CRC - NOTES

UNIT 1 (A) Dharm

MEANING OF WORD DHARM
The Classical Sanskrit noun dharma is a derivation from the root dhṛ, which has a meaning of "to hold, maintain,
keep".The word "dharma" was already in use in the historical Vedic religion, and its meaning and conceptual scope
has evolved over several millennia. In simple language , dharm means duty, nature, faith and religion etc. and also
takes a meaning of "what is established or firm", and hence "law". Dharma is a concept of central importance in
Indian philosophy and religion.It has multiple meanings in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Dharma root is
"dhri", which means ‘to support, hold, or bear’. It is the thing that regulates the course of change by not
participating in change, but that principle which remains constant. In the hymns of the Rigveda the word Dharma
appears at least fifty-six times, as an adjective or noun. Dharma in Hinduism, is an organizing principle that applies
to human beings in solitude, in their interaction with human beings and nature, as well as between inanimate
objects, to all of cosmos and its parts. It refers to the order and customs which make life and universe possible,
and includes behaviors, rituals, rules that govern society, and ethics. Hindu dharma includes the religious duties,
moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those
that are virtuous. In Hinduism, it is the dharma of the bee to make honey, of cow to give milk, of sun to radiate
sunshine, of river to flow. In terms of humanity, dharma is the need for, the effect of and essence of service and
interconnectedness of all life.

Nothing is higher than Dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by Dharma, as over a king. Truly that Dharma is
the Truth (Satya); Therefore, when a man speaks the Truth, they say, "He speaks the Dharma"; and if he speaks
Dharma, they say, "He speaks the Truth!" For both are one. --- Brihadaranyaka Upanishad

(Whenever there is decay of righteousness, O Bharata, And there is exaltation of unrighteousness, then I Myself
come forth ; For the protection of the good, for the destruction of evil-doers, For the sake of firmly establishing
righteousness, I am born from age to age.)

Ten Attributes or Qualities of Dharmic people or who follow Dharm are explained according to Manu Smriti.
These are the qualities or attributes who possesses Dharm.

1. धतृ ि (धैम)य , =patience in adverse circumstances,do not give up while doing one’s dharm.
2. ऺभा (दस ू यों के द्वाया ककमे गमे अऩयाध को भाप कय दे ना, ऺभाशीर होना), ability to forgive everyone
without taking any grudge.
3. दभ ् (अऩनी वासनाओ ऩय तनमन्न्रण कयना), controlling wavering of mind.
4. अस्िेम (चोयी न कयना), =not using goods and services owned by somebody else. Here stealing even
includes if we imagine to possess something which are not owned by us.
5. शौच (अन्न्िमङ्ग औम पाह्भ शच ु चिा), =purity in thought,word and action.
6. इन्द्न्न्िम तनग्रह (इन्द्न्न्िमों को वश भें यखना), =controlling senses to be free.
7. धी (फद्
ु धधभिा का प्रमोग), =Wisdom or Vivek to discriminate right and wrong.
8. ववद्मा (अधधक से अधधक ऻान की वऩऩासा), =material and spritual knowledge.
9. सत्म (भन वचन कभय से सत्म का ऩारन कयना ) =following truth in every sphere of life. Here Manu
says that we need to authenticate the truth as well.
10. अक्रोध (क्रोध न कयना) ; =absence of anger because anger leads to violence.
These 10 qualities are present in every human being else he is similar to animals
If a human being does not possess dharm and his activity is limited to fooding, sleeping, fear of future and
producing offspring he has no right to be a human or similar to animal as dharm only distinguishes him from
animals. Though usually the word ‘Dharm’ is synonymously used with the word ‘Religion’ but they are totally
different. In short ‘Religion’ means ‘the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a
personal God or gods.’ Whereas ‘Dharm’ means ‘righteousness in word,action and thought.
Western Views about Religion
Religion is a mental state
Matthew Arnold
He defined religion as "morality touched with emotion".
William James
He concluded that while the revelations of the mystic hold true, they hold true only for the mystic; for others, they
are certainly ideas to be considered, but can hold no claim to truth without personal experience of such.
His views were quiet similar to Indian religious philosophy.
INDIAN VIEWS OF RELIGION
Religion is the way to find GOD and to unite with GOD
According to Param Guru Huzur Maharaj :
The path through which the spirit travels to its original abode and the techniques it adopts while doing so is known
as FAITH, MAJHAB, MAT, PANTH etc.
Dharma is sacred duty. The very performance of one’s duty makes it sacred. This is a metaphysical concept which
has to be elaborated further, given the problems of bhasha pariccheda, of explaining the sanatana dharma idiom
which evolved in the cultural domain of Bharatam, into English.
Dharma is inviolate, dharma is divine. As one attains the full potential of his aatman, one attains divinity. The very
performance of one's responsibility makes the action, the motion, divine. Sacredness inheres in the responsibility.
That is why, dharma is sacred.
Why does Valmiki refer to Rama as 'ramo vigrahavaan dharmah'? (Rama is the embodiment of dharma). Because,
as the prince who attained divinity, he embodied dharma by the performance of his responsibilities. That is why,
Rama is the ideal to aspire for every student, every son, every husband, every ruler.
Rama was a prince who became an ideal ruler. Such an ideal ruler that there are hundreds of epigraphs of later-
day rulers claiming to use Sri Ramachandra as a role model in the performance of rajadharma.
The two great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata and the Bhagavata Purana explain dharma in action, the
application of the ‘ordering principles’ in specific real-life situations, in moments of creative tension such as when
a proponent like Arjuna had to decide to fight against his own kith and kin, members of his own kula. This moment
of decision results in the delineation of the Dharmakshetra (the domain of dharma) in that Song Celestial,
Bhagavad Gita.
Dharma is sacred because it is the divine ordering principle. Dharma is the principle which recognizes the way
things are or the nature of things or phenomena.
Like satyam, dharma was explained with reference to the beneficial effect it generates: well-being and progress of
humanity. "Dharma is this that supports and that assures the progress and the well-being of all in this world and
the eternal happiness in the other world. Dharma is promulgated in the form of orders (positive and negative:
Vidhi and Nishedha)."
When one departs from this world to the other world, neither father nor mother, neither son nor wife will
accompany him. Only the Dharma practised by an individual follows him even after death.
Thus two things are important in religion :
 The way - rasta
 The technique - jugat
Param Guru Sahabji Maharaj: Religion is one and the same and it is the way by which the Supreme Divine
descends here and by getting hold of which we can ascend back to HIM. This is religion or consequently it is a gift
of God.
Motive of Religion/ Dharma
 FOR THE BENEFIT OF MANKIND
 TO REMOVE SORROWS
 TO PROVIDE HAPPINESS
 ALL GODS APPEARED IN THE WORLD WHEN THERE WAS TORTURES BY EVIL ELEMENTS
 TO MAKE PEOPLE REALIZE THE LOW SIGNIFICANCE OF WORLDLY PLEASURES
 TO INTRODUCE THE IMPORTANCE OF YAMA, NIYAM AND SANYAM IN LIFE
 TO AWARE MAN ABOUT SELF KNOWLEDGE
 TO INTRODUCE ULTIMATE TRUTH AND ULTIMATE REALITY AND HAPPINESS - PARAMANAND
Dharma is an ordering principle which is independent of one’s faith or methods of worship or what is understood
by the term ‘religion’, thus providing for total freedom in the path chosen or ethical norms employed, in an
eternal journey from being to becoming. Hence, it is truly universal, sanatana dharma, the ordering principle
eternal. Since it is an ordering principle, the word is applied across many facets of life, for example to rajadharma
as an ordering principle for governance, svadharma as an ordering principle of one’s spiritual quest or life in
society or as’ramadharma denoting responsibilities associated with one’s station in life’s progress from childhood,
through studentship, marital life and to old age. Dharma is elaborated with the use of terms such as satyam, rita,
rinam, vrata to defining ethical responsibility performed in relation to social and natural phenomena. Dharma can
be the defining paradigm for a world as a family, vasudhaiva kutumbakam. Aano bhadraah kratavo yantu
vis’vatah. Let noble thoughts flow to us from all sides. These thoughts from Vedic times are as relevant today as
they have been over millennia of pilgrims’ progress and exemplified by the progress and abiding continuum of
Hindu civilization, Jaina ariya dhamma and Bauddha dhamma. In such an ordering, dharma-dhamma becomes a
veritable celebration of freedom, freedom in moving from being to becoming.

