The politics of the Zenana Day: Women at the Lahore Museum in

colonial India

This paper attempts to understand the significance of the weekly

‘’Zenana Day’’ at the Lahore Museum – a day on which only women
were allowed to visit the museum in an attempt to encourage their
engagement with the museum. Investigating the efforts of the
colonial state to attract and influence Indians through this step, this
paper considers the response of Indians and the extent of state’s
success. Earlier, wealthy Indian women had been encouraged to visit
the Great Exhibition at Crystal Palace. Within India, however, it
seems that the practice of inviting Indian women to the exposition
grounds was observed only in the Lahore Museum, and not in other
museums. The museum’s administration displayed specific exhibits
for women, including commercially and regionally specific textiles
and certain paintings. This paper explores the rationale behind these
choices, and reflects on the impact of the Zenana Day more broadly.

2.1. Colonial’s perceptions about Indian women and existent status of

Indian women:
This section will examine the colonial’s perceptions about

Indian women. I have created comparison among colonial’s thought

and actual status of Indian women, to know the reason behind the new

introducing day. The situation in 1880s was strange of Indian society.

And the British did great deals for the betterment and prosperity of

Indian women. For example, Colonial state abolished the custom of

‘sati’, ‘polygamy’ and child marriage. Colonial’s state assumed about

Indian women that they were much bound to their families, since

women were deeply absorbed in the traditions and customs of

families. Colonials thought that an Indian woman was not like that by

nature but they had to follow their traditions.

Shah jahan begum (1838-1901) belong to the dynasty that had

produced no male for three generations and they had ruled the Indian

state. Those were educated, self-disciplined and pious ladies 1Sultan

Jahan Begam used to observe purdah, and her purdah as evidence

depicted that, women could rule, learned and educated while in

purdah.2 She was not restricted by her family for purdah, though she

did for her own choice.

Rashid Jahan Begam (1905-1952), grew up in the environment

where all the ladies like her mother, aunt involved in educational and

literary activities.3Her mother taught at Aligarh school and started to

write for Urdu Magazines and published her own journal ‘khatun’ as

1
Ibid, 25.
2
Ibid, 26.
3
Ibid, 34.
Her two sisters: Khatun Jahan and Mumtaz Jahan served Aligarh

women’s College as Principal in 1930s. Her youngest Khurshid Jahan

Began worked as an actress in films and television. 4She was medical

doctor and played an important role in writings of ‘Delhi kisair’ and

‘Parde ke Piche’ where she openly challenged the conservative social

customs and orthodox religious arguments.5

Ismat Chugtai (1915-1991) was the best author of modern Urdu and

short stories,6her father was civil servant in UP. She removed her

Purdah when she entered in the train. She had completed her B.A in

1938. Her father was passed away and then she and her sisters moved

to her uncle. While going to college she removed her purdah in the

train. Once her uncle saw her unveiled in train ,he scolded her for that

never listen to anyone except her father’. She had written the stories

based on middle class women, after that she became an inspector of

unicipal girl’s school in Bombay.7

4
Gail Minault, Secluded Scholars,40.
5
Ibid, 25.
6
Ibid, 31.
7
Gail Minault, Secluded Scholars,33.
 Additionally, the Abadi Begam (1916), commonly known as Bi

Amman ,she belonged to administrative family of Rampur. 8She had

learned the Quran, taught herself to read Urdu and Persian, though she

never learned to write.9There was another history behind the taboo of

writing in the 19th century, how to read among ‘sharief women’10was

usually enough. But how to write was rare this was because if she

knew how to write, she would be starting to write letters to some

secrete person as male.11But I think this concept of writing was

changed when most of ladies started to write digest etc. As I

mentioned in the above section.

A well-known author Gail Minault’s every example relates to Elite

women as I have mentioned above. He had only discussed and

interviewed elite women. ‘Purdah’ was usually for Elite class women,

might be female of lower class was not restricted to observe Purdah as

Female of elite class. Or local women’s were not enough competent

8
Ibid, 28
9
Ibid, 29
10
I used this term for ladies who obey their father, husband and also society.
11
Gail Minault, Secluded Scholars,26.
as Elite women, that is why he had neglected the local women. He

had explains all the movements, new journals and newspapers leaded

by Muslim Women and Muslim social reformers. He had totally

ignored the British deeds for Indian women.

