Part 1: Nature of the Olympian Gods

The Olympians
Although ancient Greek religion was polytheistic, they had twelve major deities that their worship revolved around.
These deities were known as the Olympians, so-called this because they were believed to live in the clouds above
Mount Olympus in northern Greece.

Greek God Responsibilities Iconography Additional Information

Zeus King of the Gods, A bearded man, He defeated Cronus, his father,
King of the wielding a during a war with the Titans and
Skies, Keeper of lightning bolt, often subsequently divided the earth
Order and Justice, holding an between himself and his
Fate eagle. He is often seen brothers. He married his sister
of Men, Xenia, seated Hera but had lots of children
Thunder on a throne with a with mortal (and divine) women
sceptre

Poseidon God of the seas, A bearded man holding He was the Brother of Zeus.
Earthquakes, a The Trojans never paid him for
Rivers, Storms, trident, sometimes with having helped built their city. He
Horses horses was in a contest for Athens with
Athena, but eventually lost and
was important to sailors

Hades Ruler of the Comucopia, depicted He abducted Persephone as

Underworld with his told in the Homeric Hymn to
wife Persephone and Demeter. He was a chthonic
Cereberus. He was deity and did not reside on
shown to Olympus
be an older, bearded
man

Hera Queen of the Gods, Wearing a diadem, Wife of Zeus who was a
Marriage, sometimes powerful and independent
Women, Childbirth with children goddess not to be crossed. She
and the opposes the Trojans due to
Family Paris not choosing her as victor
in the Story of the Golden
Apple. She took revenge on
 women who bore children with
Zeus

Athena War and Wisdom Owl, helmet, spear, Patron deity of Athens who was
(military aegis, born from Zeus' head, fully
tactics and shield engraved with the grown in armour, after Metis
intelligence), Crafts head (her mother) had been turned
and Heroes of a gorgon, Nike, into a fly and swallowed
armour

Demeter Goddess of Diadem, holding a Sister of Zeus, whose daughter,

Agriculture, bundle of Persephone was abducted by
Harvest, Childbirth wheat, grain or flowers Hades. Greek society was
and Fertility dependent on the harvest for
survival

Hestia Hearth Veiled head They were a civilisation without

electricity so was vital to their
survival and every sacrifice in
the home started with her. Fire
came to symbolise the security
of the state

Hephaestus Metalworking, Fire, Hammer, tongs, anvil He was thrown from Mount
Craftsmen Olympus by Zeus and fell for a
and Blacksmiths day

Aphrodite Love and Beauty Rising from a sea-shell, Winning goddess in the story of
naked, the Golden Apple. She was
doves and swans, Eros caught having an affair with
Ares by her husband
Hephaestus who called upon
the gods to wilness her
humiliation. No-one could resist
her except for the three virgin
goddesses as it was believed
that she was the most beautiful
woman in the world
 Artemis Hunting, Wildlife, Bow and arrow, dogs, Twin sister of Apollo who was
Childbirth, moon, associated with the moon. She
Moon, Wild deer was associated with virginity
Animals, Nature, and was one of three virgin
Young Maidens goddesses. The deer was
sacred to her

Apollo Music, Arts, Bow and arrow, lyre, Born in Delphi, the site of the
Education, youthful, biggest oracle in the Greek
Archery, naked, wavy hair, sun, world
Prophecies, Sun, tripod,
Medicine laurel

Hermes Travel, Trade, Caduceus, winged A chthonic deity who was able
Messenger of sandals, to travel to the Underworld.
the Gods traveller's cloak Small shrines were dedicated to
him along roads

Ares War (brutality) Armour In the Iliad, he is a merciless

killer

Dionysus Wine, Theatre, Thyrsus, vines, animal Son of Zeus and the mortal
Revelry, skin, Semele, so was attracted to the
Childbirth, Ritual maenads, satyrs, naked, wrath of Hera. He was pivotal to
Madness wild private and public celebrations
animals and even had his own festival:
the City Dionysia

● Athena, Artemis and Hestia were the three virgin goddesses

● Dionysus and Hestia are interchangeable in the Olympian Pantheon because Dionysus was a demi-god and
Hestia supposedly left Olympus to live with mortals
● Hades is not included because he did not live on Olympus
● Persephone is Somehives included because of her more in the Eleusinian Mysteries

Prescribed Source
Panathenaic Amphora showing Athena
Date: 333-332 BC
Style: Black Figure
Reverse: Three athletes running
● Athena is proactive and moving in battle, showing herself to be involved in mortal affairs and fulfilling the
role of both a punisher and a protector .
● Her head stretches into the neck of the amphorae, showing how as an immortal, she transgresses all
boundaries and is incredibly powerful.
● Able to be identified because only the Amazons and herself were shown in armour.
 ● Long tunic shows herself to be a virgin goddess as she dresses modestly.
● It was given as a Prize in contest, showing the religious significance in contest and its “embeddedness” in
society.

Reciprocal Relationships between Gods and Mortals

Do ut des- 'I give so that you might give'

● The relationship between mortals and immortals operated on the basis of reciprocation; the Greeks
honoured the gods in return for something that they needed/required
● This is best exemplified in literature:
○ Zeus speaks as Hector is about to die at the hands of Achilles in the fiad and he considers saving
him because he recognises that he has honoured and revered him the most through performing
sacrifices
○ When Demeter went into mourning after the loss of her daughter (Homeric Hymn to Demeter),
the harvests failed and the mortals began to starve, making it the "grimmest and most brutal year
for men on the all-nourishing earth"

How did the Greeks Honour the Gods?

● Temples and altars
● Sacrifices
● Prayer
● Festival
● Votive offerings
● Libations
In return the Gods would help with any aspect of their life. Mortals were also rewarded for continuous piety: divine
ferow was not based on single cases alone. Numerous 5th Century BC tragedies where gods would punish those
who don’t worship them.
This relationship was based on 'honour’ rather than ‘love’. Jon Mikalson explains it is the honour which 'a subject
owes his king’ and, indeed, which a 'good subject owes to a good king‘.

The Greeks honoured the Gods in return for something. For example:
● Praying to Demeter would grant a good harvest and crop growth
● Praying to Hera would provide support to a woman in childbirth or a mother rearing a child
● As Hestia's flame symbolised the security of the state, it would be important for protection during times of
wars
● Asclepius would provide good health

Punishments

The gods often punished mortals who did not worship them enough or at all because they were effectively
dishonouring the gods and this relationship was based on honour. The following two of Euripides' tragedies are
good examples of myths concerning the punishment of mortals:
 ● The Bacchae in which Dionysus accuses Pentheus of excluding him from libations and making no offerings
to him in prayers. When the women of his town became Maenads, he dressed as one but was torn to death
when he was recognised
● Hippolytus in which Aphrodite expresses her anger at Hippolytus because he called her "worst amongst
deities."In her anger, she had his step-mother Phaedra fall in love with him but when he rejected her
advances, she killed herself, leaving a note saying she had been raped by him. Theseus prayed to Poseidon
and Hippolytus' chariot was dragged into the sea

The Significance of Homer and Hesiod for Greek Ideas about the Gods
The works of Homer and Hesiod set out how the ancient Greeks perceived the gods during the eighth and seventh
centuries BC and were of major influence on Greek attitudes towards the Olympians, which did not change in later
periods. Herodotus says that "they were the ones who made a theogony for the Greeks and gave the gods their
names and distinguished their honours and powers and indicated their forms."

Homeric Hymns
● Inform us of what the Greeks thought about the gods in around 700 BC, mainly focusing on the creation
of the gods and their birth
● Although called Homeric' they were not composed by Homer but were in the same style and tradition as
the Homeric Epics
● They also explain the cause for the god's cult or their aetiology
○ Homeric Hymns 11 ( Protectress of Cities) - Comparing this inscription with the iconography of
the Amphorae, we can see that litte has changed in her worship
○ Homeric Hymn 28 (Atlena's Birth) - Also seen in the Eastern Pcdiment on the Parthenon, Very
similar depictions.
Hesiod's Works and Days
● Gnomic or wisdom literature, written around 700 BC
● Hesiod instructs his brother Perses in the agricultural arts as well as moral advice on how he should live his
life
● He encourages Perses to avoid Eris (goddess of strife) and not let her influence him
● He emphasises the power of Zeus and Right (Justice) as well as providing advice on how to worship the
gods (i.e. washing hands to remove religious pollution so that prayers are accepted) - 724 - 726
● There's little evidence that these customs changed over time
Hesiod's Theogony
● Focuses on the origins of the gods, why they are deserving of worship and how they should be treated by
mortals
The Gods in Homer's Works
● Powerful (Apollo's description in Iliad 1.43-52)
● Governed by personal impulse and desire
● Interested in mortals and have favourites i.e. Athena supports Odysseus (Odyssey) and Achilles (Iliad) and
helps bring about the death of Hector
● Can be used for light relief in order to contrast with the severity of the situation that mortals find
themselves in (Hera are Zeus’ aguement on Olympus while Achilles fights with Agamemnon)
 ● The gods can physically intervene
● Gods can feel pity for humans but sexual relationships between gods and mortals are common
● In the Odyssey, the Gods are more moralistic and mortals suffer because of their own folly. They also work
together to ensure that Odysseus can return home and punish the Suitors

Modern Scholarship
● James Redfield - the Gods are 'a cheif source of comedy’
● Geoffrey kirk - 'These divine scenes successfully avert the theatre of monotony, because they provide a
total change of atmosphere and behaviour… all sorts of not very heroic qualities are allowed to enter the
lives of the Gods”
● Jasper Griffin - Homer's Epics are full of "really impressive Gods” who deserve the worship they recieve
● William Allen - the gods are not amoral but instead offer divine justice

Anthropomorphism and the Scope of their Power

● The Olympian Gods were usually described and depicted as anthropomorphic but had powers that went
beyond anything that a mortal could have
○ Panathenaic Amphora - Athena is presented is mostly human with certain attributes displaying
her divinity. Ie. larger size, armor, etc.
● They appeared as humans in artwork, recognised by their iconography, being distinguished only through
their larger size. Literature shows that they have the emotions and needs of humans such as jealousy, love,
hate and desire - their human instincts are amplified by their divine powers.
● Pan, is a hybrid, as he is half-human, half-goat
● There is an indication in Euripides' Hippolytus that Artemis cannot be around death for it is so different to
her nature. In the thirty-two surviving tragedies, only one character dies on stage (Ajax), perhaps to not
tarnish Dionysus' image with death
● The gods can often be shown to be embodiments of the concept they represent i.e. Ares as War, Hades as
the Underworld
● The Gods are so extremely human that they are divine

Myths that Show the Anthropomorphic Qualities of the Gods

● The rape/abduction of Persephone at the hands of Hades shows how Hades is overcome with passion for
Persephone, Demeter is overcome with grief and distress at the loss of her daughter and how Zeus has to fill
the role of an arbitrator
● Zeus is overcome with passion for Leda and takes the form of a swan to sleep with her
● Poseidon's anger at Odysseus for having blinded Polyphemus
● Hera despised Heracles for he was the son of Zeus and the mortal Alcmene. She sent Madness to drive him
into a fit of madness during which he killed his wife and children

Zoomorphism

● The Gods can also be shown as animals i.e. Zeus as an eagle and Diana as a swan
 ● Animal forms were linked with qualities of the gods ie. Hera Bo-opis ('doe-eyed Hera') and Athena
Glaukopis (bright-eyed Athena')

Epithets
● Deities had a variety of different areas of influence. For example Zeus was associated with kings,
marketplaces, property, domestic wealth, strangers and suppliants. For this reason, gods were worshipped
in a specific capacity
● Epithets were used to specify which aspect of the god was being worshipped and summoned
○ Zeus Agoraios - 'Zeus of the agora' who had oversight over the selling and buying of goods and
ensuring that deals were just. There was an altar to him in the Athenian Agora
○ Zeus Phratrios - Each Athenian citizen belonged to a phratry. Legitimate sons would be
introduced into their father's phratry within a year of their birth
○ Zeus Philios - God of individual and household well-being, prosperity and purification consulted
on issues regarding property, marriage and childbirth
○ Zeus Herkeios - 'Zeus of the Fence/Courtyard who was a protector of families. Magistrates being
interviewed for a position were asked whether or not they were enrolled in this cult

Epithets for Zeus Epithets for Athena Epithets for Demeter

- Zeus Xenios, protector of guests
- Zeus Ktesios, guardian of
possessions in a house
- Zeus Olympios, overseer of the
Olympic Games
- Zeus Horkios, oaths "Zeus
Averter of Flies" used by individuals
attending the Olympic and Delphic booster
Games in Greece who would buy
small figurines of Zeus and then
pray to him in the hope of killing
the flies
- Athena Polias, protector of - Demeter Chthonia, earthly-
cities one
- Athena Parthenos, Athena - Demeter Karpophoreo, fruit-
the virgin bringer
- Athena Nike, granter of
victories
-Pallas Athene, morale-
- Athena Areia, warlike Athena

Purpose of Epithets
● Addressing a god/referring to a god
● Specific to a god
● To identify whether worship was local or Panhellenic
● To understand how the cult was paid for
● To understand the way in which the god was worshipped (goal-eating Hera in Sparta)
● Bending of Gods
Creation of Epithets
● We have no idea on how or why epithets were created
● Pausanias, a Greek travel writer and geographer from the 2nd century AD explains some local epithets
● Herodotus tells us that when the Greeks received news of the providential storm that had wrecked much of
the Persian fleet in 480 BC, they prayed and made libations to Poseidon Soter (Saviour) and used this name
ever since
● The variety of epithets presented a challenge to worshippers - if a woman was pregnant, which one of the
numerous deities should she pray to? This was incredibly difficult for the Greeks who consulted oracles in
order to understand which god they should worship
● A typical approach was to worship groups of deities in order to cover all bases, particularly in cases
concerning the rearing and raising of children