UNIT 1- (B) : HISTORY OF RELIGION – SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVES

While Religion concerned the inner being of man, Science studied truths of the physical world – both were related
to the Cosmos. The Summum Bonum of human life is self realization which can be achieved through the study of
religion on scientific lines. Science investigates the truths of the outer world, whereas religion looks into the inner
being of man. Both form part of the cosmos and are therefore inter-related and inter- dependent. Theology is the
scientific study of religion. It is referred to in various Universities as Comparative Religion, Religious Studies, Study
of Divinity, Science of Religion etc. In the Western context, comparative religion and comparative mythology
started along with comparative philology (later linguistics). When the West discovered Sanskrit and Indian Culture
in the 18th and 19th centuries, they found Vedic literature to be the oldest, well preserved linguistic and literary
compilation, wherein different kinds of early stages of religious evolution were described, such as magic, animism,
naturalism, anthropomorphism, pantheism, kathenothism, monotheism and monism.
Max Mueller termed in German as ‘Religions-Wissenschaft’ Science of Religion. He said that religion springs from a
special nature of man, which is not liable to rational thinking or philosophical enquiry. Max Mueller is known as
the father of scientific study of religion in modern times.
India has had a strong tradition of deep and profound study of religious nature or spiritual life of man from times
immemorial. When the Rishis, the Seers declared that Atman (spirit) is the essence of all life and that the
Summum Bonum of human life is self realization, the study of religion on scientific lines, made its beginning.
"The greatest discovery that has been made or that shall ever be and the highest truth that has been
communicated to humanity or that shall be, is that there is nothing higher or nobler than Atman"
(Sir Sahabji Maharaj, Fifth leader of Radhasoami Faith).
While Religion concerned the inner being of man, Science studied truths of the physical world – both were related
to the Cosmos.
To enable religion to regain its lost importance and glory, it is essential that religious research should also be
conducted on the same lines as the scientific research i.e. the object in view should be defined and practical
measures be described and adopted for the attainment of that object.
Science investigates the truths of the outer world whereas religion looks into the inner being of man. Both form
part of the cosmos and are inter-related. The effects of the working of the spirit is there on the coarsest matter,
while the bodies the spirit assumes in the higher regions, are constituted of subtler form of matter. The scope of
the physical senses of man is restricted to this physical world. Even many of the lower subtle regions that exist in
creation are beyond their range. However in the physical universe, a very close approach to the spirit force is to be
found in the human form, which is the most developed condition of the spirit entity on earth. A glimpse of
comparative study of religions can be observed in all the scriptures of the great religions of the world.
It can be seen that the prophets and teachers have often taught religion in the context of all religious truths that
were revealed before their time. In the scriptures of Radhasoami Faith (Religion of Saints), one can find a detailed
comparison of the various religions in an objective and scientific manner. Due respect and place is given to all the
extant religions of the world. The three grand divisions of the universe with their six-fold subdivisions each are
given and the corresponding centers in human body (i.e. the Chakras, the Kamals, and the Padmas) are clearly
explained.
It is then stated that the prophets of extant religions have revealed the secrets of some of these different spiritual
regions.
Another important basic principle is about the path of sound for spiritual regeneration. In all the major religions,
listening to the internal sound is taught and practiced as an essential mode of Sadhana (spiritual practice). The fact
that all internal sounds are self-generating and have a gradation in their subtlety, becomes clear when one
compares various religious scriptures and adopts Yogic methods.. The saints have used different myths and
allegories to explain the great truths of religion.
A study of these myths and symbols in the light of the knowledge of the symbolized truths shows how the great
teachers adopted various means to drive home the subtle aspects of religion to the innocent minds of common
people. A proper understanding of religion, in the way described above, helps in putting an end to the abuse of
religion for ulterior motives. The benign nature of religion will be realized, resulting in religion getting its proper
place in human life and activities in the present age. It also needs to be realized that there exists no conflict
between religion, science and philosophy. Religious life can be harmonized with modern scientific outlook and
technological usage, giving it meaning and direction.
With such understanding, man will take the help of religion in organizing and achieving the supreme goal of his life
and also in organizing a better world on the principles of “Fatherhood of God and Brotherhood of Man”.
Religion has been an integral part of man from the beginning, hence, religious studies draw upon the findings of
various disciplines such as:
1. Archaeology uncovers ruins of past civilizations and throws light on ancient religions such as those followed by
the Egyptians, Greeks, Aztecs, and Incas.
2. Architecture gives insights into the religions of various people by analyzing their symbols in the form of
Pyramids, Pagodas, Mosques, Temples and other places of worship.
3. Anthropology deals with all aspects of human life, focussing on the religious life of people in different parts of
the world (ancient and modern).
4. From the great variety of religions described by anthropologists, the scientific study of religion has been able to
distill concepts and practices that are observed in various religions.
5. Antropology enables the understanding of the interactions amongst different religions.
6. History covers the course of development of different religions.
The religions of world at present are not the same as they were when their founders preached them and their
scriptures were written. Philosophy of Religions is an important discipline that one needs to acquaint oneself with
during the study of religions. It uncovers the rational basis for religions, i.e. their view of the world and life, their
concepts of truth, life after death, ethics etc. It gives a rational explanation to their beliefs. Psychology of Religion
studies the role of the mental attitudes, emotions and feelings of the religious people as individuals and as groups
in course of the practice of their religion. “The Varieties of Religious Experience” by William James opens up new
dimensions of religious experiences. Religion has a greater depth of feeling than explained in literature, rituals or
symbols that have got to be studied. A scientific study of religion is required in the modern era which is driven by
the universal demand for practicality and proper scientific reasoning to support religious beliefs, doctrines, and
discourses. However, due to the limited scope of the physical senses (and therefore Apara Vidya), it is paramount
that Para Vidya be accepted and used to complement Apara Vidya.
Religion has no conflict with science and philosophy. Religious life can be harmonized with a modern scientific
outlook and technological usage, giving it meaning and direction. With such an understanding it is imperative that
man takes the help of religion in organizing his life, achieving the supreme goal of life and organizing a better
world, with “Fatherhood of God and Brotherhood of Man” as its principal creed.

UNIT 1, (C) : Religion Ethics and Values

Every individual exhibits three Gunas in varying proportions. Chapter 14 of the Bhagavad Gita deals with their
function, and indicates the means for the individual to transcend them. The path that an individual needs to take
is dependent on the relative proportion of these Gunas that reside in him.
Sattva Individuals who are predominantly sattvik are attached to happiness and to knowledge.
Rajas Raajasik individuals are filled with a desire and passion to undertake new projects and goad others into
action. Many leaders exhibit a Raajasik temperament.
Tamas Tamas is inertia born of ignorance. It enshrouds the discrimination of man and inclines him to indolence,
sleep and renders him inert. By nature it is destructive.
Ethics: In Greek word ‗Ethos‘ means character. Ethics is derived from it. Moral values are related to Ethics. Moral
is derived from Latin word ‗mores‘ which means habits and customs. Thus Ethics can be defined as the study of
human actions performed in right or wrong manner. Ethics is the Science of norms of human behaviour. It is the
science of values and passing value judgment.
Ethics in Hinduism:
The cardinal Virtues according to Hinduism : Purity (Sattva, Suddhi ), Self Control (Sama/Dama), Detachment
(Vairagya), Truth (Satyam) and Non Violence (Ahimsa).
One of the first steps is to master the eight characteristics or atma gunas are:-
Compassion = daya
Forgiveness or patience = Shama/kshanti
Absence of jealousy = anasuya
Cleanliness = sauchyam
Not feeling mental strain or doing work with effortless ease anayasa
Auspiciousness mangala
Non-miserliness akarpanya
Non-grasping or non-desiring nature asprha
There are many paths to Self-realization, but many of these paths can be categorized into four
main Yogas or means to attain the goal. They are
1. Karma Yoga Work and Action, subject of Chapter 3 of the Bhagavad Gita.
2. Bhakti Yoga Yoga of Devotion, Chapter 12 of Bhagavad Gita
3. Jnana Yoga Yoga of Knowledge, yoga of pure discrimination, Chapter 4of Bhagavad Gita.
4. Raja Yoga Yoga of meditation, summarized in Chapter 6 of Bhagavad Gita
Five Kinds of ideas or modifications (Patanjali‘s Yoga Sutras)
• Right Knowledge
• Wrong Knowledge or indiscrimination
• Fancy or verbal delusion
• Sleep
• Memory
In Hinduism belief, suffering is due to bondage. Bondage is due to ignorance. And liberation can be achieved by
knowledge. Dharma leads to Moksha. Karmas plays an important role. Hindu morality has its roots in the Vedas
and the Upanishads themselves. Virtues like Truth, charity, Liberality etc. are emphasized in the Vedas themselves.
In the Upanishads, several references can be found, where the teacher after giving the lesson of Jnana to his pupil
instructs him to practice virtue, to speak the truth, to cultivate modesty, humanity etc., without which, it is
emphasized, no release is possible. Dharamshatras also describes ethical virtues and duties. By practicing ethical
duties, the karmas will contribute towards the attainment of Moksha.Hinduism is thus an ethical religion.
Three types of Karmas:
Prarabdha karma : The karmas one is born with. That part of a Man‘s accumulated karma which has begun to bear
fruit in the present life. It is entirely predetermined and cannot be avoided, e,g, sex, parentage, color of skin.
Sanchita karma :Accumulated karma of previous lives of individual. As a result of past actions
he acquires a certain character and certain tendencies.
Agami karma/ Krimaan Karma: Is the Karma which is being created now. Which the person will perform in the
present birth.
Hinduism also mentions about The four proximate Goals of life : Dharma, Artha, Kama,
Moksha (चार परु ु षार्थ)