Tim Allender, another scholardiscussed both Britisher, and

Hindu’s struggle for Indian women.12But hereTim ignored the Muslim

reformers. He thoroughly discussed the new inventions for Indian

women specific for Hindu women. He had discussed two Britisher

one Male and other one female. In 1849 Bethune school was run by

John Drive water. Bethune was evolved with Brahmo samaj politics.

Anette Ackroyd13 in 1873, she started a boarding school for Indian

women.14The agenda of this school was to provide same education to

Indian girls as Indian boys.15

Conversation held between Gandhi, Leader of Indian National

congress, Hartog and Colonial educationalist in 1931in London-for

12
Tim Allender, Learning Feminity in Colonial India 1820-1932 (Manchester: University of Manchester press,
2016),233.
13
Ibid, 234.
14
Ibid,236.
15
Ibid,230.
the concern of female education in India.16He proposed to learn

western education to Indian girl. On his proposal Gandhi’s simple

question was ‘Hartog’s colonial education makes Indian girls better

mother?’17 On his question, Author Tim Allender did not make exact

reply to Gandhi, but I can assume on behalf of his answer by studying

Tim Allender that Hartog wanted to introduce modern education

‘under control of British’.18

Male Indian Muslim reformers were also deeply involved in

debates regarding the reform of Indian women. Many such reformers

raised their voices for women education through novels, poetry and

newspapers. Indians wanted to educate their ladies for best homes.

As Nazir Ahmad (1833-1912) novelist,told the story of two

sisters in his novel ‘Mirat-ul-uroos’,Asghari and Akbari. Asghari

observed purdah and she had learned education at home. She was

much wise,skilful, and started a school at home for respectable

girls.19Akbari was opposite to her. Through this novel, he had

expressed his views about ideal lady. That was educated ‘sharief

16
Tim Allender, Learning Feminity in Colonial India,233.
17
Ibid,235.
18
Tim Allender, Learning Feminity in Colonial India, 237.
19
Gail Minault, Secluded Scholars,50.
women’ homemaker with all her qualities and she observed purdah

well. Nazir Ahmad belonged to an ideal family; learned Arabic,

Persian and Urdu from his father. He was not influenced by

British.20Gradually they had felt the need to educate their women. He

wanted to see Muslim women as Asghari, as she had performed her

all duties well.

‘Medina newspaper’ (1912) published by Majid Hassan. It

became one of the famous newspapers in the North India. 21Hassan

was educated in Lahore Madrassa and worked there as Journalist

there. He had created separate section for females in his newspaper

naming ‘Akhbar-i-Niswan’ its purpose to entertain and instruct

Muslim women by publishing stories, poems and editorials.22Most

important thing of the women section was read and contributed by

men.23There were major three periodicals: all were founded by men as

Mumtaz Ali who had worked with his wife ‘Tehzib un Niswaan’

started in 1898 by Muhammadi Begam in Lahore. Shaikh Abdullah

and Wahid’s wife Jahan Begum founded ‘Khatun’ in 1904. Before

20
Ibid, 52.
21
Gail Minault, Secluded Scholars,58.
22
Ibid, 60.
23
Gail Minault, Secluded Scholars, 80.
Medina in 1908 literary journal ‘Ismat’ was published by Rashid ul

khair.

Khawaja Altaf Hussain Halli (1837-1914), a poet created

another Muslim female example ‘Zubbaida khatun’ heroin of his

novel ‘Majlisun-Nisa’.She was educated at home; learn to read Quran

as primary education then Persian and Urdu. She was asked to give

her open consent to marriage. She was pious and best household

manager.24

Indian Muslim reformer’s who wanted their better wives as best

champions. Better mothers who could raise their children into healthy

environment, better Muslims who knew the tenets and taboos of the

religion.25
24
Ibid, 54.
25
Ibid,92.
 Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Nazir Ahmad and Altaf Hussain Halli

educated in traditional Islamic curriculum. They had experienced the

effects of British on their lives and families. 26From escaping the

further salvage of British they wanted to educate their ladies. As

Nazir Ahmad claimed that ‘might be physically men is stronger than

women, but intellectually women is the stronger’.27 Through the

characters of novels and sections of newspapers I have tried to

narrated that Indian reformers wanted to educate their ladies. Indian

men had not suppressed their daughters or wives.

