with pollution control?
Pollution is injurious to health. Therefore pollution in any form is to be completely
controlled. The aim of pollution control is to reduce the harmless of pollutant.
Different organizations deals with pollution control are
 State pollution control board
 Central pollution control board
 National environmental engineering research institute

4. List out the different types of pollutants caused by a Chemical /Textiles /Leather
/Automobile /Cement factory?
Chemical industry - water pollution, air pollution, land pollution
Textile industry - water pollution, air pollution
Leather industry - water pollution, soil pollution
Automobile industry - air pollution, noise pollution
Cement factory - air pollution, water pollution, land pollution
5. What is meant by hazardous waste?
Chemical, biological, flammable, explosive, radio-active wastes etc., which create very
much danger immediately or over a long period of time is called as Hazardous waste. They can
occur in solid, liquid or gaseous forms.
6. Define the term ‘Environmental Waste Audit’?
The most important process, which deals the actual generation of waste in an industrial
unit is the waste audit.
A waste audit enables us to take common a complete look at the site or process to
facilitate the material flow and to focus the attention on areas where waste reduction and thus
cost saving is possible.

45
7. What is the difference between municipal and industrial effluent?
Municipal Effluent
These are in the form of either solid or semi solids generated from the society such as
garbage, rubbish, demolition wastes, construction waste, ashes, street refuse, garden wastes etc.
Industrial effluent
The liquid wastes resulting from manufacturing and industrial processes which utilize
moderate to large quantities of water are termed industrial effluent or waste.
8. List the four common advanced waste water treatment processes and the pollutants they
remove?
The common advanced waste water treatment methods and the pollutants removed are
given below.
 Micro straining - remove suspended solids
 Solvent extraction - remove organic dissolved solvents
 Reverse osmosis - remove inorganic dissolved solids
 Nitrification and de-nitrification - remove nitrogen

9. List any five industries, which act as the major sources for Hazardous Air Pollutants?
 Steel mills
 Thermal power plants
 Oil refineries
 Pulp and paper mills
 Food processing

10. List any five effects of noise other than hearing damage?
 Noise pollution causes muscles to contract, leading to nervous breakdown and tension.
 It may cause damage to heart, brain, and kidneys, liver.
 Ultra sonic sound can affect the digestive respiratory systems. It also affects the rate of
heart beat.
 Brain is also adversely affected by loud noise such as that of jet and aero plane noise etc.
 Blood is thickened by excessive noises

46
 DISASTER MANAGEMENT

1. What is meant by Disaster Management? What are the Different stages of Disaster
management?

Disaster is an event or series of event which seriously disturb normal Activities.

Disaster management is a thoroughly pre planned prevention, preparation, emergency action and
recovery from disasters to save human life and property and restores normal life as quickly as possible.

2. Specify the role played by an Engineer in the process of Disaster management?

Disaster is a threat to Environment and the society. Disaster management deals with
preparation to reduce the impact of natural or man-made disaster.

There are four phases of disaster management; mitigation, preparedness, response, and
recovery.

 Mitigation focuses on avoiding hazards or reducing the impact of disaster

 Preparedness involves developing action plans to combat disaster when it happens
 Response includes mobilization of emergency services for evacuation and rescue operations.
 Recovery is involved in the rebuilding process.

3. Describe different fire fighting arrangements to be provided in an industry?

The different fire fighting arrangements to be provided in industry are shown below
 Water spray system
 Fire extinguishers
 Sand buckets
 Fire alarm system
 Smoke detectors
 CO2 extinguishing system
 Fire engine

4. Explain the necessity of disaster warning systems in industry?

The necessities of disaster warning systems in industries are described below

47
  To avoid heavy losses
 To avoid building and machinery losses
 To avoid casualties
 To safeguard the power supply and communication system
 To safeguard the productive materials.

5. What are the necessary steps to be taken to avoid dangerous epidemics after a flood disaster?
 Rescue of victims
 Provision of emergency medical care
 Provision of water, food, clothing and shelter
 Disposal of human waste
 Provision of preventive and routine medical care
 Control of vector born diseases
 Disposal of human bodies
 Disposal of solid waste

6. What are the relief works used to carry out for saving the lives of the workers, when the factory
area is suddenly affected by a dangerous gas leak/ sudden flooding?
 Dangerous gas leak
 Relief gas provided in the factory should be sprinkled immediately
 Direct to wear the safety mask immediately
 Convey the messages through sirens, alarms, loudspeaker etc.
 Arrange first aid facilities
 Sudden flood
 Convey messages though sirens, alarms, loudspeaker etc
 Accommodation has to be provided in a safe place
 Arrange first aid facilities
 Arrange plastic boats
 Initiate the drainage process
 Call for emergencies like fire service ,national safe guard service, police for rescue
operation.