UNIT 1 (D) BHAGVADGITA

It is said that the Gita was composed about two thousand five hundred years ago. It belongs to a period between
that of the Upanishads and the systematization of the Darshanas of Samkhya and Yoga. The Bhagavad Gita or the
Lord’s Song is a great literary work. It is part of Great Itihaas scripture – Mahabharata. It is Smriti Scripture of
Hinduism, and now it is accepted by various other religious philosophies. Shrimad Bhagavad Gita is a part of the
Bhishma Parva of the famous Mahabharata Purana of the Hindus. Krishna Dwaipayana known as Vyasji, is
considered to be the author of this book. Gita is the part of Bhismparva in Epic Mahabharata.
“ All Jivas are „shar‟ , while immortal and unchanged atman is „akshar‟. It has also been said that superior to both
these forces is another Being who is all-pervading and is the Support or the Sustainer of the three Lokas (worlds).
He is called Purushottam.
Gita explains many things like karma, gyan, bhakti and yoga. To do karma is considered important in Gita.
SriKrishna considers Arjuna as student and gives updesh in Gita. Krishna explains gyan with Sankhya philosophy.
“Knowledge can remove nescience and not happinesss or sorrows. A person who considers happiness and sorrow
as equal is only adhiari for salvation/Moksh and is called as „Dhir‟ Everyone experiences conditions like pleasure
and pain, heat and cold, due to contact of objects with the senses. The senses carry the sensations through the
nerves to the mind. One should be able to withdraw the senses from objects, like the tortoise which withdraws all
its limbs within. Krishna asserts that only one who has the capacity to be balanced in pleasure and pain alike is fit
for immortality. One who sees inaction in action, and action in inaction, is intelligent among men, and he is in the
transcendental position, although engaged in all sorts of activities. Atman is indestructible and is not subject to
birth or death. What is changing must always be unreal. What is constant or permanent mustalways be real. The
Atman or the eternal, all-pervading Self ever exists. It is the only Reality. This phenomenal world of names and
forms is ever changing. Names and forms are subject to decay and death. Hence they are unreal or impermanent.
The Self pervades all objects like ether. Even if the pot is broken, the ether that is within and without it cannot be
destroyed. Similarly, if the bodies and all other objects perish, the eternal Self that pervades them cannot be
destroyed; It is the living Truth. The Self is part less. It is infinite and extremely subtle. So the sword cannot cut It,
fire cannot burn It, wind cannot dry It. This Self cannot be cut, burnt, wetted nor dried up. It is eternal, all-
pervading, stable, ancient and immovable. This (Self) is said to be un manifested, unthinkable and unchangeable.
Karma Man is never free from doing karma , not even for a second. What is doing karma? Karma can be good or
bad. To work, to talk, to listen, to eat, to walk, etc. everything comes under doing karma. Even when you are not
doing anything, your mind is active and to think is also doing karma. And till karmas are attached to our soul,
salvation is not possible!!!
NISHKAAM KARMA - the performance of action without expectation of reward. Living without attachment and
performing your duties is called as Nishkaam karma. Here karmas are performed by dedicating ones action to the
Supreme Being. By such karmas, the devotee is spared the entanglements of the action. Krishna said : Men of
virtue who worship me are of four kinds:
the afflicted (Arta)
the seekers of truth (Jignasu)
the needy (Artharthi)
the wise men of knowledge (Jnani)
Out of these the wise (Jnanis) who are concentrated within and are absorbed in divine worship excel all others.
They love me intensely and I keep them dear to me.”
Jnana Yoga: Jnana Yoga is the path of knowledge, wisdom, introspection and contemplation. It involves deep
exploration of the nature our being by systematically exploring and setting aside false identities. While Jnana Yoga
deals with knowledge, wisdom, introspection and contemplation, everybody has a mind and at some point will
need to examine it, wherein quiet reflection naturally comes.
Bhakti Yoga: Bhakti Yoga is the path of devotion, emotion, love, compassion, and service to God and others. All
actions are done in the context of remembering the Divine. All people will experience emotions such as love,
compassion, and devotion at points along the journey, regardless of which of the four paths of Yoga is
predominant.

UNIT 2 A - Pre-vedic Religion

Pre Vedic Period was 3300BC to 15ooBCE as mentioned in above figure. By 2900 B.C. a flourishing civilization and
religion –pre vedic religion was established. Aryans migrated from the Caspian Sea region to the Sindhu Ghat area
and settled there. The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), was an ancient civilization thriving along the lower Indus River
and the Ghaggar River-Hakra River in what is now Pakistan. Another name for this civilization is the Harappan
Civilization of the Indus Valley, in reference to its first excavated city of Harappa. Villagers had, by this time,
domesticated numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well as a wide range of
domestic animals, including the water buffalo, an animal that remains essential to intensive agricultural
production throughout Asia today. It is important to study pre Vedic religion, because Vedic religion flourished
after that and Hinduism and many other religions followed Vedic religion or accepted most of Vedic philosophy.
Characteristics of Pre Vedic Era:
Pre Vedic era, date back to 2900 B.C.
• It was a flourishing civilization and religion and had its traces in Mohenjodaro and Harappan area , now in
Pakistan.
• The streets of major cities such as Mohenjo-daro or Harappa were laid out in a perfect grid pattern, comparable
to that of present day New York City.
• The houses were protected from noise, odors, and thieves.
• An Indus city was made of mud-brick buildings. It had walls and roads. Water was very important to Indus
people, so the builders started by digging wells, and laying drains.
• Main streets were up to 10 metres wide, wide enough for carts to pass. Side streets were narrow, more like
alleys.
• Some cities had a citadel high on a mound. In the citadel were bigger buildings. Perhaps the city's rulers lived
there. Most people lived and worked in the lower part of town.
• Most Indus people did not live in cities at all. Perhaps 9 out of 10 people were farmers and traders who lived in
small villages.
• In the Sanskrit language of Ancient India, the Indus was called the Sindhu.
• The religion of Hinduism has its roots in the Indus Valley civilisation. For example, Hindus worship a 'mother
goddess' (her names include Parvati and Sakti), and the Indus religion had its own 'mother goddess'.
• The Indus people thought the cow a special animal, the giver of life (meat and milk). Today, Hindus regard the
cow as sacred.
• Hindus bathe in the River Ganges, which for them is a holy river. Indus people too probably bathed as part of
their religion, to clean the 'inner being' as well as the body.
• Many figurines depicting female fertility found in Indus Valley, indicate worship of a Mother goddess (compare
Shakti and Kali) were found.
• The seals found depict animals, perhaps as the object of veneration, comparable to the zoomorphic aspects of
some Hindu gods.
• Seals resembling Pashupati in a yogic posture have also been discovered.
• Indus civilization people seemed to have placed a high value on bathing and personal cleanliness.
• The ancient Indus systems of sewage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus
empire were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more
efficient than those in some areas of modern India and Pakistan today.
• The seals have images of animals, gods, etc., and inscriptions. Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on
trade goods, but they probably had other uses.
• Although some houses were larger than others, Indus civilization cities were remarkable for their apparent
egalitarianism. For example, all houses had access to water and drainage facilities. One gets the impression of a
vast middle-class society.
• The archaeological record of the Indus civilization provides practically no evidence of armies, kings, slaves, social
conflict, prisons, and other oft-negative traits that we traditionally associate with early civilization, although this
could simply be due to the sheer completeness of its collapse and subsequent disappearance. The civilization was
considered peaceful.
• Over 4,000 Indus symbols have been found on seals or ceramic pots and over a dozen other materials, including
a 'signboard' that apparently once hung over the gate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira.
• No building has been discovered at any Harappan site that can be positively identified as a temple, but the Great
Bath at Mohenjodaro was almost certainly used for ritual purposes.
• Snakes seem to have been worshipped and the sign of ‘Swastika’ is found in many places.
• ‘Tabij’ or talismans of copper, silver and earth seem to be used to ward off evil.
• The Aryan gods represented the forces of nature the sun, the moon, fire, storm and so on. The Indus valley
communities regarded rivers as sacred and used to gather at rivers for their religious rituals. The Aryans also used
to gather around fire for their rituals.
CONCEPT OF ATMAN
Tablets found from the site, showed two birds sitting on a branch of tree; one eating a fruit while the other simply
watching it do so. This is interpreted as a bird (Jivatman) indulging in the fruits of its Prarabdha Karmas in this life,
while the other bird (Atman) is simply watching him do so. Both of these ‘birds’ are present in a human being. The
Atman constantly watches the Jiva indulge in actions influenced by his Prarabdha Karmas.
द्वा सऩु यना समज ु ा सखामा सभानं वऺ ृ ं ऩययषस्वजािे |
िमोयन्न्म: ऩऩप्ऩऱं स्वाद्वत्त्मनश्नानन्न्मो अभबचाकशीिि ||
The two birds are the Jivatma(individual soul) and paramatma (Supreme soul). The tree is nothing but the human
body while the fruit is the results of past karma. Here the onlooker, the paramatma, is not touched by karma
whereas the jiva is bound to the cycle of rebirth. Observe how the flow of meaning occurs with this metaphor. An
occurrence of the natural world is transformed into profound metaphysics.
Varna System
The Aryans had introduced the Varna system or the class system, which is believed to have contributed to the
caste system in the Indian society. While some think that it developed from a simpler two-tier structure consisting
of nobles at the top, and everyone else below( Aryans and into three parts – the priests (or Brahmins), the
warriors (the Kshatriyas) and the ordinary people.