Hero Cults
● The Olympian Pantheon was not an enclosed entity but rather permeable with various deities joining
throughout.There were unclear boundaries between the gods, demi-gods and mortals
● Gunnell Erkroth defines a hero as being a person who had "lived and died, either in myth or real life, with
this being the main distinction between a god and hero." They had to have achieved something that was
unusual for one's own lifetime, being either positive or negative
○ Heracles' Twelve Labours
○ Cleomedes of Astypalaea had killed his opponent in the pankration at the Olympic Games. When
he was disqualified, in a fit of anger, he ripped down a school roof, leaving sixty children dead and
he vanished from the earth. The Pythia declared him a hero
○ Asclepius
○ Achilles was worshipped in numerous places across Gree, including by a cult near Troy identified
as the burial mound of Achilles. The Cult of Achilles in Euxine was the product of colonisation:
there was a desire of it colonists to “possess sometitle to the land that they settled, for which they
frequently made use of mythical stories”
○ Orestes, Son of Agamemnon, was worshipped after his bones were returned to Sparta from Tegea,
and Sparta was for superior in battle from then after
● A hero was worshipped in a way that went far beyond the usual rituals surrounding burial and were
worshipped at their grave site. It was attended by weeping and lamentation. They were most likely
worshipped in a similar fashion to Chthonic deities with libations and shrines.
● Heroisation was initiated by family members and beneficiaries and became widespread in the Hellenistic
Period
● Heracles was the most popular hero worshipped - he was honoured at Olympia, where his Twelve Labours
were displayed on the metopes of the Temple of Zeus. Asclepius was worshipped throughout the Greek
world and was perceived as a god but of mortal descent
● Heroes and gods were worshipped with rites very similar to each other, with an animal sacrifice at its centre
and the consumption of sacrificial meal - showing the fluidity and wide range of interpretation of the hero
in the world of Greek religion.

Evidence for Hero Cults

 ● Homeric Epics
● Homeric Hymns
● Works and Days
● Catalogue of Women which explores the relationships between gods and mortals and the heroes that were
born
● Pausanias
● The best preserved sacrificial calendar from Attica showing that of 170 sacrifices, 40% were to heroes and
38% of these were of budget

Panhellenic, Localised or Personal

Zeus
● Personal-Zeus Philios, god of individual and family wellbeing
● Local-Zeus Phratrios, protector of Athenian phratries
● Panhellenic - Zeus Olympios, Zeus at Olympia (many people from around the ancient world came to
compete in the Olympic Games)
Athena
● Athena Chalkioikos, Athena of the Bronze House in Sparta
● Panhellenic - Athena Pronoia, Athena of Forethought in Delphi
● Local - Athena Lindia (after the city of Lindos)
● Athena Alea
Heracles
● Personal-worshipped as a household god. His statue stood in homes to ward off evil
● Local-Heracles' main cult was in Thebes, the place of his birth in mythology
● Panhellenic - He was worshipped at the sanctuary of Olympia because of his strength and endurance (by
athletes who competed in the games) and because he was considered to be one of the founders of the games

Some gods and heroes only had local significance. For example, in an Athenian Deme called Erchia, the heroes
Epops, Leucaspis and Menedeius are three heroes who are unattested anywhere else.

Personally, gods and heroes could be worshipped through mystery cults, healing cults or oracular consultation. And
the epithet changes to distinguish the aspect of the god being worshipped

Key Term Definition

Aetiology The reason or cause for something, often deriving

from a historical or mythical explanation

Agora The marketplace in a Greek city where economic,

political,social and religious events took place
Anthropomorphic The attribution of human characteristics and
emotions to non-human forms

Epithet An adjective or phrase that accompanies one's name to

denote a quality or characteristic about the individual

Theogony The genealogy of a group of gods

Polytheism A religion including multiple Gods

Phratry A 'Brotherhood’- a subdivision of the low old tribes of

Athens which was carried over into the new
democratic system ito 507 BC

Zoomorphism Animal attributes are imposed upon non-animal

objects, humans and gods
Part 2: Personal Experience of the Divine

The Healing Cult of Asclepius

Who was Asclepius?

● In Homer’s Iliad, he is described as a hero who was taught by the centaur Chiron. He and his sons
helped heal the most seriously wounded Greek warriors
● He was the son of Apollo and a mortal woman, Trokkaian
● He functioned as a hero during his mythical lifetime but was perceived as a god with divine
powers after his death
● His children included:
○ Hygieia, goddess of good health
○ Panacea, goddess of cures and panaceas
○ Iaso, goddess of cures and remedies
○ Aigle, goddess of radiant good health

Establishment of Asclepius’ Cult

● Popularity can be explained through the fact that he was a healer; anyone could become ill, and
with limited medical knowledge at the time, people looked to the supernatural for support
● His worship began in the sixth century BC and rapidly expanded in the fifth century BC
● His cultic worship soared during times of epidemic. For example, the Athenians erected a new
Asclepieion to him in 420 BC, only a few years after a plague had devastated the city
● He had two major sanctuaries
○ Asclepieion at Epidaurus, which was a centre for pilgrims seeking cure from a wide range
of illnesses
○ The Sanctuary of Asclepius on Kos, which was a school for physicians

Asclepions

● Combined worship with practical cures

● They were Panhellenic – individuals came from all over Greece to receive cure.
● Some came to thank for a cure already received
● They were found outside urban centres. Plutarch explains that a healthy location was required.
For example, the Asclepion at Corinth was considered an ideal location as strong winds blew
through the region, cleaning the atmosphere instantly
● Athens had an Asclepion on the southern escarpment of the Acropolis
● From the dedications and votive offerings that survive, both men and women from a range of
social classes visited
● There were strict rules about not cutting trees and keeping animals within the precinct

Visiting an Asclepion

● Gathering and a procession

● Three days of purification which would include: bathing, cleansing the body and purging oneself
● Offerings and a sacrifice to Apollo who was an early god of medicine and Asclepius’ father
● A sacrifice to Asclepius and a monetary gifts
 ● Incubation
○ Sleeping in a stoa or abaton of the sanctuary was known as incubation. This could also
take place through sleeping outside. The length of the stay at one of these sanctuaries
depended on the nature of the individual’s illness and the success of their recovery. It was
during this period that individuals were cured; this could be instantly during their sleep,
through surgery (instructed by the god and carried out by temple staff) or through
prescription of medicine/specific diet/exercise.
● Cure and Thanks

Prescribed Source
Anatomical Votive Relief from the Shrine of Asclepius on the Island of Melos
Date: 1st Century AD
Style: Relief
Material: Marble
● ‘’Tyche [dedicated this] to Asclepius and Hygieia as a thanks offering’’ most likely at the healing of a leg
wound or broken leg
● An important example of a votive offering to Asclepius after cure had been received in one of his
sanctuaries
● A good example of the reciprocal relationship between mortals and gods
● It would have been incredibly expensive to carve such a structure, showing the extent of their thanks

Miracles

● Miracles were often recorded in votive inscriptions to healing deities to express gratitude for a miraculous
recovery
● They became important over time as ‘’miracle proved deity’’ and helped to promote and legitimise new
cults
● Examples of miracles performed include;
○ Ambrosia, who was blind in one eye, dreamed that Asclepius was standing beside her and he
poured medicine into her diseased eye-ball. She was cured by the morning
○ Cleo was pregnant with a child for five years but following her visit to an Asclepion, she gave birth
to a toddler-son who was able to wash himself and walk

Amphiareion at Oropos

● This was near to Athens and was dedicated to a local god or hero known as Amphiaraus
● It was called the Amphiareion
● Pausanias says that worshippers were required to sleep on the skin of a sacrificed ram
Supernatural and rational ideas about medicine developed and flourished simultaneously. Many priests working in
asclepieia had medical knowledge and it is believed that they treated individuals at night, with either herbal remedies
or through performing minor surgery. Hippocrates’ teachings were carried out – individuals would rest, alter their
diet and remain in a clean and calm environment to help aid their recovery.

The Oracle at Dodona

The term ‘oracle’ could refer to either:

● The site at which the oracular consultation is given
● The individual who speaks the word of the god
● The oracular statement itself, which is an utterance, often ambiguous
At most oracular sites, a person would literally talk to the god in order to receive advice and guidance. There were
lots of oracular sites all over Greece and the majority of these were linked with Apollo (God of prophecy) but some
were dedicated
to Zeus. Oracular consultations could be gained at hero shrines too as well as through throwing dice in
market-places. Oracles stopped in the fourth century AD, officially, as in 325 AD, Emperor Claudastin banned
them for they went against Christian teachings.

The oracle of Zeus at Dodona is in Epirus (northern Greece) in a quite valley, with no major towns or cities nearby.
It is supposedly the oldest oracular sanctuary in Greece. It was dedicated to ‘Zeus Naios’ (of the spring below the
oak) and Dione, supposedly the mother of Aphrodite.Everything at the site focuses on an oracular oak tree.
Herodotus and Hesiod describe how oracular responses emanated from the rusting of leaves from the sacred oak or
from doves sitting in the tree.

Foundation

● It was originally a simple tree sanctuary, with the first buildings being constructed at the end of the fifth
century BC
● In Herodotus’ Histories, he describes how two priestesses had been kidnapped from Egyptian Thebes and
how one of them later came to found the site. He also says that a bird came to rest in the tree at Dodona
and the local people then found the oracle. It must have been the priestess, but as she was foreign, they did
not understand her as her words sounded like the twittering of birds

From the fifth century BC, inquirers would scratch their temples onto a lead tablet that was then answered by the
oracle. Over four thousand of these have been found, containing questions but very few answers. They are useful
because:
● They show us the questions that were asked
● They show the popularity of the site as some questions were asked by women and slaves, who were lost
voices
● They show us the concerns of people from a wide variety of social classes
● They show individual concerns rather than state concerns
● They show how oracles were used for personal reasons. For example, a slave asks ‘should I try to escape my
masters?’ This was something that was illegal at the time

Questions Asked Concerned

● Travel
● Marriage
● Children
● Work and prosperity
● Moving places
● Relationship advice
● Health
● Loaning money
● Crime
● Present day
● Which god to pray to in a particular instance

The oracle answered with a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no,’ ‘X’ or ‘Y’ answer or simply gave the name of the correct deity to
worship in a particular situation.

Problems with the Tablets

● There is no context to the questions
● Fragmented, so difficult to read
● Cannot be dated so cannot draw links between historical affairs
● Some were reused and so contained multiple inscriptions
 ● Some were lost/damaged/stolen during excavations
● Not all tablets include a name - Most are anonymous

The earliest mention of the site is in Homer’s Iliad. In Homer’s Odyssey, Odysseus claims to have gone to the site in
order to hear the will of Zeus to find out whether he should return home openly or in disguise.

The Eleusinian Mysteries

Mystery cults were very important in the ancient world. The word mystery may be related to the Greek word for an
initiate – mystes. People wanting to join a cult had to undergo an initiation ceremony, whilst promising to keep
secret what was experienced during the ceremony. They were essentially a ‘rite of passage’ as they changed an
individual’s status. The Eleusinian Mysteries are the best known and best recorded cult in Greece.

The Mysteries were incorporated into Athenian civic religion as part of the sacred religious calendar from the late
sixth century BC onwards. It was a Panhellenic festival and was unique because:

● Anybody could be initiated, regardless of whether they were a man, woman, free or slave, Greek or
non-Greek. The only criteria was that they had to speak Greek and not have previous involvement in
serious crimes
● The participants would pay a contribution to take part and this would allow his/hers status to be changed
for life
● The initiates were not allowed to speak about what happened, especially with the epopteia. This was never
revealed to the uninitiated

Revealing the secret was a capital crime, punishable by the death penalty.

● Alcibiades was accused of mocking the mysteries in his home with friends and a group of uninitiated
individuals. He was convicted but fled Athens
● Aeschylus was prosecuted for discussing and revealing information about the mysteries in a play but was
acquitted

Aristophanes’ Frogs provides an insight into the ritual and its influence on the Greeks. It takes a humorous
approach to the idea of the mysteries and the afterlife as Dionysus observes those who have been initiated in the
Underworld. Through this, he provides a joyful atmosphere, where community is dominant. He introduced
Iacchus, the god of ritual cry who led the procession and was commander-in-chief of the Mysteries.

In Herodotus’ Histories, he describes how even during the Persian attack on Athens, the festival still took place,
showing how important they believed it to be as well as its communal importance.

Historical and Mythical Background

● Eleusinian Mysteries appeared in the late 8th century BC

● Eleusis became part of Athens in the 7th century BC
● Eleusinian Mysteries were incorporated into the Athenian civic calendar in the late 6th century BC

The Mysteries were founded after the rape/abduction of Persephone, as told in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter.