48
7. Explain the necessity of medical care facilities in an industry / project site?
The necessities of medical care facilities in an industry / project sites are described below
 First aid may be given to the affected workers
 If any accidents occurs ,workers may be injured and production may be reduced
 Production schedule may be reduced
 Due to sickness ,workers may be absent to work
 Quality may be reduced

8. What type of disaster is expected in coal mines, cotton mills, oil refineries , ship yards and gas
plants?

 Disaster in coal mines

 Mine flooding
 Tensile crack and peeling of the roof
 Disaster in oil refineries
 Fire and explosions
 Leak of poisonous gas
 Disaster in cotton mills
 Fire
 Building collapse
 Disaster in shipyards
 Flood
 Cyclone

9. What is meant by emergency plan rehearsal? What are the advantages of such rehearsal?

Emergency plan rehearsal is a method of action procedure to be carried out during an unexpected
disaster. The rehearsal are conducted to show the workers as to how to get during emergency when
disaster occurs

For example, fire is created artificially and how to open fire extinguishers and operate it to
extinguish fire before spreading

49
 Advantages

 Minimizes the loss of property

 Reduces the loss of lives
 Reduces the fear of attack

10. What are the arrangements required for emergency rescue works in the case of atomic
power plants?
 Board like no smoking, cell phones prohibited should be displayed in and around the plants
 All the safety valves should be monitored regularly
 The workers has to be given proper training to fight against any emergency
 Trouble shooting should be done periodically

50
 CONCLUSION

We have designed variable speed control system for DC motor, which has reliability,

precision and adaptability for different system ratting with response. It means the motor will run at

variable speed at any load condition. When amount of load is applied the speed does not vary until the

authorized person access via finger print sensor is made according to the requirement of speed control.

51
 LIST OF FIGURES

F.NO FIGURES PAGE NO

1.1 Block Diagram 3
2.1 Circuit Diagram 5
3.1 General Processor Architecture 8
3.2 Central Processing Unit 9
3.3 PIC 16F877A Architecture 11
3.4 PIC 16F877A Pin Diagram 12
3.5 DC Motor Control Circuit 16
3.6 Finger print Characteristics 17
3.7 Capacitance Scanner 18
3.8 LCD Unit 22
3.9 Alarm Circuit 23
3.10 Block Diagram Power supply 24
3.11 Circuit Diagram (Power supply) 27
3.12 Symbol of MOSFET 29
3.13 Driver Unit 31
3.14 Circuit Diagram of Buck Converter 32
3.15 Mode I operation 33
3.16 Mode II operation 34
3.17 Mode III operation 34
3.18 Mode IV operation 35
3.19 Mode V operation 35
4.1 Controller design 39
4.2 Power supply design 40

52
 LIST OF ABBREVIATION

PWM – PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

RAM – RANDOM ACESS MEMORY

ROM – READ ONLY MEMORY

MOSFET – METAL–OXIDE–SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR

PIC – PHERIPHERAL INTERFACE CONTROLLER

ADC – ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTER

EEPROM – ELECTRICALLY ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ-ONLY MEMORY

EPROM – ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ-ONLY MEMORY

ICSP – IN-CIRCUIT SERIAL PROGRAMMING

WDT – WATCHDOG TIMER

LCD – LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

RISC – REDUCED INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTER

CISC – COMPLEX INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTER

CMOS – COMPLEMENTARY METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR

PC – PROGRAM COUNTER

ALU – ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

GPR – GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTER

TCP/IP – TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL/INTERNET PROTOCOL

53
UART– UNIVERSAL ASYNCHRONOUS RECEIVER/TRANSMITTER

SFR – SERIAL FUNCTION REGISTER

NIST – NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY

CRT – CATHODE RAY TUBE

RFID – RADIO-FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION

EPC – ELECTRONIC PRODUCT CODE

PC – PERSONAL COMPUTER

EN – ENABLE

RS – REGISTER SELECT

RW – READ / WRITE

IGFET – INSULATED-GATE FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR

DSC – DIGITAL SIGNAL CONTROLLER

54
 REFERENCE

[1] Muhammad H. Rashid. Power Electronics Circuits, Devices and Applications. 3 rd edition. United

States of America: Prentice Hall. 2004.

[2] http://homepages.which.net/paul.hills/SpeedControl/SpeedControllersBody.html Abu Zaharin

Ahmad and Mohd Nasir Taib. A study On the DC Motor Speed Control by Using Back-EMF Voltage.

AsiaSENSE SENSOR, 2003, pg. 359-364

[3]. Iovine John. PIC Microcontroller Project Book. 2 nd Edition. Singapore: Mc Graw-Hill. 121-123;

2000.

[4]. Moore, A.W. Phase-Locked Loops for Motor-Speed Control. IEEE Spectrum, April 1973. 61-67.

[5]. www.wikipedia.com

[6]. www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, Volume 2, Issue 3, March 2012)

[7] http://www.circuitstoday.com/working-of-fingerprint-scanner-2

[8] http://www.androidauthority.com/how-fingerprint-scanners-work-670934/

55