2.2. Zenana Day as debate in Lahore museum:

Hoffenberg stated that,’’ the politics behind invitation of women in

purdah as one of the Joubert’s several schemes to swallow the
number of visitors from South Asian community.’’ Joubert appraised
himself as the ‘’liberator of Indian women.’’ An Indian man visited
the exhibition and appreciated Joubert’s efforts,’’ he called off Indian
orthodoxy among our mothers, wives and daughters.’’ Joubert
further argues that,’’many Raj officials perilous about the
incorporation of Indian women as a return to the days of ‘’ liberal
reforms’’ when they continued to blame the violence. He further
claimed that this culture would become the agendas for some future
exhibition commissioners to increase more participants in the
exhibitions.
26
Gail Minault, Secluded Scholars, 93.
27
Ibid, 94.
The perspective to invite Indian women at the exposition grounds
started from the London’s exhibition held at Royal Palace. Two days
were reserved : one for elite Indian women ; second for local Indian
women. On one hand exhibition commissioners (few of them were
Indians) fascinated the Indian male through fully protected their
‘elite females’ with no single male even for indispensable at the
exhibition. On the other hand, local Indian women visited the
exhibition in the presence of male staff members and security
guards.
This approach except class difference influenced the colonial

Indian museum Lahore. Zenana Day was introduced in Lahore

Museum to give an opportunity to Purdah-nashin ladies to acquaint

with that institution.28

Female superintendent Mrs.Mingle provided there for explaining

exhibits to female visitors.29There were no specific days and specific

arrangements for elite and native women.Museum’s organizers were

not conscious about ‘elite’ or ‘native’ females.In India, women

28
Percy Brown, Report of the Central Museum Lahore for 1901-1902, 1-2.
29
Percy Brown, Report of the Central Museum Lahore for 1902-3, 1.
belonged to Elite family was already modern and educated; as in

previous I have discussed in the first part of chapter. Here another

example of Niraja Gopal who described the ‘Mussulman party’ (9 to

12 march in 1912) at the house of Mr. Justice Shah30, there happened

a meeting with purdah ladies;they were all win the gorgeous raiment

and several were speaking in English.31This was the case of the

Muslim women. On the other meeting at the place of Harkishen Lal,

Hindoo Barrister mentioned that Government Contractor and his wife

with no purdah pleasant looking silent Hindoo women appeared to

welcome us when we called.32Here, first point of acquainted the elite

women to museum and the education of the women is clearer,because

those women were already educated and speaks in English.

It seems as contentious that purdah’ was more frequently

practiced among the wealthy and upper class women and women of

middle class observed purdah as well.33As in case of Jaipur Museum

30
Justice Shah Din (1868-1918),‘‘an important Judicial administrator of the Punjab, Judge of the Chief court
(1908-1918), organizer of the Muslim league in the Punjab, and its first president’’.
31
NirajaGopalJayal, Indian Diary (Delhi Oxford Press, Bombay Calcutta Madrass, 1988), 91-92.
32
Ibid, 94.
33
Meredith, Bothwick,The Challenging Role of Women in Bengal,1849-1905 (Princeton,NJ,Princeton university
press,1984), 221.
established by Maharaja Swai Jai Sing (1727) while comparing

Lahore Museum’s objectives with the objective of Jaipur Museum,

Jaipiur’s primary aim was to produce and preserve; the objectives of

Lahore museum was to introduce science among locals and half-

forgotten culture34 and then from where ‘Zenana Day’ comes. Jaipur

Museum not introduced ‘Zenana day’35, might be they were not

responsive for their females as British did for Indian females.