● Persephone was abducted by Hades who brought her to the Underworld where he married her
● Demeter searched the world for her daughter, using torches. She rested and mourned at Eleusis, under an
olive-tree and during this period, she lost her beauty
● She disguised herself as a mortal woman who was old and stayed at the Palace of Keleus and Metaneira,
taking care of their son Demophon
 ● She had planned to make him immortal by giving him ambrosia and burning away his mortality by placing
him in a fire. Metaneira spied on ‘Doso’ (Demeter) and screamed when she observed what was happening
● Demeter revealed her true identity to the people of Eleusis and ordered them to build her a great temple
and altar so that she could teach them her rites
● Demeter did not return to Olympus and the neglect of her duties meant that no crops could grow,
punishing the gods as the mortals were killed, thus denying them sacrifices and honours
● Zeus ordered Persephone be returned to Demeter but Hades had secretly fed her pomegranate seeds. This
meant she was eternally tied to the Underworld
● It was decreed that she was to spend one third of the year in the Underworld and two thirds of the year on
Earth, providing the aetiology for the seasons

Archaeology
● The earliest buildings at the complex date to the Geometric Period
● The Telesterion was renovated and enlarged several times, built at the bidding of Pericles in the second half
of the fifth century BC. this was where the initiation is believed to have taken place
● The Mirthless Rock, as with all boulders and natural outcrops of bedrock, had religious significance. This
was where Demeter was believed to have sat and observed the initiation ceremony

Initiation Ceremony

● Preparation included cleansing and fasting

● Sacrifice of a pig
● Payment
● ‘Individual Experience’
● Revelation of the epopteia

Festival and the Procession

● Two ceremonies took place each year from the sixth century BC onwards. The ‘Lesser Mysteries’ were
celebrated in the spring and were seen to be a preparatory event for the ‘Great Mysteries’ which were held
in autumn over nine days
● Around three-thousand people would gather in the Athenian Agora
● The whole group would march to the Eleusinian Gulf to bathe in a purification ritual before resting for
three days
● On the sixth day, the group gathered again and prepared for the fifteen-mile procession to Eleusis, which
was led by priests and priestesses. It was interrupted by dances, libations, sacrifices, singing of hymns and
the playing of flutes. Roles were reversed and the young mocked the old as part of the ritual. The
hierophants led all ritualistic activity, and they were drawn from the Eumolpidae family
● The initiation ceremony took place in a higher grade and a lower grade. The fast would be broken by
drinking the kykeon (made from pennyroyal and barely, believed to have psychotropic effects). This would
make individuals more susceptible to a revelatory experience
● They would re-enact the myth of Demeter’s suffering, using torches to search for Persephone in the dark.
This aspect is believed to have been a stimulation for one’s own death
● Epopeteia revealed

Epopteia

● In order to persuade the initiates that there was real danger, the purpose of the ceremony had to be kept
secret.
● They were subjected to terrifying experiences in order to help the transition from a phase of ignorance and
terror to one of well-being and joy
● Individual isolation was transformed into community
● It is believed that one underwent a fictional death and visited the Underworld before returning to Earth
Prescribed Source
Ninnion Tablet
Date: 400 – 300 BC (c. 370 BC)
Main Image: Depiction of the cult of Eleusis, showing initiates being led to Demeter and
Persephone by Iacchus
Significance: A key visual source for helping to reconstruct the ritual taking place at the
Eleusinian Mysteries. It is the only known original representation of the initiation rites
● Initiates carry torches to re-enact Demeter’s search for her daughter
● Both men and women are shown together, showing how inclusive the cult was.
● Men worked outdoors so appear darker; women were expected to remain indoors so appear lighter
● Iacchus leads the procession
● Persephone holds what appears to be a libation bowl or vessel for the kykeon
● Persephone and Demeter are shown. It looks as though Demeter is sat on the Mirthless Rock
● Musicians to show the revelry, sense of community and enjoyment

Key Term Definition

Epopteia Revelation of the secret at the end of the Eleusinian

Mysteries

Hierophant The leading priest at the Eleusinian Mysteries, drawn

from the Eumolpidae family

Incubation Sleeping in the shrines of Asclepius in the hope of

receiving cure from illness

Initiation Admission into a cult that is bound by specific rules

Kykeon A brew that was made from barely and pennyroyal,

said to have psychotropic effects, and used to heighten
one’s senses to make them more susceptible to a
revelatory experience

Myst A person wishing to be initiated into a cult or a person

who was currently in the process of being initiated

Mytagogue A person who was already initiated into the cult and
was thus able to initiate others

Oracle A person that provides advice or guidance about the

future through prophetic power believed to derive
from the gods. The oracle itself was an utterance, often
said to be ambiguous, believed to be the words of a god

Votive Offering A dedication made to a god by an individual as part of

a contract or vow made between mortal and deity
Part 3: Religion and Society

Household Religion

Modern methodology is to treat different aspects of religion as separate. Ancient Greeks however experienced the
Gods in the home, deme, polis etc… as a continuum.
● Household religious participation took place in the oikos - The Oikios wis the basic unit of society
● The head of the house was always the eldest male figure, most typically the father. He had complete
religious authority and he acted as the priest and overseer of household rituals, making offerings every day
to the three household gods:
○ Zeus Ktesios, guardian of possessions in a house, protector of property and wealth. His statue was
most likely kept in the storeroom, he was represented by a two handled vase, draped in white
woollen ribbon and filled with seeds, water and olive oil. He was worshipped in return for health
and good property
○ Zeus Herkeios, of the fence/courtyard, who was protector of the enclosure of the house and
household. He was shown with a snake to ward off evil. Those applying for magisterial posts were
asked whether or not they were enrolled into the cult of Zeus Herkeios
○ Apollo Agyeios, of the street, who protected the household from outside the main door. He was
represented by a statuette, small pillar or statue of Heracles, and this was believed to avert evil
● He was also responsible for making important decisions for the family (arranging marriages, managing the
education of the children)
● There were areas within the home that were believed to protect the household too:
○ Hearths were dedicated to Hestia and stood at the centre of the home. This represented the
household to the family themselves. New members of the family (slaves, babies or new brides)
would be welcomed into the home with a small ceremony of walking around the fire, showered by
dried fruits and nuts
○ Herms were rectangular pillars with a bearded head and erect phallus. They were placed at
cross-roads, outside houses and on borders of land as protective symbols
● The father had the most religious duties, which included: tending to the household cults, tending to family
tombs, making offerings to the dead and pouring libations in their honour at festivals such as the
Anthesteria and Genesia
● Religion also played a part in education. Boys were typically educated by their fathers and girls by their
mothers

Porphyry’s story of Clearchus

● Featured Public Worship:
○ Public Sacrifices
○ Festivals
● Featured Private Worship:
○ Clearly and crowning of his Hermes and Hecate
○ Maintenance of the shrines
○ Offerings (incense, barley cakes, etc…)
● These two categories are easily distinguished because one is within the home, the other is in public

Women of the Household

● Women had very limited political and legal rights; in Athens, they were not even considered full citizens
● Despite spending the majority of their time indoors, they were excluded from household cults which is
unexpected as their role was tied to the house
● Their main religious participation came through filling the role of priestesses for state or communal civic
cults
● In Athens, 40 priesthoods were open to women
 ● However, to become a priestess the woman had to show characteristics of the goddess she was serving. For
example, priestesses of Demeter were older and mature but priestesses of Artemis were virgins
● A girl in Aristophanes’ comedy Lysistrata says: “ As soon as I was seven years old, I was an Arrephoros; then
I was a grinder; when I was ten, at the Brauronia, 1 shed my saffron gown as one of the foundress’s bears;
and I was also once a Basket bearer, a beautiful girl, wearing a string of dried figs.” lines 641-647
● Priesthoods were mainly open to younger girls who came from the upper classes:
○ Arrephoros – associated with the Temple of Athena Polias. Two maidens were chosen each year to
carry a basket on their heads given to them by the goddess herself, but the contents remained
unknown. They exchanged the basket for something else on the Acropolis
○ Grinder – girls who ground the meal for the cakes which would be offered to Athena
○ at her altar
○ Brauronia – girls would dress up like bears at this festival, which was required for all Athenian girls
before they could marry
○ Basket-Bearer – the priestesses who carried the baskets containing the sacrificial implements used
during the procession
● women were also responsible for performing funeral rites and tending to the corpse

Once married, women could take part in festivals such as the Thesmophoria. This was held in honour of Demeter
and Persephone, annually in the late autumn. It celebrated agricultural fertility and commemorated the kidnapping
of Persephone by Hades. It was unique as it was restricted to adult women only and the rites practised were kept
secret.

Women were responsible for performing the appropriate rites upon someone’s death by tending to the corpse and
preparing the body for the prosthesis, which was a period of two days during which people would visit the house to
pay their respects. The women would lament by cutting their hair, wearing shabby black clothing, wailing beside
the deceased whilst beating their chests and flailing their arms.

The main cults that women participated in outside the home were mainly to Artemis, Asclepius and Demeter, as
these were major deities associated with childbirth and childrearing.

Children – Amphidromia

● A ceremonial feast celebrated on the fifth or seventh day after the birth of a child
● The house was decorated, with friends and relatives being invited to witness the child receiving their name
● The child was carried around the hearth

Boys and Sons

● Legitimate sons were introduced into their father’s phratry within a year of their birth at the Apaturia
● When they reached the age of sixteen, they could make sacrifices to Zeus Phratrios
● The boys would join with other boys their age to become ephebes, which involved a period of military
service

Slaves

Little is known about slaves and household participation as it was not common to show them with the family. The
heroon of Theseus in Athens was a place for slaves and criminals to take sanctuary

Prytaneum of Athens as the heath of the Polis

● Each Greek city, state or village possessed its own central hearth and sacred fire
● The fire was kept alight continuously
● They are always near the agora
Religious Participation

Deme Religious Participation

● A deuce was a local community in Ancient Greece

● Athens was divided into 139 demes, which each had their own religious festivals organised into a religious
calendar
● This become far more important following the retorres of Cleisthenes in 508 BC
○ In those reforms, enrolment in a dease became compulsory for citizenship when beforehand, it
had come hom rembuship oda phatry or family group
○ Cleisthenes was attempting to break down tribal loyalty in order to strengthen loyalty to the Polis
● Different heroes and gods were specific to individual demes as well as the festivals celebrated

Erchia

● Population of around 500 male adults and 2000-3000 residents in total

● An inscription from their sacred calendar (4th century BC) states that twenty five days were dedicated to
sacrifices, during which fifty-nine animals were sacrificed. These sacrifices would have been paid for by
wealthier demesmen
● They sacrificed to gods such as Athena Polias on the Acropolis
● Since they were in the countryside, they would celebrate festivals in honour of Demeter such as the
Proerosia
● The calendar also records the worship of three local heroes who are unattested for anywhere else: Epops,
Leucaspis and Menedeius
● Six epithets of Apollo were also worshipped:
○ Apotropaios (Averter of evil)
○ Delphinios (of Delphi)
○ Lykeios (of wolves)
○ Nymphegentes (Leader of nymphs)
○ Paion (Healer)
○ Pythios (the Pythian)
● Much of what is known about Erchia comes from a lex Sacra (sacred law)
● These festivals therefore served a practical purpose but we should not ignore the fun and celebration as well

Primary Sources for the role of the Deme

Homeric Hymns:
● Hermes - "He sang of the holy domes, the tubes of men, and all the blessed Gods who live forever.”
Pausanias:
● "The sanctuary of Zeus Hypsistos is situated in Acarmantis.”
Inscriptions and texts found on religious artefacts
● On the sanctuary of Zeus Hypsistos in Acarmentis an inscription needs,”Eurodos son of Ariston, how the
deme of Acarmantis, dedicates this to Zeus Hypsistos.”

Secondary Sources
● Walter Burkert - deme worship was embedded in the landscape due to the different rites and traditions
depending on the location of the deme
● Martin P. Nilsson - continuity of deuce worship all the way back to the Bronze Age
● Claude Calame - erotic nature of many deme Gods reflects the hope for fertility

Polis Religious Participation

● Directed its prayers and worship to the welfare of the polis as a whole. These were paid for using state funds
and were organised by state officials
 ● The city funded temples, sacrifices, festivals and dedications
● Since it was inclusive, it was able to draw the community together and create a sense of
● patriotism and civic pride
● Polis religion had correlations with household religion. The worship of Hestia, for example, is common in
both as Athens had a polis hearth in the Prytaneion
● It was also associated with demes and local religious cults – the Eleusinian Mysteries were performed at
Eleusis, a deme on the border with Megara
● Modern Scholarship Orthopraxy over Orthodoxy.
○ Orthopraxy is a term used by Robert Parker to emphasise the importance of common practice
within society.
○ Belief wasn't policed as much as the practice of religion was because of the social pressure to
conform to traditional methods of worship

Panhellenic Religious Participation

Location of Sanctuary God Worshipped Meaning of Epithet Games Held

Delphi Pythian Apollo Apollo who slew the Pythian Games

Pytho, a mythical snake
that terrorised
the area

Olympia Olympian Zeus Zeus of Olympus, the Olympian Games where

mountains in northern the gods were believed
Greece to have lived

Nemea Nemean Zeus Zeus of Nemea Nemean Games

Isthmus Isthmian Poseidon Poseidon of Isthmus Isthmus Games

*Games were held at each of these sites and altered in venue annually.