Unit 2, B : CONCEPT OF VEDIC DEITIES & RELEVANCE OF YAJNA

Vedas are the most ancient writings in the world and the source of Hindu religion. They are primary scriptures and
Sruti Scriptures. Vedas are of divine in origin because they were directly revealed to ancient Rishis in their deep
meditations. Sruti Scriptures are Samhitas (Four Vedas), Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads. Four Vedas are
Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. To understand Vedic religion, the Vedic period is divided into
Samhita Period, Brahmana Period And Aranyaka & Upanishad Period. Samhita means „put together‟. They include
mantras, hymns, prayers, etc. During this period, man had deep relation with nature. Man was impressed with
sunrise, Moon rays, blinking stars. But he also got scared of natural calamities. Man started believing that there is
hand of “Devta” in all these nature‟s scenes. He started praying to these imaginary Divine Devtas and prayed to
them to provide happiness and protect him from sufferings. Consequently he started praying Earth, Rivers, Clouds,
Sun, Dead people, etc. and considered them as divine.
Vedic Devta
In Rig Veda, the different nature Gods are mentioned with different names like Indra, Yama, Varun, Mitra, Som,
Savitra, Agni, etc. During this period nature was only worshipped with different names. Pictures on seals and other
artefacts show what look like figures of gods. One looks like a Mother Goddess. People
probably believed this goddess gave health and fertility to people, animals and plants. Another seal picture shows
a male god with horns and three faces. Around him are animals, including an elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo.
This god is a bit like the Hindu god Shiva (who also has three faces). Plants, trees and animals were probably
important to Indus people. The pipal or fig tree is shown in Indus seals, and is still a sacred tree for many Buddhists
and Hindus. Some people think that the Indus religion shaped early Hindu beliefs. In India our Vedic seers
recognized the cosmic powers behind the various cosmic activities as Devas. In Vedas the number of deities are
assumed as 33. According to their locations , the Devtas were divided into three groups :
1. Dhyo loka- live in Dhyo loka which is up in the sky,
2. Prithvi loka- our Earth is Prithvi loka
3. Antariksh loka- the region between Earth and Dhyo loka
Devas live in Dhyo loka which is up in the sky, our Earth is Prithvi loka and the region between Earth and Dhyo loka
is Anteriksh loka where malicious beings called Asuras live.
Gods of Prithvi Loka are Agni, Brahspati, Som, Earth, Sindhu, River, etc.
Dhyo-loka Gods are Dhyoo, Varun, Mitra, Aaditya, Surya, Savita, Pushpa, Vishnu, Usha, etc.
Antriksh-loka Gods are Indra, Vayu, Prajanya, Rudra, Marut, etc.
Devas means "heavenly, divine, anything of excellence”
मे दे वासो ददव्मेकादश स्थ ऩथ ृ थव्माभध्मेकादश स्थ ।
अप्सऺ ु ऺिो भदहनैकादश स्थ िे दे वासो मऻभभभं जुषध्वभ ् ॥११॥
Gods who are eleven in heaven; who are eleven on earth; and who are eleven dwelling with glory in mid-air; may
ye be pleased with this our sacrifice. Devtas were liberal donor, forgiving, strong etc.
Vedic Devtas didn‟t had any forms. They fulfilled all desires of the devotees.
Agni Devta – Is responsible for transferring sacrifice made by devotee to the Devloka. He maintains the relations
between Devloka and Bhakta loka.
Indra Devta – He is most important as Antriksh Devta. Very strong, ideal warrior , life-giving, etc. He is symbol of
welfare and richness. He is responsible for controlling clouds before rains.
Varun Devta – The Hindu god of the water and of the celestial ocean, as well as a god of law of the underwater
world. A Makara is his mount. Varuna 'the one who encompasses the whole world,' is one of the oldest Vedic
deities. May be he is the personification of the sky; but he is also associated with clouds and water, rivers and
ocean. He is sometimes clubbed with Mitra and praised (Mitravaruna). His knowledge and power are unlimited.
He has thousand eyes and oversees the whole world. Hence he is the lord of the moral law. He punishes those
who transgress this law but forgives them out of compassion if they repent and pray.
Importance of Yajna
It is an outer form of worship in which offerings are made to different dieties in a prescribed and systematic
manner by qualifies priests to supplicate them. The meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb
yaj, which has a threefold meaning of worship of deities (deva pujana), unity (sangatikarana) and charity (dána).
Vedic yajnas are typically performed by four priests of the Vedic priesthood:

• the hotar,
• the adhvaryu,
• the udgatar and
• the brahman.
The hotar recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda. The verses recited by the hotar are of three
kinds – introductory verses, verses pertaining to
yajna and eulogistic verses. The adhvaryu is the priest's assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the
ritual like measuring the ground, building the altar etc. mentioned in theYajurveda. The adhvaryu offers three
kinds of oblations, those that blaze up, those that make great noise and those that sink. The udgatar is the chanter
of hymns set to melodies(sāman) drawn from the Samaveda. The udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory,
yajna and eulogistic verses. These three types of hymns are identified with the three kinds of vital breath Prana,
Apana and Vyana in the body and the udgatar himself contemplates on the vital breath.
The brahman is the superintendent of the entire performance, and is responsible for correcting mistakes by means
of supplementary verses invoking the visvedevas.
There is usually one, or occasionally three, fires lit in the center of the offering ground. Oblations are offered into
the fire. Among the ingredients offered as oblations in the yajna are large quantities of ghee, milk, grains, cakes
and soma. The duration of a yajna depends on its type, some last only a few minutes whereas, others can take
hours, days or even years. Post-Vedic yajnas, where milk products, fruits, flowers, cloth and money are offered,
are called homa or havanam. A typical Hindu marriage involves a yajna, where Agni is taken to be the witness of
the marriage.

VEDAS & VEDANGAS

The word „Veda‟ comes from the root „Vid – to know, leading to „Vidya‟, knowledge which leads further to vision,
meaning revelation, self- realization. The four Vedas form a body of religious literature called Shruti. „Shruti‟
means „heard‟, experienced and „spiritually revealed‟. The Vedas are classified into four groups: the Rig Veda,
Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda. There are Samhitas, Brahmans, Aranyaks and Upanishads belonging to
each of these four Vedas.
Each Veda is classified into four parts.
1. Samhita Hymn/Mantra
2. Brahmana Rituals
3. Aranyaka Theology
4. Upnishad Philosophical

Rig Veda - The Book of Mantra The Rig Veda is the earliest and the most important of all Shruti literature. It
consists of 1028 hymns of praise. The Vedic poet enunciated the truth by declaring “The Truth is one but the wise
call it variously”.
“Eakam sat Viprah bahudha vadanti.” Rigveda deals with knowledge of God. Gods mentioned in Rigveda are
celestial
Each Veda is classified into four parts.
Samhita - Hymn/Mantra
Brahmana - Rituals
Aranyaka - Theology
Upnishad - Philosophical
spirits like Indra, Varuna, Agni .. The Vedic ritual is centered around the fire sacrifice. Fire was personified as Agni,
God of the sacrifice. Creation has two parts : SAT AND ASAT

Yajur Veda - The Book of Ritual. It Gives directions for the performance of rituals and ceremonies. The main object
is “Karmakanda” Different kinds of Yajnas are Rajasuya, Purusamedha, Ashvamedha, Pitra medha, Sarvamedha
yajnas etc. Different yajnas were meant to be organized by the kings and other people for the fulfillment of
various desires. The Yajna had a very special place in Vedic society. With the help of Yajnas the priests used to
control Gods.
Sama Veda - The Book of Song Sets to music hymns from the Rig Veda, to be chanted at appropriate stages with
correct modulations and intonations. The word „Sama‟ means singing to music. Our classical music has its roots in
this Veda. The main emphasis in Sama Veda is on devotion. Mantras were meant to be sung according to specific
tunes. The drinking of soma was also a part of this Veda.
Atharva Veda - The Book of Spell Atharva means „motionless‟ or „the Yoga‟ which contains the mantras for the
control of one‟s senses. Deals mostly with ethical principles, and also some branches of science like Ayurveda (the
science of health and longevity). It has sections dealing with Tantras (literally threads) and other ritualistic esoteric
knowledge. It has detailed descriptions of information regarding knowledge, sciences, customs, beliefs, blind
faiths, traditions, black magic, hypnotism etc. It is a Veda for public and common man.

VEDANGAS
Vedangas literally mean the limbs of the Vedas. They are six in number. Just like the limbs of the body, they
perform various supportive and augmenting functions in the study, preservation and protection of the Vedas and
the vedic traditions. The Vedangas are six auxiliary disciplines for understanding the tradition of the Vedas. They
are: Shiksha: phonetics and phonology, Chandas: metre , Vyakarana: grammar , Nirukta: etymology Jyotisha :
astrology , Kalpa: ritual.
The first reference to Vedangas is made in the Mundaka Upanishad in the following words :
Of these, the lower comprises the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharva Veda, Shiksha (Phonetics), Kalpa (the
code of rituals), Vyakarana, (Grammar), Nirukta (Etymology), Chandas (Poesy) and Jyothisha (Astrology and
Astronomy). The higher knowledge is the one by which the Imperishable One is attained.
• The main principle of Vedic meter is measurement by the number of syllables.
• The metrical unit of verse is the pāda ("foot", "quarter"), generally of eight, eleven, or twelve syllables
MEANING OF OM
The Levels of Consciousness as per the Upanishads ;
The Mandukya Upanishad explains the thesis on the levels of consciousness. The Upanishad speaks of four aspects
of the Individual Self.
“Soyam atma catuspat” - "This self has four quarters."
The four levels are :
• Visva in the waking state (Jagrat);
• Taijasa in the dream state (Swapna);
• Prajna in the state of dreamless(deep) sleep and
• Turiya in the State of Spiritual consciousness
The fifth or the Turiyatita is the supreme consciousness spoken of, which underlies the four other states and he is
the true Self. One who realizes the Turiya state is Jivanmukta, a realized soul and even while awake or dreaming
he is detached and aloof as in Susupti - withdrawn inwards.