2.3. Indian Women and the Lahore Museum:

From 1901 to 1922, ladies were used to go to Museum in huge

numbers. Mrs. Mingle (female superintendent) reported that ‘visitors

(ladies) take keen interest in the entire exhibit; and her time is fully

occupied to explain different exhibits to women. There is no doubt

that this institution is a decided success.’ 36Here, it is almost cleared,

Colonial state just introduced this day to show their success to invent

this day in the Museum.

34
Husain Ahmad khan, Artisans,Sufis and Colonial Art Institution In Nineteenth Century Punjab, 190-192.
35
SugataRoy, ‘‘Colonial Frames NativeClaims: The Jaipur Economic and Industrial Museum’’, no.2 ( July
2014): 196-198.
36
Percy Brown, Report of Central Museum Lahore of 1901- 1902, 2-3.
 In Jaunary 1931, the Delegates of All-India women’s conference

and the Delegates of All Asian women’s conference visited the

Lahore Museum and admired this invention.37

Museum’s organizers wanted to invite women of lower class

for manipulating. From 1922-1927 organizer of Lahore Museum

observed an extra ‘Zenana Days’ for purdah nashin ladies to visit the

exhibitions of Punjab fine society that was held in the empty gallery

of Lahore Museum.38Mostly lower class female visited the museum

on other days and less female visitors used the museum on exhibitions

days. For example on the Annual exhibition of the Punjab held in

Lahore Museum(1925) female visitor’s strength was 7,07739and on the

next year strength was 7,470 without extra Zenana Day for

exhibitions.40With curator’s statements in annual report; one could

assume that if ladies were convenient on other days to visit the

Museum then they must not be uncomfortable on exhibition days. I

had discussed above about their lack of interest on exhibition or extra

37
K.N. SitaRam, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1930-31, 2.
38
Different Report of Central Museum Lahore of1922-27.
39
S.N Gupta, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1924-1925,1-2.
40
Lionel Heath, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1925-26, 1-2.
Zenana Days. Purdah nashin ladies were more convenient on single

Zenana Days.

What were the new additions in the museum with the inclusion

of women? Museum had not displayd any new thing for women

except two specific exhibits: one was embroidery artefacts; the

second was Photographs. For those two exhibits they had invented

this day. Colonial state wanted to invite Indian women just to

acquaint them with embroidery to remind Indian women about their

forgotten embroidery tradition ,and to popularized among the natives

of this region.( Artisans who embroidered phulkari used to live in

Hazara and Sawat, currently part of the North West Frontier province

of Pakistan).

According to Maskeill ‘usually middle class females know how

to embroidery’.41 From her statement and curator’s no remarks on

specific elite or educated ladies; I can assume that mostly lower or

middle class women were visiting the museum.

41
Michelle Makiell, ‘‘Embroidering the Past: Phulkari Textiles and Gendered Work as Tradition and Heritage in
Colonial and Contemporary Punjab’’, Journal of Asian Studies58,no.2 (May 1999):368-371.
2.3.1. ‘Phulkaris’, ’Kashmiri Shawls’ and Punjabi Women:
Punjab was famous for its art and craft. Phulkari derived from

two Sanskrit words ‘Phul’ which means flower and ‘Kari’ which

means work. The famous textile art of the Punjab was Phulkari which

was primarily made by Punjabi women for their personal use. This

embroidery was begun in Punjab from 15th century.42Phulkari was the

source of relationship between exchange and production in the Punjab

and in global market.43In the early twentieth century women’s

magazines started by men to convey various ideas to purdah women,

however, magazines were with multiple contents as about health care

issues, child care and embroidery patterns as well.44 .