Religious Authority

● Individuals who held a religious post or had a religious responsibility often also had them in other spheres
of civic or domestic life
● In Athens, religious authority lay with the demos, but it was organised and supervised by a range of
personnel
● Priests were an integral part of Greek religion, carrying out rites sacred to their representative cults. There
were also a number of officials who supervised the performance of rites

Priests and Priestesses

● Priests and priestesses oversaw rituals (such as sacrifices, libations and prayers) and took care of the
sanctuary to which they were assigned. They looked after the cult statue, the temple and other buildings
sacred to the cult as well as looking after the finances of the sanctuary
 ● The state determined how much money priests were to be given to carry out their jobs and whether they
were performing their jobs appropriately
● Some priesthoods were restricted to particular families – the Eteoboutad provided priests for Athena Polias
and Poseidon Erectheus
● The most common way of becoming a priest was through inheritance. Plato says that the primary
qualification was a ‘’good birth’’

Archons (Magistrates)

● The three archons within Athens had power over civic, military and religious affairs
○ Archon Basileus (Civic)
■ Translates as ‘King Ruler’
■ The main religious official of the Athenian state who had responsibility over the religious
calendar and judicial authority over religious matters
■ He was responsible for sacrifices at some of Athens’ most significant cults and festivals
(Eleusinian Mysteries)
○ Eponymous Archon (Religious)
■ The year was named after the Eponymous Archon from the seventh century BC onwards
■ He held authority over the civic festivals, such as the City Dionysia
○ Polemarch (Military)
○ War archon who was in-charge of cults related to military affairs including: Artemis Agrotera (the
huntress) and the public funeral in honour of the Athenian war dead

Epimeletai (‘’Overseers’’)

● Appointed in Athens for particular festivals such as the Panathenaia. They initially had to pay for the
processions but in the second half of the fourth century BC, they were paid for using state funds
● Four epimeletai were appointed for the Eleusinian Mysteries, two of whom were from priestly families who
had hereditary responsibilities in the cult of Demeter and Persephone

The Links between Politics and Religion

● Most political decisions were made with religious consultations: peace treaties were sworn to the gods, the
Sacred Truce was sworn by all city-states during the Olympic Games to guarantee an end to any conflict
and when cities made war, the gods were consulted
○ Herodotus reports that Croesus consulted the Delphic oracle about whether to wage war against
the Persians or not. The oracle told him that a great empire would fall, which he believed to be
Persia, but it was in fact his own
○ The Athenians consulted the Delphic oracle when they learned of Xerxes’ invasion. They were
told to take refuge in their wooden walls, which they believed meant victory lay in their navy
● Military victories were celebrated with the gods in mind
○ The Athenians erected a stoa at Delphi for the advice they received about Xerxes’ invasion
○ They dedicated the captured Persian triremes to the Panhellenic sanctuary of Poseidon at Isthmia
in gratitude to the god of the sea for their naval victories
○ The Greek alliance that fought against the Persians also dedicated a monument at Delphi,
thanking Apollo for his help
○ The bronze statue of Athena Promachos on the Acropolis as believed to have been dedicated to
commemorate the defeat of the Persians in 467 BC

The Polis
 ● The opening ceremony of the Athenian assembly meeting began with the sacrifice of a piglet, whose blood
was splattered over assembly members
● Religious items had priority at two of the four monthly meetings of the assembly

Law Courts

● Law courts had jurisdiction over political, civic and religious matters
● The Areopagus were the law courts situated opposite the Acropolis and was where Alcibiades and Socrates
were tried for impiety. This was allegedly found by Athena as a way for her to help the Athenians end the
revenge killings that plagued the house of Atreus

Civic Funds

● Civic funds were housed in treasuries and sacred buildings

● The Parthenon stored the money Athens gathered from her allies – the Delian League – each year

In Sparta, politics and religion were closely associated too. Herodotus tells us that Spartan kings were considered to
be godlike because they were believed to be descendants of Heracles. Sparta was ruled by duel kingship because
Aristodemus was informed by the Pythia that both of his sons should be named as kings. From this point on, one
king came from the Agiad and Euryontid family. The kings had religious and judicial authority as well as
commanding the army. They could consult the oracle whenever they wished and were the first to receive divine
messages through public sacrifices.

Religious and City Spaces

● Sanctuaries had a sacred wall – a temenos – but other sacred spaces were open
● In Athens, the agora was the civic, political and economic centre of the city but it had numerous religious
and political buildings including:
○ Council-house
○ Government seat
○ Altar of the Twelve Gods
○ Temple of Apollo Patroos (protector of families)
○ Heohaestion (Temple of Hephaestus)
● The Stoa of Zeus Eleutherios thanked Zeus for having freed Greece from the Persian invasion but it was
also perhaps where the archons came to deliberate and dine
● The Prytaneion housed the sacred hearth and was officials in government met. Priests and magistrates lived
here, demonstrating the strong links between politics and religion

Impiety or Pollution

● Impiety, or miasma in Greek, was a serious offence in religion and society. It was considered a dishonour
and disrespect to the gods and as such, individuals and whole communities could be punished for it. There
were various ways of becoming polluted, which included:
○ Giving birth/still-birth/loss of a foetus/abortion
○ By entering the home of someone who had just given birth - If they had come into contact
with a woman giving birth, they could not enter a sanctuary for a certain amount of days and their
pollution lasted for forty-days after birth. Priests were not allowed contact with women giving
birth and homes were smeared with pitch to prevent pollution from seeping into the community
○ Being physically dirty
○ Not honouring the gods in the right manner on the right days
○ Disrespecting someone’s right to asylum
 ○ Sexual intercourse - The Greeks ritually fumigated by squatting over an incense burner after
intercourse. There was no set purification ritual after sex, indicating that it only caused weak
pollution. Participation in some religious festivals required abstinence and some cults required
priests/priestesses to remain abstinent for a period of time
○ Attending a funeral or being in the presence of a dead body - Dead bodies can spread disease
if not properly disposed of. Purification rituals included cleaning the corpse and placing a bowl of
water outside the home so individuals could purify themselves. Priests were forbidden all contact
with the dead, including close relatives of the dead
○ Murder - This released the most intense pollution. They were not allowed to attend sacrifices and
were excluded from civic worship. They had to be purified using the blood of a pig and those
condemned to death had to take their own life by drinking poisonous hemlock
● Pollution could come to harm the whole community. Individuals could purify themselves through
following specific rites. If they were dirty, they could wash themselves with water before entering a
sanctuary
● The rites of purification were performed by the kathartai
● The exegetai were ‘’expounders of the sacred law’’ who would give advice on the proper burial to follow
● In 433 BC, a decree was passed in Athens announcing the public prosecution of ‘’those who did not
believe in the Gods’’

Literary Sources

● In Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, Oedipus had caused a plague in Thebes because he had unknowingly killed his
father and slept with his mother
● He sends a representative to Delphi who brings him the news that he must expel the murderer of Laius

The Panathenaia

● Celebrated annually in June to celebrate Athena, patron goddess of Athens. The Great Panathenaia was
held every four years and included an elaborate procession and more contests
● The Panathenia was for Athenian citizens and its metics
● 454 BC: Athens becomes the centre of the Delian League and each allied city is required to participate in
the festivities

Procession

● The procession – pompe – began at the Dipylon Gate

● This grew to be so big overtime that the Pompeion was constructed. Its size indicates just how important
and grand the procession was
● The larger of the two peploi hung like a sail on the mast of the ceremonial ship, which was intended to
show their naval power and strength
● It was considered to be such a significant part of the Athenian religious and civic calendar that it provided
the inspiration for the ionic frieze of the Parthenon. This depicted horsemen (representative of
aristocracy), elder citizens, women, animals and children. This indicates just how unifying the festival was
and how it created civic pride
● This was the first time that a scene portraying a real-life event was depicted on a temple, showing the extent
of its importance

Presentation of the Peplos

● The focal part of the celebration was the presentation of the peplos to Athena Polias
● This was woven by the Ergastinai, maidens from aristocratic families
● It was saffron dyed and depicted a duel with the giant Encelados (Gigantomachy)
● The peplos was draped on the olive-wood cult statue of Athena Polias in the Erectheion
 ● For the Great Panathenaia, a much larger peplos was woven by professional male weavers and was draped
on Phidias’ chryselephantine statue

Sacrifices

● The best parts of the animal were kept for the sacrifice on the altar to Athena Nike
● Civic officials such as the archons, treasurers, sacrificial officials, generals and maidens were given their
portions of the meat on the Acropolis
● The distribution of the remaining meat occurred in the kerameikos, among the rest of society
● Sacrifices were paid for either directly by the city or through financial obligations imposed on rich
Athenains and metics
● This would have been valued considering that meat was not a regular part of ancient diets because of its
expense. It also allowed for a civic experience as they could share a meal communally

Rhapsodic and Musical Contests

● Rhapsodic contests involved singing recitations of Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, thus showing the
significance and respect these works had in the centuries after they were composed
● The winner of the lyre competition was awarded a golden olive crown worth 1,000 drachmas (the daily
wage for a skilled worker was one drachma)

Athletic Events

● Only men and boys were allowed to participate in the athletic contests
● Stadion – a running event in which they would run the length of the stadium
● Wrestling
● Dolichos – a three mile long running event
● Boxing
● Pankration – a combat event which included wrestling and boxing
● Pentathlon – javelin, discus, long-jump, stadion and wrestling
● Winners were awarded Panathenaic Amphorae. This had a picture of Athena on one side and the reverse
had an image of the event the competitor had won in on the other. It was filled with olive oil which was a
commodity as it was used for cooking, cleaning and in athletic competitions too

Equestrian Contests

● This included a four-horse chariot race and amounted javelin contest

● The greatest contest was the apobates, in which a charioteer drove a chariot whilst a soldier jumped off the
chariot and raced alongside it before jumping back onto it. This displayed the military skill of Athenian
men

Tribal Contests

● The euandrion encouraged a sense of tribal spirit, comradery and national pride. Men were judged for their
beauty and good to determine who would lead the procession
● The Pyrrhic Dance involved groups of twenty-four men dancing naked with a shield on their left arm and
wearing a light helmet. It is believed that Athena danced the Pyrrhic Dance after her victory over the Giants
● A boat race took place from the port of Piraeus and was intended to honour both Athena and Poseidon. It
celebrated Athens’ naval strength and power
● The torch race was the final competition before the procession and sacrifice. Men ran from Piraeus to the
Athenian Acropolis whilst holding a burning torch and passing it on to other members of the team at
specific distances. The team who successfully lit the altar on the Acropolis won. This was intended to
demonstrate teamwork and athleticism
Women in Religion

Modern scholarship
● Lefkowitz - views women's role as limited, primarily confined to domestic rituals
● Devine - argues the women played a significant role in cultic rituals and held positions of power in certain
religious spaces
● Hughes - emphasises the diversity of religious expression and argues Ihad women participated in both
public and private religious practices
● Pomeroy - notes the existence of female Goddesses and Priestesses, suggesting the women played a
significant role in worship
● Connelly - highlights the significance of women in cultic worship

Primary Sources
● Female deities - Priestesses usually took on authority of worship for a Goddess
● Participation in religious rituals
● influence in religious affairs

Key Term Definition

Deme A village which was the smallest political constituency

in the Athenian democratic system

Euandrion ‘Fine manliness’ - a contest judging the most beautiful

male figure, who would lead the procession the
following day

Hecatomb The sacrifice of at least one hundred oxen

Miasma Impiety or pollution in relation to the gods

Peplos A rectangular piece of clothing worn by women, folded

down from the neck and belted and tied or sown at the
shoulder but sleeveless

Polis A Greek word often translated as ‘city-state’ referring

to a city and all the land it controlled as one political
entity

Propylaia The elaborate entrance gateway onto the Athenian

Acropolis

Stoa A colonnade portico where people could take shelter

Oikos The family, the household or the home

Part 4: Places of Worship

The Athenian Acropolis

The acropolis was the religious heart of Athens. It was the easiest place to defend due to its position in the city and
was killed with votive offerings made by individuals, mostly to ile patron Goddess Athena Polias. These offerings,
which marked either offerings of thanks or hope for protection and good will, show the religious nature of the
space. It housed several important religious buildings and features.
The original temple of the Acropolis was destroyed in 480 by the Persians when they invaded Attica and following
its destruction, the Athenians reportedly swore the oath of Plataea so it acted as an eternal reminder of barbaric
impiety. The remains of the buildings seen today were only constructed under Pericles.
The name comes from the Greek for summit or high point (Akron) and city (Polis).