UNIT 2 (C ) - Philosophy Of Upnishads

The Upanishads are part of Vedanta or the last part of the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism created
between 1500–1000 BCE. Term Upanishad derives from upa- ('nearby'), ni- ('at the proper place, down') and sad
('to sit') and it means 'sitting near a teacher to receive the sacred teachings'. The Upanishads contain revealed
truth (Sruti) about Brahman (God), the Ultimate Reality and the way of salvation (Moksha). Vedanta (anta 'the
end' or 'last portion') is the essence and culmination of all the knowledge within the Vedas. Vedas (vid - 'to know',
'knowledge' of the eternal truth). Of the 108 Upanishads that have been preserved 12 are considered the principle
Upanishads. The Upanishads most of all are the record of what the sages and seers perceived in thought and
visions and are not an organized systems of philosophy.
Upnishads contains answers of most important questions on topics: Purpose of Life ; Nature of Brahman (God) ;
The Origin of the Universe ; Karma ; Rebirth ; Maya ; Afterlife ; Immortality.
Upnishads also explains :
Jnana – philosophical knowledge
Bhakti- divine love
Karma- action
Yoga- union with God
The language of these Upanishads is classical Sanskrit and not the Vedic Sanskrit. The Upanishads do not reject the
authority of the Brahmanas or the efficacy of sacrifice. But they go behind the sacrificial cult and regard it as a
spiritual exercise. The thirst for knowledge could not be quenched by a routine of external yajnas or
ceremonies. It was necessary to find an answer to the question of the creation of the Universe and one's relation
to it inwardly and outwardly.
The twelve major Upanishads are:
1. Aitareya, 2. Brihadaranyaka, 3. Chandogya, 4. Isha, 5. Katha, 6. Kauhsitaki, 7. Kena, 8. Mandukya, 9.
Mundaka, 10. Prasna, 11. Svetasvatara, and 12. Taittiriya.

Brahman :
Brahman (lit . meaning : brih - 'to grow, to expand' also 'the greatest') is God. The sanskrit name for God is Sat-
Chit-Ananda = Sat (Existence), Chit (Consciousness), Ananda (Bliss). Brahman is the Universal Spirit; the Ultimate
Reality, Pure Consciousness; the One existence; the Absolute; "the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the
world", which "cannot be exactly defined".
"Its secret name (Upanishad) is Satyasya Satyam, 'the Truth of truth.' [Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 2.1.20]
"Now, therefore, the instruction [about Brahman]: Neti, neti — Not this, not this". Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1: All this is Brahman. (Sarvam khalvidam brahma)
According to Shankaracharya, the sole purpose of the Upanishads is :
• to prove the reality of Brahman and
• the phenomenality or unreality of the universe of names and forms, and
• to establish the absolute oneness of the embodied soul and Brahman.
Thus Brahman is the only truth, the world is unreal, and there is ultimately no difference between Brahman and
Atman, individual self.
(Brahma satyam jagat mithya, jivo brahmaiva naparah)
The Upanishads describe Brahman as having two aspects:
1. Para Brahman, Supreme Brahman is without qualities (Nirguna Brahman)
2. Brahman qualified by limiting conditions (Saguna Brahman)
The entire phenomenal universe is subject to the categories of space, time, and causation. But Brahman is not in
space but is spaceless. Brahman is not in time but is timeless. Brahman is not subject to causality but independent
of the causal chain. Brahman (the Ultimate Reality; the Universe; the Absolute) is Pure Consciousness . Brahman is
the Reality, and is often identified with Purusha.
Brahman as explained in Upnishads :
1.Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7:
("You are Brahman") (Tat Tvam Asi)
The Vedas cannot show you Brahman, you are That already.
2. "The Self (the Soul) is Brahman."
Sanskrit: ayam atman brahma.
(Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5)
3. "I am Brahman." Sanskrit: aham brahmasmi. (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10)
4. "Brahman is Consciousness."
Sanskrit: prajnanam brahma. (Aitareya Upanishad 3.1.3)
5. All this is Brahman.
Sanskrit: Sarvam khalvidam brahma. (Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1)
6. One of the most important verses of the Rig Veda (1.164.46) is The Reality (Truth) is ONE: the wise call It by
various names. (Ekam sat vipra bahudha vadanti)
Thus all true religions describe the same God but just different paths to find him. Brahman is Ever-Present Ever-
Conscious Ever-Blissful. The Vedanta often describes Brahman as Sat-Chit-Ananda. Sat (Existence, Reality, Being),
Chit (Consciousness, or Knowledge), and Ananda (Bliss).
Qualifications of seekers (Adhikari) of Brahmvidya :
 नित्यानित्य वस्तु वववेक Discrimination (between the Real and the Unreal)
 इहामुत्रार्थ फऱ भोगववराग Non-attachment Vairagya – dispassion for all enjoyments
 शमादि षट्क सम्पनत Self Control Sama (tranquility of mind),
- Dama(restraint of senses),
- Uparathi(renunciation of desires),
- thithiksha(endurance),
- sraddha,(faith)
- samadhan (self control
 मुमुऺऺुत्व Mumukshutwa is a burning desire to realize the Self

उतिष्ठि जाग्रि प्राप्म वयान्द्न्न्नफोधि । ऺुुयस्म धाया तनशशिा न्द्ुुुयत्ममा न्द्ुुुगं ऩस्ियत्कवमो ववन्न्नि ॥ १४ ॥ Once
the knowledge of Brahman is realized than one should - Rise, awake! Having obtained these boons, understand
them! Like the Razor's sharp edge is difficult to traverse, The path to one's Self is difficult.

Katha Upanishad, 1.3.14

Story of Nachiketa
After Yajna, Nachiketa was surprised to see his father gifting away old cows which could not walk properly or give
milk. Nachiketa felt that by giving these cows his father would not get the desired result of the sacrifice. Nachiketa
asked his father to whom he would like to gift his son to. The father did not pay much attention to his question.
Nachiketa repeatedly asked the same question. His father became angry and replied, ―I give you to Yama, the
God of death.‖ For three days and night the young boy waited without food , water and sleep at the doorstep of
Yama‘s abode. Yama on his return, was deeply grieved to see that there was no to welcome Nachiketa. Yama
himself greeted him with due respect. For having kept Nachiketa waiting for three days, Yama granted him three
boons. Nachiketa said, ―I seek the welfare of my father as my first boon.‖ He granted him happily. ―Sir I desire to
know how one could reach heaven where there is no sorrow, old age or death‖. Nachiketa did not ask this second
boon for himself but for the sake of the people. He wanted everyone to learn this secret knowledge and free
themselves for the sufferings. Yama was pleased with the unselfishness of Nachiketa. Yama gave all the details of a
particular sacrifice, the performance of which would take one to heaven. Nachiketa asked, ―Respected Sir. What
happens to a man after death? I should like to know the truth from you. This I ask for the third boon.‖
Yama was very pleased but he tried to divert the attention with lot of attractive things. Nachiketa declined all
these worldly pleasures. Yama was pleased with such a young truth-seeker who had rejected the path of
enjoyment and chose the path of goodness. He wanted that Yama who was the recipient (Adhikari) of Brahma
Vidya, should explain this knowledge to him. Then Yama taught him the knowledge of the Atman, realizing which
man attains immortality. (Yama) said there are two ways open to man, the Sreya and the Preya. The one who
should be given Brahma Vidya is a True Adhikari. Sreya are the methods or ways of obtaining God (permanent
happiness), after thorough spiritual upliftment. Preya are methods or ways of aquiring the objects of worldly gains
and happiness like: wife (women), son, wealth, house, honour, popularity etc., all achievements of the
materialistic world. Yama tells Nachiketa that Om is the symbol of Absolute Brahman which cannot be destroyed
and is also known as the ‗Parama Purusha‘ – (Absolute or perfect man). Yama says to Nachiketa: Consider your
body as chariot, Jivatma as the owner, your intellect as the charioteer, Manas as the reins and your sense organs
the senses.
Universal Prayer for Enlightenment -
Aum. Asato ma sad-gamaya; [ Aum. Lead me from unreal to real;
tamaso ma jyotir-gamaya; lead me from darkness to light;
mrtyor-ma amrutam gamaya. lead me from death to immortality.
Aum. Shanti, shanti shanti. Aum... peace, peace, peace.]

Story of Swetketu
Shwetketu had gone to his gurukul to gain knowledge. After twelve years when he returned home.
The father asked"Did you learn about the One and knowing that Only One you don't have to know anything'.
The son promptly replied "There is no such knowledge to know about The One and if it is there then my Guru
(teacher) may not be knowing as he did not teach me about The Only One". Shwetketu went back to Gurukul and
asked his Guru whether there is any vidhya which teaches about The Only One. The Guru answers "Tatvam Aasi"
Oho ! That is You, my son. Know thyself, know your atman. know yourself from within, your atma, your trueself.
"Atma Ka Gyan" Knowledge about Self.
Swetaketu still didn‘t understood. So his father Uddalaka explained him with examples.
1. As by knowing one lump of clay, all things made of clay, are known the difference being only in name and
arising from speech, and the truth being that all are clay.
2. As the bees make honey by gathering juices from many flowering plants and trees, and as these juices,
reduced to one honey, do not know from what flowers they severally come, similarly all creatures merged
in that one existence.
3. The salt is not visible in the water. Similarly though you do not see Brahman in this body.
Tattvamasi.
This sentence is a combination of three words. The words are Tat- tvam-asi. ‗You are That‘ is the meaning of the
sentence. Here the word ‗Tat‘ denotes Paramatma while the word ‗Tvam‘ Jivatma.
There are four Mahavakyas in the Upanishads:
1. Prajnanam Brahma: (consciousness is Brahman)- It is in the Aitareyopanishad of Rigveda.
2. Ayam atma Brahma: (This individual self is Brahman)- It is from the Mandukyopanishad of Atharvaveda
3. Tattvamasi: (Thou art that) - It is in the Chandogyopanishad of Samaveda.
4. Aham Brahmasmi :(I am Brahman) - It is in the Brihadaranyakopanishad of Yajurveda.

UNIT 2 (F) HINDUISM

deities of different faiths and cults but regards them as a manifestation of one God.