Women sat in the afternoon and used to embroidering when

their men worked in the fields. Women sang together and cooked for

their men.45In the 19th century women had used ‘Phulkari’

embroidering to decorate their daily garments etc. Phulkaris was one

of the famous Indian handicrafts products popularized by various

42
Rajinder Kaur Ila Gupta, ‘‘Phulkari and Bagh Folk Art of Punjab,a Study of changing designs from traditional
to contemporary time’’, (April2017), 62.
43
Michelle Maskiell, ‘‘Embroidering the past’’: 361-388.
44
Gail Minault, Secluded Scholars, 196.
45
Michelle Maskiell, ‘‘Embroidering the past’’: 390.
displays at the exhibition of European which was held in 2 nd half of

the 19th century.46It was the discovery of country’s living tradition as

pride of Indian and it also gave the importance in the centre the world

fairs.47Major exhibition held at Lahore in 1864, 1881 and each with

the description realized the increasing demand of Phulkaris.48.

J.L. Kipling mentioned those traditional specimens mostly liked

in other countries as in London and New York. 49 As in 1881 Punjab

Industrial exhibition was the platform of transporting of Phulkaris to

London for use of various household furnishing.50 Lahore museum

was almost every year added new specimens of Kashmiri shawls and

Phulkaris.As embroidered jacket purchased in 30051, three silk table

cloths embroidered with figure work and four silk saris embroidered

with figure work purchased52, specific price for those were not

mentioned. But those rare specimens sale in high price for instance,

Lionel Heath (Curator of Lahore Museum,1916-1926) purchased one

46
Peter H, Hoffenberg,An Empire on Display: 90-93.
47
Thakurta,Monuments,Objects,Histories: Institutions of Art in Colonial and Post –Colonial India (Cultures of
History),137-139.
48
J.L kipling, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1878-79, 3.
49
J.L kipling, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1880-1881, 2.
50
J.L kipling, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1879-80,2.
51
Percy Brown, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1906-07, 3-4.
52
K.N Sita Ram, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1936-37, 6.
embroidered Kashmir shawl in 9000,its cost was high as compared to

other exhibits like three Persian paintings and one drawing in

6000,two gold,6 silver and one copper Nepalese coins purchased in

5040.53

Chamba Rumals in 8000054, Old yellow embroidery lehnga

piece55, old red embroidery lehnga piece,56 for ChambaRumal, Percy

Brown (Curator of Lahore Museum from 1900 to 1909) claimed that

Chamba Rumal appeared to have been the work of all class of women

huge efforts were made to add different specimens of Phulkari in the

Museum. Local natives were not more interested in embroidery work.

Then why those were displayed in the Museum? Because those

handicrafts, embroidery dresses were not common to use 57, so they

were trying to remind their lost culture not in historical perspectives

but for trade interests (exporting to New York and London).

53
Lionel Heath, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1916-17, 4.
54
B Mount Jones, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1908-09, 2-3.
55
S.N Gupta, Reports of the Central museum Lahore of 1920-1921, 1.
56
Ibid, 2.
57
Michelle Maskiell, ‘‘Embroidering the past’’: 397.
 In Lahore Museum 1900 to 1947- hardly two times museum

presented with handicraft art, all the embroidery pieces and Kashmiri

shawls exhibited in the Museum by purchasing. Like Raja sahib of

Poonch presented 4 old Kashmiri shawls which were welcomed

addition in the museum.58 An antique embroidery curtain with animal

pattern had purchased59, this was again an interesting addition for

exporting. New style of Shishadar Phulkari (Pieces of mirror stitched

onto the Phulkari, it was usually made in southeast part of Punjab -

now state of Haryana)60were also added in this year.61 Some

embroidered cotton clothes with Geometrical (Geometrical motifs

such as triangles, verticals with various colourcombinations). 62

Animal and flower pattern(Flower motifs were created by women

from their own imagination)63 in colour of Reddish Brown,Brown

cotton and Green cotton presented to Lahore Museum by

Dr.MaclagenGorrie.64.