Prescribed Source
Athenian Acropolis
Date: Rebuilt in the mid to late fifth century BC
Significance: A key religious site within Attica and important for all Greeks
Festivals: Panathenaia, Plynteria
Rebuilding Commissioned by: Pericles, after the sack of Athens by the
Persians in 480 BC
● The religious heart of Athens
● It was filled with votive offerings made by individuals, mainly to Athena. These offerings marked offerings
of thanks or hope for protection and goodwill
● The Persians destroyed the Parthenon in 480 BC; the Athenians swore an oath at the Battle of Plataea,
promising not to rebuild the Acropolis so that it acted as reminder of their barbaric impiety

The Parthenon

● Built between 447-432 BC, with Pericles as the leading architect. It was made entirely from marble
○ It significantly out did the amount of architectural sculpture of any other doric temple
● Her birth is depicted on the east pediment and the west pediment depicts the naming contest of Athens.
Both myths are crucial to her worship and why she had authority over the city
● The inner ionic frieze depicts the Panathenaic procession. It shows how all sections of society have gathered
to celebrate Athena and revel in their strength and piety
● The Doric Frieze shows a series of mythical battles where civilisation has won against barbarity

Mythical Battle Civilised Barbaric Location

Gigantomachy Gods Giants East

Centauromachy Lapiths and Theseus Centaurs South

Amazonomachy Athenian Men Amazons West

Trojan War Greeks Trojans North

● The Parthenon did not have a purely religious purpose; no altar has been identified alongside it and Athena
Parthenos did not have a priestess until decades after its construction
○ One theory is that the Parthenon was simply a treasury while it Erechtheion was the temple
○ Iv also acted as a slaters symbol to show Athens’ wealth and power, uniting the people of Athens
in their Civic identity
 ● The gold used to decorate the chryselephantine statue was removable and could be ‘borrowed’ in times of
need (i.e. during the Peloponnesian War)

Ionic Frieze ● Shows mortals worshipping their goddess

● All sections of society had gathered to celebrate Athena
● The attendance of the Gods shows the reciprocal nature of Greek religion: the
mortals worship the Gods and in return are granted favour and protection

Doric Frieze ● Shows a series of mythical battles where order and civilisation is won over chaos and
barbarity
● Each battle represents a further reason why mortals worship the Gods as they
ensured the end of these offences

Pediments ● Portray divine scenes directly related to Athena

○ East depicts her birth and west depicts her victory over Poseidon
● Bolt myths are crucial to her worship and authority in Athens
○ Athena who helped heroes like Achilles at Troy and bought in the
Gigantomachy can be directly thanked for civilisation

● Made by Phidias in 438 BC

● Chryselephantine statue – made of gold and ivory over a wooden base
● Her shield portrayed the Amazonomachy and Gigantomachy; her sandals showed the Centauromachy
● She holds Nike in her right hand
● Her aegis depicts the gorgon Medusa
● A snake near her shield
● A sphinx on the helmet and on each side a gryphon

The Erechtheion

● The most sacred sport on the Acropolis as it was here that Athena and Poseidon allegedly competed for
patronage of the city
● It was dedicated to Athena Polias, Poseidon, Kekrops and Erectheus
○ Kerkrops/Cecrops: mythical king of Attica and founder of Athens who was the first man to offer
sacrifices to Athena after her birth from the head of Zeus and he established her ancient shrine on
the Acropolis. He was the judge who proclaimed Athena to be patron of Athens
○ Erechtheus: the only semi-offspring of Athena and an Athenian hero whom all Athenians
claimed to descend from. He was born from the soil (or Gaia) after Athena wiped Hephaestus’
semen from her thigh during an attempted rape. The salt spring on the Acropolis where Poseidon
struck his trident was known as the sea of Erechtheus
○ Naming Contest of Athens: Athena and Poseidon both wanted to lay claim to Athens and
become its patron. Poseidon struck the Acropolis with his trident, creating a well from which
sea-water sprang up. Athena planted an olive tree on the hill of the Acropolis. Athena was judged
the winner because her gift of the olive-tree was central to the Greek way of life but Poseidon’s
water had a salt content which meant it was largely unusable

It was believed to be the home of a serpent. During the Persian Wars, the attack on Athens was imminent and the
Athenians were forced to evacuate the city. Herodotus says that the snake had not eaten the monthly honey-cake
offerings made to it so the priestess ordered them to evacuate because Athena had already abandoned the Acropolis.
● The Plynteria was a cleansing festival in honour of Athena and Aglauros. The temple was surrounded with
rope and no-one could enter because the goddess was cleaning her statue
 ● During the Panathenaia, the Erechtheion was the destination of the procession as the peplos was presented
to the statue of Athena Polias

It was also the sit of 'Sacred Tokens’, the most ancient and holy relics of the Athenians like the Palladion which was
a Xoanon (defined as a wooden effigy fallen from the heavens) of Athena Polias, the marks of Posiedon's trident and
the saltwater well, the sacred olive tree and the supposed burial places of the mythical kings.

Architecture

● The structure accommodated space for each deity and hero as well as the altars for each and this
pre-existing shrines
● It was mainly ionic in design and the columns had gold at the bases
● The north porch was sacred to Poseidon Erectheus (this was where he allegedly struck his trident)
● There was an altar and precinct to Zeus as this was where he struck down Erechtheus with a thunderbolt
for having killed Poseidon’s son
● Facing the Parthenon, stood six caryatids, which acted as columns and became known as the Porch of the
Maidens. Their positioning seems to display movement and stability They have been interpreted in
different ways:
○ Carrying baskets used in the Panathenaia and are therefore part of the procession
○ They stand above the grave of Kekrops so act as mourners for the dead King
○ Vitruvius (Roman architect) argues that they represent the enslaved women of Carya, a Greek city
accused of betrayal during the Persian Wars

The Propylaea
The Propylaea was the gateway into the Acropolis and was commissioned by Pericles in order to rebuild after the
Persian Wars. He appointed his friend Phidias as the supervisor and lead architect. It was allegedly financed with
funds appropriated from the treasury of the Delian league. Construction began in 437BC and was terminated in
432 despite it being unfinished.
● Built with white pentelic marble and grey Elensian marble
● The. structure consisted of central building with two adjoining wings
● Entrance to the Acropolis was controlled by the Propylaea
○ it was important that people not ritually clear could be denied access to the sanctuary
○ Runaway slaves and other miscreants could. not be permitted in the sanctuary where they could
claim the protection of the Gods.
○ The state treasury was also kept on the Acropolis

Temple of Athena Nike

The temple of Athena Nike is dedicated to the Goddesses Athena and Nike, was built around 420 BC and is the
earliest fully ionic temple on the Acropolis. Nike was the Goddess of victory and Alters was worshipped in this
form, representative of being victorious in war and the hopes of a successful outcome in the long Peloponnesian
war.
● The famous frieze of Nike adjusting her sandal is an example of wet drapery
○ This involves showing the form but also concealing the body with it drapery of it clothing
● The battles depicted on the temple represent Greek and Athenian dominance through military power and
historical events
● Nike was originally the "winged victory” Goddess
○ The Athena Nike statue's absence of wings Led the Athenians in late centuries to call it Apteros
Nike or "wingless victory” and the story arose that the statue was deprived of wings so that could
never leave the city
 Direction Depiction Meaning

North A battle between Greeks (possibly the Battle of
Plataea) entailing cavalry
Could also be the pursuit and death of It
mythical king Eurystheas
In either depiction they represent Athens’
triumph and victories over other city states
other countries

South The decisive victory over the Persians at Victory over the Persians and military
Marathon in 490 BC power

East An Assembly of the Gods, Athena Zeus and Athenian religious beliefs and reverence
Poseidon for if Gods bound up in their social and
political climate

West The battle between the Athenians and Spartans Both of these battles ended in victory for
in Amphilochia in 426/5 BC or the Athenians Athens.
and Corinthians in Megara in 458 BC.

Sanctuary of Delphi
Dedicated to Apollo but Dionysus was said to have occupied the site for three months when Apollo went to live
with the Hyperboreans. It is best known for the Oradek of the Pythia which was dedicated to Apollo and the
worship of Gaia. The original name of the site was Pytho of the snake believed to have been killed by Apollo.
Allegedly, Apollo spoke through the Pythia who would sit on a Tripod shaped seat over the Chasm where she
would fall into an intoxicated trance and allow Apollo to possess her. The Oracle could only consult in the warmer
months.
Its origin is supposed to have come from Zeus when he released two eagles in opposite directions from Mt Olympus
to discover the centre of the earth. The eagles having flown around the World finally crossed paths at Delphi,
making it the centre (omphalos) of the Earth.

Prescribed Source
The Sanctuary of Delphi
Date: 6th century BC
Significance: Panhellenic sanctuary and site of the Delphic Oracle
Festivals: Pythian Games

● The sanctuary was renowned for its oracle, theatrical and athletic events as well as the Pythian Games
● The local Delphians had limited control over the sanctuary; they only provided personnel for the oracle,
including the Pythia
● The sanctuary was run by the Amphictyonic League; this was important as it was a Panhellenic sanctuary
so all Greeks had the right to gather, worship and receive a source of information and guidance. Therefore,
the oracle had to be as neutral as possible
● There were very few isolated incidents in which it had been accused of bribery

Sanctuary

● It was marked off from the surrounding space by a peribolos wall

● The lower part contains a temple to Athena Pronoia (‘foresight’), two treasuries and altars. There was also a
gymnasium
 ● The Sacred Way led worshippers from the sanctuary to the Temple of Apollo
● According to myth, Zeus sent two eagles, one to the east and one to the west, and they met each other
above Delphi. It therefore contained an omphalos, the navel of the world

Temple of Apollo

● It was a peripteral Doric temple situated in the centre of the sanctuary. In front of its stood an altar,
dedicated by the people of Chios, giving them promanteia
● It is believed to be the site of six different temples that were lost to natural disasters over the years (usually
fires or earthquakes) and the temple still visible today was finished in 320 BC and has been partially
restored
● The temple was hexastyle; this design helped to accommodate the adyton, from where the Pythia was
believed to speak from
● Within the naos stood the omphalos, and perhaps a statue of Apollo and a laurel tree
● The inscriptions were ‘know thyself’ and ‘nothing in excess’
● The eastern pediment showed the arrival of Apollo by chariot, with gods beside him. Lions are seen to be
eating other animals, perhaps symbolising the divine hierarchy
● The western pediment most likely depicted the Gigantomachy
● It was destroyed in 390 AD when the roman Emperor Theodusius I silenced the oracle by destroying the
temples and most of the statues and works of art in the name of christianity, in attempts to remove all
traces of paganism

Sacred Way

● Flanked by treasuries, stoas and monuments, set up by city-states from all over the Greek world
● They showcased and promoted their individual military victories i.e. the Athenians set up a monument to
commemorate their victory against the Persians at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC
● When the Spartans had defeated the Athenians at the end of the Peloponnesian Wars, they set up a
monument directly opposite the Athenian monument. It consisted of thirty-eight statues in two rows and
was three times the size of the Athenian dedication
● Some monuments reflect unity and alliance. The best example of this is the Serpent Column When
mainland Greece was threatened by the Persians, a number of Greek city-states joined forces to fight the
common enemy. This monument was dedicated to thank Apollo for his guidance and their success. The
serpents recoil Pytho and the tripod symbolises the Pythia. The names of thirty-one cities who fought were
inscribed on the monument but it also shamed those who had not joined the resistance

Victory monuments and treasuries were just as much about self-promotion as they were about expressing gratitude
to the gods.

Treasuries

● They were used to thank the oracle for advice that lead to victories and show the city’s wealth and power
and their loyalty to the oracle and its Gods.
● There were 15 treasuries along the slope
● The Treasury of the Siphnians was made from marble and decorated with elaborate sculptures. This
allowed them to promote themselves and show their inclusion in the Hellenic sphere
● The Treasury of the Athenians stood at the turning point of the Sacred Way, where most worshippers were
likely to rest. Its prime location meant they were able to promote themselves. It was built in distyle in antis
and dates back to 490 BC
○ It was dedicated from the spoils from the battle of marathon
 ○ By using Theseus in the metopes to show the victories of Athens, the treasury establishes Athens
as one of the most powerful city-states of Greece
○ Although Herakles was also depicted on the metopes, the added heroic character showed the
Athenians increasing devotion to Theseus.

Theatre

● Reflects the presence of Dionysus at Delphi - he is the God of Theatre and was thought to reside at Delphi
for three months of the year
● It is located inside of the temenos of Apollo and against the north-east corner of it peribolos
● It was built in the forth century BC out of Parnassus limestone and was rebuilt several times
● The seating plan catered to an audience of 5,000 who would have watched plays, poetry, readings and
musical events
● Inscriptions relevant to the emancipation of slaves are embedded in the walls of the parodoi, but their texts
have become illegible with wear.
● Originally, there was a Pythian festival held every eight years, where the singing of a hymn to Apollo would
be sung. This was replaced by the Pythian Games

Stadium

● Space for 6,500 spectators, measured 178 metres in length and was built either within the second half of
the forth century BC or even after the Galatian attacks.
● On the highest point of the Archeological site.
● An inscription found forbids the removal of sacrificial wine from beyond the stadium
● The majority of athletic contests took place here, including running races, javelin and discus
● The equestrian competitions were held in the hippodrome
● Site of the Pythian Games
○ Instituted in self-penance for the slaying of Python
○ Held every eight years but became a quadrennial event by 582 BC, in honour of Apollo
○ Founded in the sixth century BC
○ Lasted six to eight days and started by a re-enactment of the victory of Apollo over Python
○ Ritual sacrifice was held in the Temple of Apollo
○ Both athletic and artistic contests were held
■ Shows the importance of worship through the games because the Greeks had places solely
dedicated to this
■ A ritual sacrifice and four days of celebration would precede the games which shows the
purpose of them was to honour Apollo

Delphi: Oracular Consultation

● Consultation of the Pythia only took place on the first day of the month for nine months as Apollo was
absent between December and February. Before the 6th century BC, it is likely that consultation took place
on Apollo’s birthday only
● The Pythia would purify herself and perform offerings to Apollo and priests would verify that divine
consultation could proceed. If the goat shuddered after having water sprinkled on its head, then it would
be sacrificed so they could then consult the oracle
● There was a hierarchy as to who got to address the Pythia first. This promanteia was granted by the
Amphictyonic League:
1. Delphians
2. Chios (because they had dedicated an enormous altar to the sanctuary)
 3. City-states
4. Individuals

Whilst worshippers waited for their turn, they would have had the opportunity to meet individuals from all over the
world and discuss ideas and queries. This made it a unique place.

The Pythia were ordinary women taken from local Delphian families. They did not have to be virgins but they did
need to be chaste whilst on duty.