BELEIFS OF HINDUISM
One impersonal Ultimate Reality – – Atman,
on – atman is continually born into this world
– spiritual impurity due to actions keeps us bound to this world (good
– to release Atman and reunite with the divine, becoming as one with Brahman
(Moksha)
The spiritual practices of Hinduism
The Four Yogas - seeking union with the divine:
• Karma Yoga – the path of action through selfless service (releases built up karma without building up
new karma)
• Jnana Yoga – the path of knowledge (understanding the true nature of reality and the self)
• Raja Yoga – the path of meditation
• Bhakti Yoga – the path of devotion
Guru – a spiritual teacher, especially helpful for Jnana and Raja yoga
There are three major sects of Hinduism.
1. Vaisnavism the members of which worship Vishnu.
2. Saivism the followers of which worship Siva.
3. Saktas or the worshippers of Shakti.
Each of these sects is further divided into subsects.
Like Saivism, Vaisnavism was also based on perfect faith and devotion or Bhakti.
Pancha Lakshana :
The creation of Universe
Its destruction and renovation
The Genealogy of Gods and patriarchs
The reigns of Manus, forming the periods called Manvantaras
The history of Solar and Lunar races of kings
Some Puranas exhibit devotion to Shiva; in others, the devotion to Vishnu predominates and some believe in
Shakti. The Vishnu Purana is thought to most closely resemble the definition that is having Panchalakshana.
VAISHNAVISM :
Lord Vishnu is considered as the supreme being. The cause, sustainer and destroyer of all worlds. Vishnu is
considered both in the form and as the formless infinite one. Vaishnava sect is the largest among hindu sects
Sub-sects in Vaishnava tradition –
i. Lakshmi sampradaya ii. Brahma sampradaya iii. Rudra sampradaya iv. Kumara sampradaya
The antiquity of Vaisnavism is traced back to the Vedic period but it witnessed several changes during the course
of its development since the Vedic period. In the Vedic period we have nature worship in the form of Sun. Visnu
and Agni are among the several deities mentioned in the Rig-Veda. From a mere solar deity in the Vedic literature ,
Visnu emerged in the Epico- puranic period as a supreme power in a composite form of the man god – Vasudev
Krishna, the Vedic God Visnu and the cosmic God Narayana
SHAIVISM :
Saivite tradition has prevailed in India in some form or other and archeological evidence point out to the worship
of Siva by the Indus valley people. In the Vedic period Siva was called Rudra having the power to rule over heaven
and earth. He is also Pasupati the protector of cattle. He is also seen as the invisible force behind all sorts of
destruction, catastrophes and other sorts of mishappenings.
After the epic period, of the Ramayana and Mahabharata he becomes a theistic God and was represented as a
God of wide prevalence and becomes very popular. The form of Shiva evolved can be understood by studying God
Pashupati of the Vedic period, God Rudra, Lord Shiva Himself and the Shivalinga of the Puranic periods
The origin of devotion to Lord Shiva is found in the Rig Veda as an appeasing epithet applied to the storm god
Rudra, and passes on to the period of Yajur Veda by which time it is clear that the form of Rudra changes to Shiva.
By the second century BCE, the epithet Shiva had acquired a separate identity, and was represented by images as
an object of worship.
The dissociation of Shiva and Rudra is suggested by the synonym of Shankara often used in Puranas. Besides Vedic
Literature the description of Shiva is available in Puranas. The subject of Shiva Purana is Shiva who is projected as
an embodiment of meditation and Mahatmya (greatness). He is then called Neelkanth who drank up the poison
erupting from the churning of the milky ocean and thus saved the Devas. He is also given the title of Mahadeva
because of his greatness. Shaivites treat Shiva as being pre-eminent, higher than Vishnu and Brahma. Shaiva
tradition is probably the oldest among Hindu sects. In Shaiva sect Lord Shiva is the main deity, he is considered as
the form of the supreme being. Ishwara which is another name for Shiva is used in the ancient scriptures to mean
the absolute god.
Shaivas are divided into four sects.
They are Pashupata, Shaiva, Kaapaalika and Kaalaamukha. Two other communities are Veer Shaivism of Karnataka
and Kashmiri Shaivism. The sub-sects within the Shaiva tradition worship different forms of Shiva and attribute
different qualities to Shiva.
It is clear from the statues of Shiva and the shivalingas excavated from Mohenjodaro and Harappa that devotion
to Shiva was established from the period earlier to Rig Veda. The worship of Shiva was centred on fear and
uncertainty of the unknown, the powerful and unbridled forces of nature, and the dread of death and destruction.
His person is imbued with the attributes of the forces of nature, in both their mysterious and hostile aspects
SHAKTISM (Shakteya) :
*In Shaktism, Shakti (mother divine) is considered as the supreme being. and all other (female/male) forms are
considered the manifestation of the supreme.
*Shakti tradition is a major sect in the Bengal, Assam region of India
Presently Shakta followers are found in Bengal and Assam, where Shakti worship is performed to kill demons.
It is a common ritual to offer sacrifices of animals in front of images of Shakti as Kali or Durga.
Initiations into the methods of meditation are given by True Adepts to those seekers who are cleansed of their
faults and sins.
Hence it is an achievement to get initiated because without a Guru or initiation the concept and tenets of the faith
cannot be understood
The devotees of Hindu Goddess Shakti are known as Shaktas. Being the power of maya.
Shakti is also depicted as the consort or female energy associated with Shiva. Shakti represents the creative power
of illusion that beguiles the mind, and surrounds the soul.
The principle concept of Shakti is as ancient as the Vedic religion. Statues of Mother Goddess which were
considered as Shakti have been excavated from the ruins of Indus valley.
Various mantras in the form of prayer to the Maha Shakti are found in the Vedas. The foundation of Shakta
Dharma is the description of Vagdevi in Vagambhvani Sukta.
The form of Goddess Shakti is transformed in the Pauranik age. The Puranas describe Shakti as the wives of the
Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesha and give them names like Brahmi, Maheshvari, Kaumani, Vaishnavi,
Varahi, Narsinhi and Rudrani. Tantrik scriptures gave a fearsome form to Shakti and called her Kali, Chandi, and
Mahakali.
The method of worship of Shakti is very secretive and unclear to the common man. Shakta Tantras are more than
one thousand but form only part of the enormous Shakta literature.
The aim of Shakta Dharma was to enable the jivatman to meet the Parmatman.
Shakti refers to a focus of power, being or energy in the hierarchical and dynamic structure of creation that has
been described by mystics and yogis.
Because of the manner in which the creation process is ordered, manifestations of the same power are found at
different levels. It is for this reason that Shakti is both the presiding power at the throat centre, relating to the
formative energy of the physical akasha, as well as being synonymous with the higher energy and power of
prakriti, the seed form of nature. The Goddess Shakti is the "power" which pervades the whole of the universe,
and from which the Universe has emanated. There is nothing within the manifest world , which is not Shakti in its
essence. The manifest world is mind and matter, that is to say, all that we call our thought, will, imagination, etc. is
mind, and all the realm of nature is matter.

UNIT 3 (A) BHARTIYA DARSHAN :

The word for philosophy is ‘Darshana’ which is derived from the root word ‘Drish’, which literally means ‘through
which is seen’.
The Hindu Darshana is related to both human life and spiritual experience. The problems of day-to-day life are
solved and dealt with under ethics while the mystical spiritual experiences are dealt with under philosophy.
According to tradition the Hindu Darshanas are divided into two main categories, they are:
• Astika Darshana and
• Nastika Darshana .
This division is based on whether these philosophies accept the Vedas as proof or do not accept the Vedas as
proof. Hence the Astika Darshana is also called ‘Vaidika Darshana ’ and the Nastika Darshana is also known as
‘Avaidika Darshana’.

Astika Darshana (Vaidika Darshana) Nastika Darshana (Avaidika Darshana)

1. Vaisheshika 1. Charvaka
2. Nyaya 2. Buddha
3. Sankhya 3. Jaina
4. Yoga
5. Mimamsa
6. Vedanta
Vaisheshika Darshana:
The founder of the Vaisheshika Philosophy is Maharshi Kanada. He would gather particles of grain from the field
and have them for his meals. Hence he was called Kanada. Vaisheshika philosophy studies the eternal world and
understands it in terms of atoms. They believe that atoms and soul are both eternal. In the philosophy a substance
called ‘Vishesha’ has been defined extensively. The book written by Maharshi Kanada is called ‘Vaisheshika Sutra’.
The philosophy accepts only two kinds of proofs – (i) Perception and (ii) Inference. In this Darshana terms like
Dravya (substance), Guna (quality), Karma, Vishesha (special) and Samanya (common feature), Samavaya
(inherent relation) and abhava (absence) have been described vividly. Substances are of two kinds: *Bhava
Padartha *Abhava Padartha. The Vaisheshika a Philosophy of Kanada traces the origin of the universe to the
combination of atoms and molecules. It maintains that these atoms and molecules were not created by God, but
were co-eternal with him. The power, which combines two atoms and makes aggregates of atoms, comes from
God, who is personal. He possesses knowledge, desires and will; and God is the lord of all phenomena. According
to this system of philosophy – ether, time, space, self and mind are eternal substances of nature. The summum
bonum consists of Moksha or release from rebirth and bondage and suffering.