58
S.N Gupta, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1926- 1927, 2-3.
59
K.N SitaRam, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1939-1940,1-2.
60
RajinderKaur,Ila Gupta, ‘‘Bagh and Phulkari Folk Art of Punjab:A study of changing designs from traditional
to contemporary time’’, (24 April,2017).
61
S.N Gupta, Report of Central Museum Lahore of 1926-1927,2-3.
62
RajinderKaur,IlaGupta, ‘‘Bagh and Phulkari Folk Art of Punjab:a study of changing designs from traditional
to contemporary time’’, (24 April,2017), 55.
63
Ibid, 44.
64
K.N Sita Ram, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1938 -1939, 2-3.
2.4. Discarding the ‘Purdah’
The custom of eradication of ‘Purdah’ started from 1932,65 when

women less visited the museum,66 as they were more comfortable on

other days than specificZenana Day.67 Ladies visited on Zenana days

who had not yet discarded the purdah. 68Behind this constantly falling

in numbers (1933-1934) female’s visitors strength=7’198,69(1942-

1943) female’s visitors strength= (5,758)70 female visitors K.N Sita

Ram stated that “this decrease in number is due to the fact that

cultured ladies do not generally care to visit the museum on the

purdah day and also this is the fact that province is rapidly abolishing

this custom”71. Zafar Hassan (curator of Lahore Museum- 1942-1943)

mentioned that ‘this discarding of purdah is among the educated

ladies who prefer to visit the museum in the presence of their men-

relatives.72 For attracting the women on ‘Zenana Day’ museum’s

organizers had advertised this specific day on Newspaper and then

8,137 ladies visited the museum on this day. Eventually, Indian

65
K.N Sita Ram, Reports of the Central Museum Lahore of 1932-1933,2-3.
66
K.N Sita Ram, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1933-1934,3-4.
67
Ibid, 4.
68
S.N Gupta, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1940-1941, 3-4.
69
K.N Sit Ram, Report of the Central Museum Lahore Museum of 1933-1934,2-3.
70
Zafar Hassan, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1942-1943,2-3.
71
K.N SitaRam, Reports of the Central Museum Lahore of 1939-1940, 2-3.
72
Zafar Hassan, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1942-1943,4-5.
women independently started to visit the museum on random days,

then organizers felt need to explore this approach on the newspaper.

Gail Minault argued ‘British administrators continuously

exploiting the native press for its political content with total ignored

the women’s magazines and newspapers’.73So the reason behind was

to invite the women in Museum was not educating or suggesting the

new exhibits for women. Colonial state for their own purpose

publishing the Zanana days on the newspaper just to promote their

new invention and engaged women’s on Zenana day.74

Curator of Lahore Museum stated that women left purdah in

1932.Indian ladies did not quit purdah suddenly. As a treatment for

oppressed and depressed condition of India- educatedIndian Muslim

leaders had promoted the women’s education.Before lefting the

purdah women equal contributed in social activities. Therefore purdah

even in nineteenth century was not obstacle for active and devotional
73
Gail Minault, Secluded Scholars, 104.
74
K.N Sita Ram, Report of the Central Museum Lahore of 1933-1934, 2-3.
ladies. They did their work while in purdah.75So that was the time of

social and political change in India through this change many of

women emerged from purdah.

2.5. Conclusion
In first part of of this chapter I have illustrated the perception of

Colonial’s about Indian women and discarding of purdah. Indian

status and status of their women was deprived before 1851. Colonial

officials had introduced various schools and colleges, however,

concerned about Indian women education. At the end of the

nineteenth century Indian men uplifted their status to promote

education and awareness among native women. Those reformers had

greater wish to educate their women. The discourse on the purdah of

women or isolation of women had been decidedly resolved.

Second part of this chapter deals with the objectives of ‘Zenana

day’. It described the kind of relationship of Indian women to Lahore

Museum. The twentieth century was not about the colonial rule but it

was also the time when different forms of western knowledge

imposed on Indian societies. One of them was the invention of

75
Ibid, 125-126
Zenana Day in Lahore Museum. This day was only introduced to

achieve success among Indian society, neither for the bebetterment of

the native women.

In the end, two things come to understand: one Colonials

introduction of this day was just to demonstrate themselves as

‘superior’ while inventing new thing for Indian women. Since behind

this project, there were no particular stated objectives except ‘to

acquaint the Purdah women with this institution; the second was to

show the different designs of ‘Phulkaris’. Colonizer’s advanced

development for the Museum was not limited to extend knowledge to

local women, but to exert power over Indians.