Payment

● The worshipper bought a pelanos which was a small sacrificial cake that was burnt on the altar
● The prices were different for state and individual consultations as well as which city the individual came
from; Athens paid more because it was wealthy but King Croesus did not have to pay at all because of the
donations he had made to the site

Oracular Consultation

● Only men could address the Pythia

● Exactly how the Pythia transformed into the mouthpiece of Apollo is highly debated. Some argue:
○ She chewed on laurel leaves
○ She inhaled vapours that emanated from the ground but no chasm has been found. It seems
unlikely that the gas would have had the same effects each time and there are no accounts of any
other person being affected
● Questions concerned war, marriage, trade and travel, indicating the wide range of questions posed
● The Corycian Cave was where ‘lot oracles’ took place. Questions requiring a yes or no answer were posed
and a black and white dice was cast to determine whether it was positive or negative
● One of the most famous oracles was the consultation of Croesus, the King of Lydia, about whether or not
he should go to war with the Persians. The oracle replied that if he went to war with the Persians, a great
empire would fall, which unfortunately turned out to be his own.
● Another example would be Athens’ “Wooden Walls” during the invasion from Persia to avenge their loss at
marathon, the oracle told them to trust in their “wooden walls,” which turned out to be the walls of their
ships at sea. It lead to another victory against the Persians.

Why did the Greeks believe the Ravings of a Priestess?

● The cost for individuals and city-states to consult the oracle suggest that there was genuine trust and
appreciation in the advice given
● They were given the opportunity to think through options and meet new people
● State queries would have benefited from the gatherings of people as they could share news that would help
influence decisions
● They believed the Pythia was not purely insane but had special insight and understanding

Prescribed Source
Attic Kylix Depicting a Consultation of the Pythia
Date: 440 – 430 BC
Significance: Red-figure
Artist: Kodros Painter
Significance: Shows how the oracle at Delphi may have been consulted
 ● Wearing a laurel wreath, a sign to honour Apollo
● It is unclear whether the male figure is a consultant or a priest
● The column suggests that they are indoors, possibly in the adyton
● The pythias head is veiled and whole body is covered, showing modesty
● Pythia holds a laurel branch and libation bowl
● Pythias sits on a bronze tripod, associated with apollo

The Sanctuary at Olympia

● Dedicated to Zeus but other Gods were also worshipped there
● Situated in the Western Peloponnese and like Delphi, Olympia was not a City- State, but unlike Delphi,
Olympia was under the control of a single city, Elis.
○ They provided all priests and officials and before in Games, a large procession was held from Elis
to Olympia, displaying their influence over it sanctuary
● The sanctuary included various religious, Civic and secular buildings
● Religious activities included prayer, offerings, feasts, sacrifices and the Games themselves
● The Olympic Games were held every four years and were a Panhellenic event - the first recoveld Games was
in 776 BCE but it is generally believed that they had already been going on a few years prior
● Religious significance of the games
○ Participation was considered a form of worship
○ Winning was believed to be due to divine favour over athletic ability
● Political Significance
○ Ekecheiria or truce - any ongoing conflict between city-states was suspended during the games
■ It unified their power and brought together separate cities, reinforcing shared cultural and
religious values - cementing a Panhellenic identity

Origin Myths
● Herakles, son of Zeus, established the games at Olympia and decreed the Greek men from all city-states
should meet on the plains every four years to honour Zeus
○ It was Herakles who instituted it ritual of honouring the victors with an olive wreath
○ The reelopes on it temple of Zeus depict the 12 labours of Herakles
● Pelops won the hand of his bride, Hippodanica by competing in a chariot race against her father, king
Oinomas of Pisa, in Elis. Pelops conspired to win the race by replacing the Linchpins on the King's chariot
with ones made of wax. They melted on the course, throwing him from the chariot and killing him. The
first gaves commemorated this victory.
○ This is depicted on to East pediment of the Temple of Zeus
● Pausanias suggests that the origins lie in Zeus's victory over Kronus
○ "Now some say the Zeus wrestled here with Kronos himself for the throne, while others say that
he held the games in honour of his victory over kronos.”
● Whichever story is the correct one, the commonality between them is that the origin of the games is found
following a personal or competitive victory and were intended to honour the gods

Prescribed Source
The Site of Olympia
Date: 6th century BC
Significance: Panhellenic sanctuary and site of the most important festival of
games
Festivals: Olympic Games
● Its site and use are firmly linked with the mythology and cult of Olympian Zeus, but he was not the only
figure worshipped at the site
● Olympia was under the authority of Elis and the Eleans provided all the priests and officials before the
opening of the Olympic Games
 ● The sanctuary was called the Altis

The Temple of Zeus

● Stood in the centre of the Altis and dominated the landscape

● It was built before 456 BC and housed the chryselephantine statue of Zeus made by Pheidias
● The east pediment depicted the chariot race between Pelops and Oinomas
○ Oinomas had received a prophecy that he would die when his daughter had married. In order to
avoid this, he announced a chariot race, for he was a formidable charioteer and believed that
no-one could out-compete him. Pelops, however, was given a chariot that was drawn by winged
horses by Poseidon (his former lover) before replacing the bronze linchpins with ones made of
wax. The wheels of the chariot flew off and Oinomas was flung to his death
○ In the centre, stands Zeus, presiding over the event and ensuring that the hero defeats the barbaric
Oinomas who had beheaded all previous opponents
○ This was one of two foundation myths of the Olympic Games
● The West Pediment portrayed the Centauromachy, the mythical battle between the Centaurs and Lapiths.
This symbolised civilisation triumphing over barbarism. Apollo stands in the middle, as god of justice and
order
● The metopes portrayed the Twelve Labours of Heracles. He was lauded by athletes due to his strength and
agility and was also believed to have founded the Olympic Games after murdering Augeas (after
completing his fifth labour as he was not given his payment)

Statue of Zeus

● One of the seven wonders of the ancient world

● Made by Phidias
● It took twelve years to build and was added to the temple in 448 BC
● It was chryselephantine
● 13 metres tall
● Zeus is seated on a throne, holding the goddess Nike in his right hand and a sceptre topped with an eagle in
the other
● Used to reaffirm his supremacy, power and authority
● It was only ever likely open to spectators during the Olympic Games

Ash Altar of Zeus

● Apparently built on the site where Zeus had struck his lightning bolt from Mount Olympus
● It had existed since as early as the 10th century BC and was constructed from piles of ash (from previous
sacrifice) and water from the Alpheios
● By the second century AD, it was almost seven metres high
● This was the site of worship of Zeus and where sacrifices were made throughout the games

Treasuries

● Twelve treasuries were located before the entrance to the stadium; this meant maximum visibility and self-
promotion
● These acted as votive offerings to house dedications to the gods
● These were dedicated by Greeks from all over the world; many come from Southern Italy

Zanes
 ● Bronze statues of Zeus which depicted him about to throw his thunderbolt
● They were paid for with the fines imposed on athletes who cheated and their purpose was to warn athletes
against cheating for they acted as visual reminders of the punishment the god could inflict on those who
defied him
● On the first day, all athletes and judges had to swear an oath not to cheat and to judge fairly to Zeus
Horkios (protector of Oaths)

Echo Stoa (Stoa Poikile)

● It was called ‘Echo’ because it was believed that a single word would echo seven times within it
● It was also known as the Stoa Poikile because of the paintings that once adorned the inside
● The competition for trumpeters and heralds was held here on the first day of the Olympic Games; the
victor would remain as the official trumpeter and herald for the rest of the festival
● Herototus of Megara won the herald competition ten consecutive times

Stadium

● Running, races, combat and field events took place here

● The running races always finished facing the Altis, showing the dedication to Zeus and the importance of
religion at the games
● It could accommodate between 40,000 and 45,000 spectators; this was significant as it was extremely
difficult to travel in the ancient world
● Only judges and priestesses of Demeter Chamyne (the only women allowed to view the games) had a
specially assigned seating area

Olympic Games

● Held every four years and were the most famed of the four sets of games
● They are believed to have been found in 776 BC
● They were a five-day event, preceded by a procession from Elis for athletes, judges and trainers, with
sacrifices taking place along the way
● They allowed individuals to asset their Greek identity since only Greeks were allowed to compete. Philip II
of Macedon depicted his victory in the four horse chariot race in 338 BC on coinage to emphasise that he
and Macedon were Greek

Women at the Olympic Games

● Women were forbidden from pariticpating in the games and married women were not allowed to enter the
stadium
● If a woman did break the law, then she was thrown from Mount Typaion
● Kallipaeira was a woman who was not punished because she raised and trained her son Peisidoros. She
dressed as a man and entered the stadium to watch her son running, but in her celebration, her clothes fell
and revealed her female body. She was not punished because she came from a family of Olympic victors
● Young girls took place at the Heraia (dedicated to Hera). They dressed in a short robe, with the right
shoulder naked to the breast, and ran around the track. The winner received an olive-tree wreath and could
have her image sculpted on the Heraion
● This running event had been established by either Hippodamia or by the sixteen women of Elis that wove
the peplos
Key Term Definition

Pediment The triangular space at the top of the Eastern and

Western sides of the temple and were often sculpted

Doric Frieze Identified by the alternating triglyphs, which were

three horizontal lives engraved in the marble, and
metopes, a rectangular space that could be sculpted

Ionic Frieze Identified by a continuous area that could be sculpted

Machē 'Battle’

Adyton The ‘forbidden room,’ behind the naos, at the back of

the temple

Caryatid A female figure used in place of a column to support

the architectural sculpture

Naos The main room of the temple where the cult statue
was kept

Omphalos Navel/belly-button

Peribolos The sanctuary itself, the sacred land, distinguished by a

wall of boundary stones

Promanteia The right to consult the oracle first

Pythia The priestess who spoke the oracle at Delphi, said to be

selected from the best and most valued families in
Delphi, and once chosen, she had to lead a life of
chastity and exercise

Temenos A piece of land marked off for specific religious usage

Treasury This building has the same appearance and

architecture of temples and was set up by city-states to
house religious dedications and acted as a religious
offering in itself

Distyle in antis
Part 5: Rituals and Priests

Priests and Priestesses

● Priests and priestesses had to be practised in their services; they fulfilled the important role of invoking the
goodwill of the gods on behalf of the entire community because they did not want to provoke the anger of
the gods
● Anyone could become a priest or priestess in the ancient world
● Their position and expertise varied depending on where they practised but had to have many skills in order
to align with the variations in cults
● Religious authority lay in the hands of the state and the state alone; it is nearly impossible to separate
religious personnel as their jobs included political and religious tasks
● Priests were employed by the city and performed rituals at civic occasions
● If they were oracular priests, they would interpret oracles when the city sought a god’s advice

Priestesses were employed for female deities and priests for male deities. There were exceptions, which include the
Pythia at the Delphic Oracle

Why Become a Priest?

Despite it being an unpaid occupation, many became priests because it had many privileges attached, similar to
those of politicians.

● They had front row seats at the Theatre of Dionysus on the slope of the Acropolis
● They received the best cuts of sacrificial meat
● They were highly regarded in society
● It brought with it prestige

How were Priests Chosen?

● Through inheritance – the position of certain priesthoods were passed down through the family. These
were mostly lifelong and were associated with important civic cults such as Athena Polias and Demeter at
Eleusis
● By lot – they were chosen at random
● Through purchase – through buying the position of a priest within a certain priesthoods

The Connection between Aristocratic Families and Priesthoods

● At Eleusis, the Eumolpidae provided the hierophants for the mysteries. They traced their heritage to King
Eumolopos who was introduced to the mysteries by the goddess herself
● The Kerykes traced their lineage back to Keryx, the first mythological priest of Demeter at Eleusis. They
provided the dadouchos, who would provide light to the ceremony. This was a great honour
● The priestess of Athena Polias was the most important female priesthood in ancient Greece. They came
from the Eteoboutadae and her significance is shown through the fact that she appeared alongside the most
important political officials
○ On the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon, she appears with the Archon Basileus as he had the peplos to
Athena. This is important because women were generally excluded from politics
○ Religion was perhaps the only area where women were clearly visible and had influence on society
Women generally took part of the administration of sacred rites and led processions that attracted worshippers.
They even organised their own festivals such as the Thesmophoria.
● The Thesmophoria was held in honour of Demeter and Persephone, celebrated around the time that the
seeds were sown in late autumn and celebrated agricultural fertility as well as the kidnapping of Persephone
● It was restricted to adult women and the rites practised were kept secret from men who were forbidden to
learn of the rites
● It is unclear as to whether this was open to all women or aristocratic women only

The Sacrifice

Sacrifices could be performed by anyone who had the means to do so, meaning even housewives and slaves could
perform sacrifices. They could easily learn the process through imitation and involvement in rituals. Since priests
could be chosen by lot, it had to be a process that could be performed by the majority of individuals. For blood
sacrifice, skills in butchery had be acquired.
● Grain, flowers and savoury cakes were offered to the gods but blood sacrifice was the most common
sacrifice
● The ritual slaughtering of the animal was central to the community and supplied meat
● Sheep, goats, pigs and cattle were all sacrificed. The choice of animal depended on the type of festival, its
scale and the budget available
● The hecatomb was the most famous of all blood sacrifices as at least one hundred oxen were slaughtered.
This was rarely done because of the expense imposed. In later periods, it came to be done with a dozen oxen
instead
● Depictions show the leading of the animal to the altar but hardly ever the actual killing or allocation of the
meat
● The sacrifice was conducted on an altar outside the temple
● Most knowledge about sacrifices comes from Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey and the works of Euripides and
Aristophanes

1. The animal was led to the altar. Each participant cleansed their hands (to remove pollution) and took a
handful or barley grain from a basket. The animal’s head was sprinkled with water to force a nod of
agreement, followed by the cutting of a strand of hair. This hair was put on the altar as a taster for the god.
A prayer was uttered in order to receive an outcome
2. The animal’s throat was cut with a knife. Larger animals were stunned with a blow using an axe. Women
chanted the ritual cry – ololyge – to mark the passage from life to death. The blood was used to stain the
altar
3. The deity received their portion first – thigh bones wrapped in fat. The entrails were taken out and roasted
on the spits of fire before being shared amongst worshippers. It was then cooked and distributed among
participants and the community in a communal meal. The entrails would be read to understand omens

Purpose and Function of Blood Sacrifice

● Blood sacrifice served to unit a community, fed people, displayed strength and the relationships between
animals and the community
● The religious dimensions of the sacrifice were central to the ritual. The gods needed to be appeased in order
to request their goodwill
● Sacrifice allowed the celebration of the gods but equally the achievements of mortals. For example,
celebrating a victory at the end of the Olympic Games equally honoured the gods as it did the victors
Role of Libations in State and Private Contexts

● The second most common form of sacrificial ritual

● The Greeks poured water, wine, milk or honey to honour the gods, heroes or even the dead in order to ask
for their favour
● They were used to mark the beginning or ending of a day, banquets or the sacrifice itself
● Travellers poured libations on the occasion of safe arrival on land – the Argonauts poured libations of
honey and wine to Gaia
● Libations were poured out of a wine jug into a libation bowl and then either onto the altar or into the
ground (if honouring a dead individual)

The Greeks also buried the sacrificial victims or objects of importance. At the Thesmophoria, for example, women
ritually buried the piglets in order to excavate the remains the following year to be used as a fertilising agent on the
Athenian fields. Greek sanctuaries were overcrowded with dedications including jewellery, statues and inscriptions.
This led to clearances of the sanctuaries and the objects were either stored in treasuries or buried ritually, depending
on their size and importance.