NYAYA DARSHANA
Nyaya focuses on intellectual analysis and logic in understanding obligations for humans.The philosophy is
attributed to its founder Maharshi Gautam, who emphasized that all knowledge mustbe tested, for most suffering
in life comes through false notions. The Nyaya philosophy holds good some important aspects like proofs,
universal statements and correct knowledge. The Nyaya Darshana is also called Tarka Shashtra or ‘Anvikshaki’.
Maharshi Gautam was realistic and yet he accepted the authenticity of Vedas. The ultimate aim of Nyaya
Darshana is to attain Moksha or Salvation. The philosophy aims at finding solutions to problems like - how to end
suffering in this world; how to free the soul from the body, from the sense organs and from the worldly bondage.
The Nyaya philosophy deals with the means by which this knowledge of the divine can be attained. It does a
scientific and microscopic analysis of these means and so it is also called ‘Pramana Shastra’. The philosophy
accepts four proofs as means of attaining knowledge. They are:
• Pratyaksha Pramana - Perception
• Anumana Pramana - Inference
• Upamana Pramana - Comparison
• Aagam(Shabd) Pramana – Scriptures
According to Nyaya Darshana , Atman is different from body and mind. It is the mind that is the efficient cause and
the atman or soul experiencing joy and sorrow. When the soul becomes relatively attached to an object through
the senses then an animation follows through it; when the Atman is free these connections break andall
knowledge of joy and sorrow becomes meaningless. The Nyaya Darshana accepts the existence of Ishwara. They
believe that God is the creator, preserver and destroyer of this world. The source of the whole universe is Isvara.
The world exists according to wishes and commands of Isvara. Isvara is Immortal, one without end and is eternal.
The God cannot be limited by the directions, time period, mind or Atman. God is all powerful. Isvara has infinite
magnificence; he is courageous, knowledgeable, famous, glorious and unattached. According to Nyaya Darshana,
the Karta of creation is Isvara. He is the Creator, the Preserver and the Destroyer. The existence of the world is
wholly true and real, and the world is created from molecules. God is efficient cause of the world. The world is
created from molecules. God is efficient cause of the world. Molecules are eternal and unchanging. This material
world is made of five kinds of molecules of earth, water, fire and air. These (five molecules) are referred to as
‘Panch Bhutaa’

SANKHYA DARSHANA
The Samkhya system of philosophy is attributed to Kapila Muni, who lived at the beginning of the period of the
Upanishads. The book of philosophy by the name of Samkya Sutra describes twenty-five elements (tattva) of life.
The Samkhya Darshana explains how man is entangled in the web of Maya According to Samkhya the root cause
of the world is Prkriti or nature. The Samkhya system does not accept the existence of a God, but it accepts the
Vedas.
The Twenty-five elements (tattvas) considered in this philosophy are:
1) Purusha or atman, 2) Prakriti, 3) Mahat-Buddhi or also called Mahat, 4) Ahankara or ego, 5) Shabda-
Tanmatra, 6) Sparsha-Tanmatra 7) Rupa-Tanmatra, 8) Rasa-Tanmatra, 9) Gandha-Tanmatra, 10) Manas-mind,
11) Shrotra-ear, 12) Twak-skin, 13) Chakshu-eyes, 14) Rasna-tongue, 15) Ghrana-nose, 16) Vak-speech, 17) Pani-
hand, 18) Pada- feet, 19) Payu – excretory organs, 20) Upastha – reproductory organs, 21) Akasa – sky, 22) Vayu
– air, 23) Teja – fire, 24) Jala – Water and 25) Prithvi – earth.
Purusha Tatva (Jivatman)
• This is the stuff of souls or spirits. It is composed of individual souls rather than one undifferentiated soul.
• These souls attract Prakriti to themselves. The souls are in a foreign environment, imprisoned by their
attachment to matter.
• The souls can be released from bondage by living in ways that do not involve the soul with matter, thus
enlightening them so that Prakriti dissolves. The Purusha is devoid of all three Gunas and is incapable of creation
without the Prakriti.
According to Samkhya it is by the combining of the Purush and Prakriti that the universe is created.
The Purpose of Samkhya Three types of sufferings (Triya-Tap) cause pain and sufferings to the people of the world.
These are:
Adhyatmik – Spiritual and mental.
Aadhi Bhoutik – Sufferings arising from the four Yonis.
Aadhi Daivik – Suffering arising from planetary condition, anger of devatas.
If one uses the knowledge of Samkhya Darshana, there is a possibility of cessation of these three kinds of Dukhas.
The state then achieved is called Apvarg or Kaivalya or Moksha.

YOGA DARSHAN
Maharshi Patanjali spread and made known the philosophy called Yoga Darshana. He proclaimed that “To control
and prevent the flow of the mind is called Yoga.” Yoga is the meeting or coming together of the Jivatman and
paramatman. Mukti is possible only when the Atman attains control over the Body, Indriyas and Ahankar, and
then the pure Atman or Purush recognizes the Ytharth Swarup (True form). The three main parts of Yoga are – 1)
Jnana Yoga, 2) Bhakti Yoga, 3) Karma Yoga. A person should follow the path which is suitable for him and which he
thinks he can follow. There are eight rules or Sadhanas for following the path hence it is also called Ashtanga Yoga.
1. Yama or moral practices – Ahimsa or non-violence, Satya (Truth), Asteya (not to steal), Brahmacharya
(celebacy), and Aparigraha (not to collect).
2. Niyama or rules and abstinences – The rule is of good behavior or Sadachara.
3. Asanas (Yogic Exercises) – There are various Asanas. For example- Padmasana, Virasana, Shirshasana,
Mayurasana, Siddhasana etc.
4. Pranayama – Pranayama consists of three activities: 1) Pūraka, 2) Kumbhaka, and 3) Rechaka. For this mind
must be concentrated. The exercises are as follows:
Puraka: Pulling in the breath through the right nostril keeping left one closed.
Kumbhaka: Holding the breath within.
Rechaka: Leaving the breath gradually through other nostril. This should be repeated changing right and left.
5. Pratyahara – This is the way of gradually withdrawing the senses, from their
objects, suppressing the ego, and thus being in control of mind which is actually being controlled by the Buddhi.
The above mentioned five steps of Yoga are the external Sadhanas. The remaining three are internal sadhanas.
6. Dharana – To focus the mind on a desired point either at the Nabhi Chakra or Trikuti.
7. Dhyana – To meditate and contemplate continuously without obstacles of any kind on the subject aimed at.
8. Samadhi – This is the last stage or condition of Yoga Sadhana.

Mimamsa Darshana:
The Mimamsa philosophy was established by Maharshi Jaimini. The word Mimansa means deep contemplation,
and the subject matter of this philosophy is ‘Karmakanda’, or rituals and customs as based on the Vedas. They
believe that ‘Svarga’ can be attained by ‘Yajna’

Vedanta Darshana:
The Vedanta Darshan was established and founded by Maharshi Badarayan. The Vedanta comprises of writings
based on Vedas, and written after discussions of the Upanishads. Hence it describes the ‘Jnanakanda” of Vedic
literature. The Brahma Sutra, written by Badarayan forms the basis of this philosophy.

NASTIKA DARSHANAS –
The Nastika Darshana does not accept the authority of the Vedas.
1. Charvaka Philosophy
2. Jain Philosophy
3. Buddhist Philosophy
Charvaka Philosophy - Founder Acharya Brahaspati

world). Charvakas believe that people who people vedas are cowards or ‘Purusharthahinta’ They are also called as
Lokayatas, because their belief appeals to worldly people. Charvakas denies existence of atman, Parloka, Ishwara,
Brahma and othe supersensory elements. They don’t believe in soul. After death the body is destroyed and so is
the soul. Thus they don’t believe in previous lives, rebirth, heaven, hell, or Karmas.
They believe in only four elements or Mahabhootas – Prithvi, Jala, Agni, and Vayu. They believe that the ultimate
aim in life should be to obtain pleasure. They believe to follow only two Purusharthas, i.e. Artha and Kama.

Jain Philosophy- First Tirthankar - RishabhDev

Jainism is very ancient religion. The founder acharyas of this philosophy are also called as Tirthankars.
The first Tirthankar of the Jainism was Rishabhdev.
Rishabhdev is referred as Aadinath. There were total 24 Tirthankars in Jainism. The last Tirthankar was
Vardhmaan Mahaveer. Rishabhdev was son of ‘Nabhi’, he was king and gave his kingdom to his son
Bharat and left to become ‘shraman’- sanyaasi. According to Jain followers, India got its name as Bharat from the
same King Bharat. Jain word came from ‘Jin’ which means one who has controlled all ‘indriyas’(senses). Jainism is
also called as ‘Nirgranth’ which means no attachments. The only three ways of attaining release for the soul - by
having 1.Right Vision, 2.Right Knowledge and 3.Right Conduct and Right Character.

Buddhism Philosophy- Founder : Bhagwan Buddha

Buddha’s worldly name was Gautama Siddhartha . Aim - To remove sorrow from the world.
It is the practical religion. Buddha gave the four Noble Truths. There are two main branches of Buddhism-
Hinayana and Mahayana. The Buddhist philosophy believes in the cause of sorrow being desire and the
only way to eliminate this sorrow and attain Nirvana is to live a life of modesty.

CONCLUSION
Indian Philosophy can be divided into two broad categories based on the beliefs in the Vedas. One category, the
Astika Darshana was studied in detail in this lesson. While the six schools belonging to this category had a common
platform, i.e. they all accepted the Vedas as proof, there was broad variation in their beliefs regarding God as
Creator, the process of creation, their concept of Heaven and the process on how to achieve Moksha or salvation.