Votive offerings marked the reciprocal relationship with the gods. The offerings were made as either thanks or for
something in return. They were used to punctuate a person’s life stages. For example:
● On becoming adolescents, children offered toys or locks of hair
● Craftsmen offered their tools at retirement
● Successful warriors offered their prizes from war or the weapons they used in combat

● Votive offerings were kept in the sanctuary. Expensive votive offerings were recorded in inventory lists
● Wealthier individuals could afford to bore an inscription with their name. larger offerings displayed one’s
wealth and position within the city
● They provide us with important insights into the lives, facts and habits of individuals

Prescribed Source
Attic Red-Figure Stamnos Depicting a Sacrifice
Date: 450-430 BC
Significance: An important vase depicting a rare scene which was part of a
blood sacrifice
Points to Analyse:
● Shows a sacrificial scene with Nike present
● Nike likely indicates that this sacrifice was held at the occasion of a victory, thanking the gods
● On the altar perhaps burns the horn of an ox
● The bearded, wreathed man is Archenautes and he holds a kylix from which wine is poured
● Nike also perhaps pours wine from a kylix
● Nikodemos holds a piece of meat on a spit
● Sosipos/Sositheos roasts a piece of meat in the flames
● This was most likely held on the occasion of a military victory or as preparation for a
competition/battle/war

Key Term Definition

Dadouchos ‘Torchbearer’ – the second most important priest in

the Eleusinian Mysteries, drawn from the Kerykes
family
Priestess of Athena Polias Key participant in the Panathenaic Procession who
carried
the peplos of Athena

Thesmophoria An Athenian festival reserved only for female citizens

Part 6: Religion and Philosophy

The Rise of Philosophical Thinking

Birth of Philosophy - Reason over Faith
● Born in the 6th Century BC on the Eastern coast of Asia Minor in Ionia (Greek Cities living under control
of the Persian Empire.
● Its importance is that it casts into question a number of central assumptions about Greek Religion. It was
virtually iconoclastic.
● The enlightenment originated in the Greek Cities on the western coast of Turkey and the offshore islands.
● They did not constitute a unified group or school as such, although they did shave a number of ideas.
● The conflicting nature of different religions possibly led to the idea that they were all wrong, the Greek
enlightenment. Rationalist approach to religion
● Religion and philosophy were closely linked. There was no differentiation between science and philosophy
● Herodotus and Thucydides both formulate their own thoughts on religion, the gods and their worship as
part of their works
● Presocratic philosophers developed theologies that deviated from ‘the religion of many.’ They criticised and
ridiculed the gods
● Xenophanes was the first to suggest a cosmic god
● Fragments surviving from philosophers who came before Plato discuss the Olympian Gods and the rituals
their worship entailed.
● Thales of Miletus was named as the first pre socratic philosopher by Aristotle
● Socrates was executed in 399 BC

The Pre Socratics - Xenophanes, Heraclitus (everything always changes), Sophists (persuasion and
rhetoric), Parmenides (change is an illusion),
Started to think scientifically.

Xenophanes
● He initiated the Enlightenment and lived in the second half of the sixth century BC, in Colophon
○ “Both Homer and Hesiced have attributed to the Gods everything which brings shame and
reproach among men: theft, adultery and mutual fraud.” - there is a problem with the portrayal of
the Gods of Homer and Hesiod, a critique of anthropomorphism.
■ The Gods are supposed to be better than humans and yet they present with many moral
issues.
■ Presented as completely amoral (it's not clear whether they had morals at all.)
○ "If oxen or horses or lions had hands or could paint a picture and create works of art like man,
horses would draw pictures of Gods like horses, oxen pictures of Gods like oxen, and each species
would make the body of its Gods in accordance with its own appearance.” - anthropomorphism is
the default for the creation of religion.
■ If a god is supposed to rule over all of existence, why would they look human? He's saying
that we create the Gods, presenting a paradox of creation. -> doesn't say there are no Gods
but instead says this is a faulty representation of them.
■ He compares what we do with animals. Satirises the idea of the Gods.
■ Relativism -> the Gods resemble those who made them.
○ “He declared his belief in: one God, one who is greatest among Gods and among men who was
neither a body nor a mind that resembles that of mortals.’ - describes a henotheistic outlook on
religion.
■ He may or may not have agreed with this version but because it's out of context it's
impossible to tell.
 ○ “No man has ever known certainty nor will any man ever have certainty about the Gods and all
things I mention. For even if he should chance to hit upon the exact truth he cannot know that he
has done so. Appearance possesses everything.” - even if we did know the truth, we wouldn't be
aware of its validity.
■ He doesn't say the Gods don't exist, he's just doubting their nature. Agnostic.
● We don't know what his overall philosophy was because these fragments were found in other philosophers’
works to prove their own viewpoint and they are so small that we can't be sure what context they were
written in. All we really do know is that he was not blindly faithful to the Gods and took a rational
approach to his religion.
● 'Xenophanes rejects traditional concepts of divine disclosure as theologically faulty and supplants them
with his own, alternative notion of disclosure’ S. Tor (' Mortal and divine in Venoplanes’ Epistemology') in
Rhizomata 1, issue 2, 2013. - They suggest Xenophanes is presenting his own thoughts of religion instead
of reciting it the same as everyone else.
○ Rejects the creative approach and substitutes his own rationalist viewpoint.
● Xenophanes’ natural philosophy and view of the world can be seen as a simplified form of the Milesian
School’s cosmology that had been initiated by Thales of Miletus. He believed that the origin of the world
could be found in water and earth alone
● Xenophanes said the stars could be explained by clouds originating in the sea
● Stoics followed his systematic articulation of the concept of one cosmic god

Heraclitus
● He was a Pre Socratic Philosopher from the Ionian Greek city of Ephesus around 500 BC.
● He was known as the "weeping philosopher” and originated the philosophy of becoming (everything is
always changing).
● His key ideas are flux (impermanence or mutability), enantiodromia (things emerge from their opposites)
and criticisms of all other writers and philosophers.
● He was famously miserable and misanthropist and said blower should be "beaten with a stick”
● He wrote a book called Physis (On Nature) and lodged it in the Temple of Artemis, which was burned
down so only fragments of his work remain.
○ "The dead are nastier than dung. " - Suggests an uncleanliness about the dead and by comparing
death to excrement he highlights the unpleasant and distressing nature of it.
■ Implies that funeral rituals would have included a "cleansing" aspect, also shows how
death was considered unclear spiritually too
○ "To God all things are beautiful, good and just; but men have assumed some things to be just,
others unjust“ - Suggests that men are wrong about religion and assume that God thinks as they
do
■ He displays the conflicting nature of religion but shows no signs of Atheism. He does not
deny the existence of a God but does doubt the belief of others in their assumptions
about God.
○ "On those who enter the same rivers, ever different water flows” - Change is constant and
unavoidable
○ "Homer deserves to be taken out of the games and beaten with a stick, and Archilochus too.” -
Shows a clear dislike for other writers and Philosophers who do not share his views
■ Archilochus was a poet and soldier who wrote about personal feelings and experience.
■ Homer's glorification of the immorality of the Gods is questioned by many philosophers
but not so viciously as Heraclitus.
○ "The way up and the way down is one and the same." - Suggests all paths had to the same place
■ Things emerge from their opposites
○ "It rests by changing…” - Change is natural and easy
■ Impermanence and mutability
 ○ Heraclitus said that a man's character is his fate - the idea that who you are affects your life in in
substantial manor
■ Relates to the idea of fatal flaws
■ Who your are leads to your death
○ "Cold things become warm, and what is warm cools; what is wet dries, and the parched is
moistened." - introduces an idea of balance/equilibrium
■ Things emerge from this opposite
■ There is a constant balance in change

The Sophists
● The sophists were travelling, paid teachers who were severely criticised in this time
● Aristophanes’ play "The Clouds,” damningly accused Socrates of being a sophist - arguing that the weaker
case is the stronger. In the context of the new democracy, this was considered dangerous and a subversive
perversion of the truth.
● R. Garland suggests that the sophists emerged alongside the importance of public speaking in Athens and
"Gave young men the intellectual tools to challenge accepted practice and belief.”
● Protagoras of Abdera (485-415 BC) wrote - "Concerning the Gods I am unable to discover whether they
exist or not; there are many obstacles to knowledge, the obscurity of the subject and the brevity of human
life.“- he admits that you cannot prove the existence of the Gods
○ Mortality is an obstacle to knowledge, especially certainty about religion
● Anaxagoras was a friend of Pericles. He ended up in exile when the Athenians passed a low which barred
the hind of sceptical thinking these philosophers were known for
○ His most important view was that Mind was the controlling aspect of the universe. He also
claimed that the sun and moon, traditionally perceived as Greek deities, were actually rocks
● “All things living both great and smell are controlled by Mind and the kind of things that were to be and
that once were but now are not, and all now is and the kind of things that will be - all these are determined
by Mind.” - Anaxagoras may have believed in freewill over fate
● It is likely that the Sophists flourished in 5th Century Athens because of the City's freedom of speech for
non-slave citizens and its wealth of resources and their general ability to persuade. They were considered
dangerous because they taught that the most important thing in an was winning, regardless of the
credibility and truth
○ they were incredibly distrusted because of their ability to manipulate and change minds into
believing anything

Parmenides
● He was an Eleatic Philosopher from Elea Magna Graecia c500.
● His main idea was "All is One” and founded the study of being
○ "We can speak and think only of what exists. And what exists is uncreated and imperishable for it is
whole and unchanging and complete. It was not nor shall be different since it is now, all at once,
one and continuous.“ - Something either exists or does not exist.
■ State of being is eternal and unchanging. He does not believe in the concept of becoming.
Believes in the opposite of Heraclitus and argues that change is impossible.
■ Denies creation.
○ "All is one. Change is an illusion.” - Suggests monotheistic views
■ In consistent with Homer's Gods
○ " Every thing is of the nature of no thing.” -
○ "It is indifferent to me where I am to begin, for there shall I return again.” - no change is possible,
including movement and death
■ Cycle of being
■ Unafraid of death
 ○ "The only roads of enquiry to think of: firstly, that it is and that it is not possible for it not to be,
this is the path of persuasion (for truth is its companion); the other, that it is not and that it must
not be - this I say to you is a part wholly unknowable.”- Something either exists or it does not exist
therefore no change is possible
○ "Do not let habit, born from experience, force you along this road, directing aimless eye and
echoing car and tongue; but judge by reason the much contested proof of which I have spoken.” -
the road to the truth is not tradition, it is logic and reason
● His ideas are both similar and radically different to Heraclitus’ in that they both explore the consistency of
change but Parmenides states the everything is Unchanging while Heraclitus states everything is in a
Constant state of change

Zeno
● Zeno was a Pre Socratic philosopher whose paradoxes were intended to support Parmenides' doctrine
● He was a Disciple of Parmenides.
● Achilles and the Tortoise: This suggests that motion is not existent because, logically speaking, Achilles
would never be able to catch up to the tortoise. First Achilles must run half the distance between himself
and the tortoise leaving half of the distance left. He must then run the next half of that half. And
supposing this is done an infinite number of times, Achilles would never catch up with the tortoise.
○ An attempt to prove rationally that motion is impossible. He makes several assumptions about
time and space. It assumes the relative speeds are essentially the same and Achilles will eventually
move at the same speed as the tortoise. Space can be divided incrementally and he treats these
increments as real rather than real measurements
● The Arrow: This suggests that at any given time a filming arrow is at rest. If everything when occupying
equal space is at rest the flying arrow is therefore motionless
○ Another attempt to disprove movement. Assumes that time is incremental and is subjective. Time
cannot stop. Objects don't pause.
○ Makes people question the nature of time.
● The Millet Seed: The idea that because a single seed makes no sound when dropped, an entire bushel
should be completely silent.
○ Makes the assumption that the millet seed makes no sound rather than just being unhearable

Influence of the Pre Socratics on it historians of th 5th C BCE

● Thucydides: he was an Athenian General who was exiled in 422 BC. He wrote of the plague in Athens in
430 BC that mortality began to break down (kills a third of the Athenian population)
○ " Fear of Gods or law of men there was none to restrain them. As for the first, they judged it to be
just the same whether they worshipped them or not, as they saw all alike perishing.” 2.47.1-55.1
■ He didn't see the point in worshipping omnipotent gods who wouldn't protect them
from a plague - the outcome would be the same either way, whether they worship them or
not.
■ There is no benefit for worshipping the Gods, so they stopped.
■ More secular than Herodotus
● Herodotus: He was born in Halicarnassus and was influenced by Xenoplanes’ approach. Exposure to it
Persian religion influenced the theology of the Pre Socratics in Asia Minor and this influence of two forms
of religion perhaps making them sheplical of both
○ He describes the difference in religious rituals between Persia and Greece.
○ "It is not [the persians] custom to make and set up statues and temples and alters, but those who
do such things they think foolish, because, I suppose, they have never believed the Gods to be like
men, as the Greeks do,” - Histories 1.131
■ Relativism - A rational study
 ■ The Persians think that the Greeks are foolish for their rituals and Anthropomorphic
religion

Why was Socrates prosecuted in 399 BC?