UNIT 3 (B) JAINISM :

Jain Belief:
Nothing can be created or destroyed in the universe therefore there is no need for someone to create or manage
the affairs of the universe. Hence Jainism does not believe in God as a creator, sustainer, and destroyer of the
universe. Jainism does believe in God, not as a Creator, but as a Perfect Being. When a person destroys all his
Karmas, he becomes omniscient and omnipotent. He is a liberated soul. He lives in a perfect blissful state, in
Moksha. This living being is a God of Jain religion. Every living being has a potential to become God of the Jain
religion.
Who is Tirthankara?
a Tirthankara is one who has achieved enlightenment or perfect knowledge. One becomes a Tirthankara or Jina
after having completely conquered pride, anger, conceit, desire etc. A Tirthankara is the founder of a "Tirth", a
Jain community which acts as a "ford" across the "river of human misery". The literal meaning of the word
Tirthankara would be a ‘Ford Maker’ or ‘Crossing Builder’. Tirthankaras are those ideal persons who have forged a
bridge between this life and Nirvana. There are a total of 24 Tirthankaras in Jainism who receive this veneration of
the Jains. The duty of a Tirthankara involves showing the path to others after enlightenment.
Tirthankaras are also called Arihantas, Jinas, Kevalin, and Vitaragi.
• Arihant means "destroyer of inner enemies,"
• Jina means "victor of inner enemies," and
• Vitaragi means "one who does not have anymore attachment or hatred towards anyone."
These Tirthankaras are Kevalajnanis meaning that they know everything, anywhere, that happened in the past,
that is happening now, and that will happen in the future all at the same time. They are also Kevaldarshanis,
meaning that they can see all that has happened in the past, that is happening now, and that will happen in the
future all at the same time. A Tirthankara is not an Avatar or incarnation of God, but is the soul developed into a
state of absolute purity. Jains believe that every living being (or soul) is associated with Karmas.
The main purpose of religion is to remove these Karmas which are attached to our soul.
Karmas are broadly classified into eight categories. The first four Karmas are called Ghati Karmas because they
obscure the natural qualities of the soul. Once a person destroys all his Ghati Karmas, he will also destroy all of his
Aghati Karmas before his death. The last four Karmas are known as Aghati Karmas because they do not affect the
qualities of the soul, but they are related to the body of the soul. When a person renounces the worldly life and all
the attachments, and is initiated into monkshood or nun hood, the man is called a Sadhu, Shraman or Muni and
the woman is called a Sadhvi, Shramani, or Arya.
The Five Vows
The Jain monks take five vows (Maha Vratas) to guide their lives:
i. Jain Sadhus and Sadhvis never cause harm or violence to any living being (which is called Ahimsa).
ii.They always speak the absolute truth (called Satya). iii.Without the permission of the owner, they do not take
even the smallest thing such as a piece of straw. This vow is called Asteya. iv.They observe the vow of celibacy
with an absolute adherence to it. This vow is known as Brahmacharya. v.The fifth vow is Aparigraha where all
attachments are to be renounced.
Lord Rishabhadeva (Adinath) is considered to be the first of the Tirthankaras of the present age. Hence he is called
Adinath or the first lord. He was an Arhat i.e. a liberated soul. Lord Rishabhadeva was born to King Nabhi and
Queen Marudevi at Ayodhya. As soon as the Lord was born He manifested symptoms of the Supreme Lord, such as
marks on the bottoms of His feet [the flag, thunderbolt, etc. According to a legend, King Rishabhadeva had two
sons, Bharata and Bahubali. In keeping with the traditions of Varnashram Dharma, the king decided to renounce
the world. Before this, he distributed his property, giving Ayodhya to his elder son Bharata and Podanpura to his
second son Bahubali.
The twenty-second Tirthankara is also known as Neminatha. He was the son of King Samudravijaya and Queen Siva
of Soriyapura. Lord Neminatha was born to them sometime before Mahabharata. When he was in the womb of
his mother, she had dreamt of a series of black jewels called Arishta. He is therefore also known as Arishtanemi.
He was a cousin and close associate of Sri Krishna.
The twenty third Tirthankara Parsvanatha lived in the 8th century BC. He preceeded Lord Mahavira by 250 years.
He was born at Varanasi and was the son of King Asvasena. Parsvanatha was regarded as an incarnation of Indra.
His fundamental teachings were four fold :
i. Non injury to any living being (Ahimsa) ii. Never to speak an untruth iii. Not to take what is not given and
iv. Not to be attached to worldly possessions.
To this four fold vow, Lord Mahavira added chastity, making the number of vows five.
The 24th Tirthankara was called Mahavira or Viranatha because of his infinte courage.
He is said to have brought into control a large vicious serpent and a mad elephant, while he was a mere child. His
parents named him Vardhamana, because his birth brought opulence to his family. He was born at Kundagrama, a
suburb of Vaishali in North Bihar to King Siddhartha and Trishala of Vaishali.
Mantra is the first and foremost Mantra in Jainism. This Mantra is said to destroy all sins and obstacles. The
Namokar Mantra goes as follows:
• •Namo Arihantanam: I bow to the Arihantas, i.e. the perfected human beings, Godmen.
• •Namo Siddhanam: I bow to the Siddhas, the liberated bodiless souls, God.
• •Namo Ayariyanam: I bow to the Acharyas, the masters and heads of congregations.
• •Namo Uvajjayanam: I bow to the Upadhyayas, the spiritual teachers.
• •Namo Loe Savva Sahunam: I bow to the spiritual practitioners in the universe, the Sadhus.

Dravya according to Jainism :

Dravya or substances are the basic constituents of reality. According to Jainism, Universe is made up of following
dravyas –
Jiva -- Jiva tattva is the conscious substance. It has boundless knowledge. It can be Ekindriya, Dwiindriya,
Triindriya, Chaturindriya or Panchendriya according to the senses one to five that it possesses.
The Ajiva tattva are the lifeless, non living soul. They are present in physical form in nature. Ajiva is of five kinds:
1.Pudgala - Pudgala is matter in the form of atoms. They are present everywhere and contain the three
properties of Roop Ras Rang i.e. form, taste and colour. They may be atomic that is Anu or Skanda as
compound.
2.Akash ,
4.Dharma,
5.Adharma, and
6.Kala.
The other tattvas are –
• Pap - sins
• Punya- good karmas
• Asrava – inflow of karmas
• Bandha – attachment due to inflow of karmas
• Samvara – stopping of inflow of karmas
• Nirjara – penance or tapasya to get rid of affects of karmas
• Moksha – state of jiva (Kevaljnana)

Anekantavada Philosophy :
When one school like Samkhya, Bauddha, Vedanta, Nyaya and Mimansa, refused to entertain the point of view of
the other side. This led to intolerance. Such dogmatist and intolerant approach is considered "ekant".
Anekantavada is the the Doctrine of non-absolutism , while presenting one's point of view on any subject due
consideration is also shown to the opposite point of view. This approach is based on the acceptance of the
manifoldness of reality. (Story of the six blind men)

Nayavada Philosophy
Since knowledge varies depending upon which stand point we are considering, no one should take truth for
granted and speak in terms of absolute certainty about anything. To understand one aspect of an object or to
view it from one stand-point is Naya, and to understand many aspects of an object is Pramana.
Syadavada : It is an important development of Anekanta doctrine.
Syadavada, or „Maybeism‟, implies that the real is eternal in respect of its substance and also evanescent in
respect of its modes. Both the opposite characteristics exist in the same thing. A real is neither an absolute being,
nor absolute non-being nor an artificial synthesis of the two.
Saptabhanginaya : The doctrine of seven fold predications –The seven predications are: -
• being
• non-being
• being and non-being
• inexpressibility
• being and inexpressibility
• non-being and inexpressibility
• being, non-being and inexpressibility

The five means of knowledge in Jainism :-

Knowledge gained through ones physical senses, from hearing and observation of signs and symbols, through
ones intuitive abilities, through reading minds and thoughts, and from transcendental experiences.
The evolution of Jainism
The gradual extension of Jainism from its homelands in eastern India into the south, and then into western India,
that is, Gujarat and Rajasthan. During the Gupta period Gujarat seemed to have become the most important
center of Jainism in India . By 80 B.C.E, the Jains were divided into the Digambaras and Svetambaras. The
Digambaras, who mainly live in South India, believe in non-possession to such an extent that they do not think it
desirable to possess even a rag of clothing. Women are prohibited from entering monasteries and temples. The
Digambaras even refused to believe that Mahavira was ever married. The sect that interprets Jain teachings more
liberally is the Svetambara sect (literally, “the white clad”). They do not believe in complete nudity and wear white
clothes. They are located mainly in the Northern part of India. They are liberal in that they allow women into the
religion and into their monasteries and even accept the possibility that women may find release.
The Digambaras believe that:
• the monks should strictly follow the laws of asceticism
• one who has attained the stage of perfect knowledge or Kevala Jnana needs no food to sustain his life.
• women cannot attain the stage of Moksha or liberation
• Vardhamana Mahavira never married and
• The original scriptures are now no more extant.

Concept of Soul in Jain Scriptures

According to Jainism, soul is one of the six entities of the universe. There are infinite numbers of souls in the
universe. They are independent from each other. A worldly soul is associated with Karmic matter and so it
interacts with other entities of the universe. On shedding all Karmic matter through self-endeavor, a worldly soul
becomes Siddha, a pure soul. This is the teaching of the religion of self-reliance (Shraman Dharm). Siddhas enjoy
the attributes of a pure soul.
The doctrines of Jainism are summed up in the maxim "Ahimsa Paramo Dharmah". All rules of conduct are based
on mercy which has four forms:
1. To perform a kind act without expectation of a reward.
2. To rejoice at the well-being of others.
3. To sympathize with the distressed people and to relieve their sufferings.
4. To pity the criminals.
Jainism is very ethical, and Dharma is literally given the place of God. Salvation can be obtained not by the Grace
and Mercy of the Lord, but by following the code of conduct as specified by the doctrines. Jainism further goes on
to believe that all emancipated souls are enlightened and if there was a God, they would all be Gods. Though, like
Buddhism, Jainisms reject the existence of God, they both do believe that each soul has the capability to attain
salvation.
Aparigraha means renunciation of all worldly desires and interests. Aparigraha is one of the five virtues that
dictate the conduct of a follower.