● Socrates was a local man, who was born in Athens and had lived there for the majority of his life. He
refused to receive money for his teaching
● Impiety: Asebeia (insulting the Gods)
○ To prosecute impiety was in the public interest of Athens as Athenian law forbade impiety
○ It became a criminal offence only in about 432BC when Diopeithes Decree, for which this is little
evidence, was passed in the Athenian assembly
■ In all likelihood it was passed in order to prosecute Anaxagoras, a friend of the Athenian
Leader Pericles
■ The only reference to this decree comes from Plutarch's life of Pericles: "And Diopeithes
proposed a decree, the public accusations should be laid against persons who neglects
religion, or taught new doctrines about things above, directing suspicion, by means of
Anaxagoras, against Pericles himself.” - He's not a contemporary writer, he's about 500
years out but he used lost sources so it's mostly reliable
○ The main use of Asebeia is to settle political scores
○ Modern Scholarship: Martin Oswald
■ Greek religion was “indifferent to belief” so they stress ritual and sacrifice. Valued practice
over belief
● Corruption of the youth: It was argued that he did not believe in the right deities of Athens and that he
introduced new deities. This led to the corruption of the youth whom he had ‘infected’
○ The main reason for this was Alcibiades who was a pupil and lover of Socrates
○ He was can Athenian General blamed for the defeat of Athens by Sparta in 404 BC
○ Critias, son of Callaeschrus, an Athenian philosopher, rhetorician, poet, historian, and political
leader, was best known for his leading role in the pro-Spartan government of the Thirty
■ one at the Oligarchs put in place by the Spartans after their victory in 404 BC was one of
his students
● Being a Sophist:
○ The sophists taught how to make the weaker argument strong, which can be incredibly damaging
in a democracy where charismatic figures can sway votes in an assembly
○ This was a powerful accusation because the Sophists were heavily distrusted and disliked for their
ability to manipulate
○ Socratic Irony: "I know I know nothing”
● Anytus - restored democracy - was the main prosecutor because his son was a student of Socrates
● Plato makes it very clear that he was not an atheist but that he was engaged in theological thinking.
● Plato shows Socrates to be ambivalent about his own views and never sees him as a teacher of any sort.
○ Plato's Apology is a version of the defence speech Socrates delivered in 399 BC at his trial:
■ Socrates divides his accusers into two groups - Anytus and his cronies and the group he
fears much more - "Those who have taken the majority of you in from childhood,
persuading you and laying the utterly untruthful charge that a certain Socrates is an
intellectual, a theorist about the firmament, can investigator of everything the lives
beneath the earth, and thave who makes the weaker argument the stronger.”
■ " You yourselves have seen, in Aristophanes comedy, a kind of Socrates carried aloft and
claiming to walk on air and uttering all sorts of nonsense, about which I know nothing
whatever, neither much nor little.“
 ■ “ It is a sort of voice… which opposes my engaging in politics. And I think this opposition
is a very good thing; for you may be quite sure, men of Athens, that if I had undertaken to
go into politics, I should have been put to death long ago…”
■ He denies the charges
■ Tries to discredit his accusers and the judgement of the Jury by saying that the accusations
arise from years of prejudice against him
■ Claims poverty, he can't live been paid for his teachings - therefore he is not a Sophist
■ Not in politics anyway due to differing views
■ His dimonian, a personal conscience, becomes part of the Asebeia
■ Sympathetic portrayal of Socrates
● Xenophon also wrote dialogues which recreate conversations between Socrates and other philosophes and
dso recreated his trial - Sympathetic portrayal
○ Xenophon - Philosopher, soldier, historian who was sent into exile in Sparta
○ "Apollo answered that no man was more free, then I, or more just, or more prudent.”
○ Socrates is shown denying the charges
○ PRACTICE: He is equally pious as everyone else, participated, sacrificed etc…
○ BELIEF: daimonion - always been there telling him is duty, denies having invented his own good
(also denies having stolen it from Heraclitus)
■ Also says its normal, people speak of hearing the Gods everywhere even in nature
(utterances, chance meetings, nature)
○ CHAEREPHON’S trip to delphi to speak to the Pythia
● Plato describes the diamonian as something that tells Socrates what not to do while Xenophon describes it
as a guide for his actions.
● He defends himself: the unexamined life is not a life worth leading
● Famous last words: "I owe a cockerel to Asclepius…”
● He was found guilty on a narrow majority
● Socrates was charged and tried by the Athenian state for ‘impiety.’ He was found guilty of all charges
brought against him and was therefore executed
○ The Athenians believed they had been punished for the open questioning of the intellectual elite
○ Socrates was pharmakos - a scapegoat to cleanse the city of the miasma which had led to their
defeat in the Peloponnesian war in 404 BC
○ He was blamed for losing the war, real reasons for losing the war:
■ Plague of 430 BC
■ Attack on Sicily 415 BC
■ Alcibiades fuck ups
■ Persians help Sparta

The Case of Alcibiades

● The main problem for Socrates was his association with Alcibiades who was accused of the mutilation of
the Herms in 415BC and performing the mysteries in front of uninitiated slaves
● He was sentenced to death while in Sicily and avoided punishment by defecting to it other side (first to the
Spartans then to the Persians) before he was welcomed back in Athens
● His ultimate failure lead to the death of Socrates
● In Aristophanes’ The Frogs Aeschylus says, "It's a better idea to not rear a lion in a city but if you do you
better obey his every whim.” about Alcibiades
○ Saying that although it would be better to not house dangerous people In Athens, its better to
keep them happy than let them go elsewhere

Aristophanes: The Clouds 423 BC

 ● In 423 BC, Socrates was portrayed as a figure of fun but 24 years later he was condemned and executed for
inepiety and his “corruption of the youth.”
○ In 432 BC, a law was passed against impiety (Diopeithes Decree) - this is related to social crisis
(Peloponnesian War)
● Aristophanes (450-388 BC) - His plays were old comedies which combine boisterous, bawdy humour,
parody and choral poetry with social satire. he ridicules Alterian political figure and mocks Socrates and the
Sophists
○ Plot: A debt-riddled Athenian farmer Strepsiades needs help, and a school called the Thinkery
offers a solution: learn to argue his way out of debt. Before he can change his life, Strepsiades has to
pass Socrates’ bizarre initiation tests and please the school's Goddesses, the clouds
○ Imagery:
■ Clouds - symbolises flexible, Shape-shifting persuasion techniques
■ Insects - symbolise insignificant details Sophists use to win arguments
■ Money - represents need, greed, desire and manipulation
● Some critics suggest that Strepsiades portrays Alcibiades as he was obsessed with horses and deeply in debt
● Socrates was presented as a heretic and somewhat madman. He was probably supposed to be perceived as a
satirical caricature of the real Socrates. He speaks total nonsense, which is probably how he sounded to
most Athenians. Is presented as a Sophist.
○ This would have helped to convict him because Strepsiades went to learn to argue his way out of
debt, further presenting Socrates as a Sophist
○ Also displays his “corruption of the youth” when Strepsiades wants to weasel his way out of what
he owes

Socrates’ defence
● Sophistry - Sophists were highly paid farther teaching; whereas he lived in poverty, and knows nothing
● Bad Reputation - The Pythia said there was no man wiser than Socrates (" I know I know nothing.")
● Corrupting it Youth -
○ The accusation is that socrates corrupted it rich young men of athens by teaching atheism
○ If he was convicted, it was because Aristophanes 24 years previously, corrupted people's minds
about him
○ He was never paid for his teachings so he could not be held responsible for it corruption of any
Attention citizen
● Atheism - says about how he conducts all sacrifices and participates in all festivals. Ie leads Miletus to
contradict himself: That Socrates is an atheist who also believes in spiritual agencies and demigods
○ He does implicitly validate this when talley about his daimonion
● Indifference to death

Socrates’ Ideas on the Divine and Justice

● He respected the gods and believed in their existence. He understood that they were far superior to humans
both in their wisdom and power.
● Socrates was simply assuming the existence of the gods but he never felt the need to prove their existence
and never needed to specify his ideas on the divine, as shown through Plato
● He never fully acknowledges or denies their existence but he is religiously pious
● Instead of following reason, Socrates followed his daimonion
● Socrates gave the gods much more moral high ground than Homer and Hesiod
● He assumes that justice is a virtue and attempts to show that it is always intrinsically better than acting
contrary to justice. It was always better to obey the rules than to not and for this reason, he never left
Athens or tried to escape his fate
● He willingly accepted execution as he preferred death from abstinence of philosophy
Socrates’ Ideas as Being Radical or Controversial
● Believed the gods may reward and aid the Greeks
● He never explicitly criticises the civic deities or appears to be impious, let alone deny their existence
● Some believe that the threat to the Athenian authorities was the possibility of a spread in this questioning
of the traditional attitude towards the gods
● He surrounded himself with individuals who turned against democracy in Athens, such as Critias and
Alcibiades, the latter of whom was due to be tried for religious charges that were anti-democratic but he
fled before he had to stand trial
● Socrates’ charges included impiety and the introduction of new gods as well as the corruption of young
men

Conclusion and Outlook

● We have no information on how far the Greeks were affected by the new philosophical schools
● We can assume that the well-educated few were able to read and understand such writings
● Socrates was not the only one considering alternative options – Aristophanes and Thucydides were critical
of the traditional view of the deities and mocked them in their plays
● It most likely influenced a few individuals only and these were mainly from the educated classes
● Their influence on the masses could only have been marginal

Key Term Definition

Daimonion A divine sign that prevents Socrates from doing certain

things

Monotheism The denial of the existence of all gods but one as

Presocratic Philosophers Philosophers living before Socrates, who was born in

469 BC

Socratic Method The method of question and answer cross-examination

as practised by Socrates in public and at private
symposia

Sophist Teachers and philosophers who charged for their

services, many of whom specialised in rhetorical
argument

Stoics Followers of a philosophical school founded in the late

4th century BC which advocated the belief in one
cosmic god

Henotheistic

Iconoclastic

Dialectic

Epiphany

Key Individuals
 Aristotle Greek philosopher from northern Greece and student at Plato’s Academy

Herodotus Historian and writer who wrote Histories where he attempted to write a history of past
events of the 5th century BC. His main focus was the causes and course of the Persian
War

Hesiod An epic poet who composed Works and Days (teaches farmers how to live good and
productive lives) and the Theogony describes the origins of the gods and their family
tree

Homer Credited with composing the Iliad and Odyssey. The Iliad takes place in the last year of
the Trojan War and focuses on the anger of Achilles. The Odyssey traces Odysseus’
journey home from Troy to Ithaca

Phidias Famed for both the chryselephantine sculptures of Athena Parthenos on the Acropolis
and of Olympian Zeus at Olympia

Plato Athenian philosopher and follower of Socrates

Socrates Athenian philosopher

Xenophanes of A Pre Socratic philosopher from Asia Minor

Colophon

Xenophon Historian and biographer who wrote about the events and society of his own time. He
wrote notably about the final years of the Peloponnesian War between Athens and
Sparta. He was exiled from Athens and went to live in Sparta after he attempted to help
Cyrus the Younger seize the Persian throne

Scholarship
● Allan – ‘’The gods are not portrayed as being amoral, but instead offer divine justice’’
● Mikalson – ‘’The state was recognising the importance of these family deities’’
● Bruit-Zaidman – ‘’Religion did more than just put a divine gloss on civic life. It impregnated each and
every civic activity’’
● Burkert – ‘’An anthropological approach, in which the shared aggression of the sacrificial killing actually
led to the founding of a community and therewith civilisation’’
● Detienne and Vernant – ‘’The sacrifice was killing for eating, especially feeding the people of a city which
may otherwise have not much meat in their diet’’
● Fred Naiden – ‘’Sacrifice served to maintain and stabilise the relationship between mortals and gods’’
● Herrmann – ‘’Socrates’ questioning of common concepts displayed in Plato’s dialogues thus forms part of
a wider trend which had called traditional beliefs and traditional belief into question’’