MACHINERY FAULT DIAGNOSIS

Unbalance Misalignment Structural Looseness Belt Drive Resonance Journal Bearings Electrical Motors

Unbalance is the condition when the geometric centerline of a rotation axis doesn’t coincide with the mass
centerline.
Misalignment is the condition when the geometric centerline of two coupled shafts are not co-linear along
the rotation axis of both shafts at operating condition. A 1X and 2X vibration signal predominant in the axial
Rotating looseness occur by an excessive clearance between rotor and bearing. PM PM
Belt transmission a common
Resonance is a condition caused when forcing frequency coincides with (or is close to) the natural frequency
of the machine’s structure. The result will be a high vibration.
Journal bearings provide a very low friction surface to support and guide a rotor through a cylinder that
surrounds the shaft and is filled with a lubricant preventing metal to metal contact. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES VIBRATIONS
direction is generally the indicator of a misalignment between two coupled shafts. drive system in industry
consisting of: Twice line frequency vibration: 2 · fL
MP • Driver Pulley 0,3-0,5X 1X Bar meshing frequency: fbar = fn · nbar
MP • Driven Pulley s [micron] Synchronous frequency: fsyn = 2 · fL / p
v [Inch/s] 1X PM PM

Funbalance = m d ω2
ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT • Poor mounting
• Poor base
• Belt 1st form of natural flexure 2nd form of natural flexure 3rd form of natural flexure Slip Frequency: fslip = fsyn – fn
Pole pass frequency: fp = p · fslip
The dynamic relationship is:
• Poor base support Ø1 ω1 = Ø2 ω2
• Warped base
MP MP Belt frequency: 3,1416 ω1 Ø1
l = belt length ƒB = fL: line frequency
I
nbar: number of rotor bars
p: number of poles
v [Inch/s] 1X 2X 3X Shaft 1st, 2nd and 3rd critical
speeds cause a resonance state • Stator eccentricity
Axial 1X when operation is near these no harmonic • Loose stator windings
f [cpm] v [Inch/s] critical speeds. relationship • Eccentric rotor
Structural looseness may produce a 1X signal
in the radial direction predominant in the Radial BELT DRIVE FAULTS 1st nat 2nd nat 3rd nat
flexure flexure flexure f [cpm]
• Rotor problems
• Loose connections
horizontal reading.
High vibration damping due to the oil film: Oil whirl: • Loose Rotor Bars
Measurements should be made on the bolts, Belt Worn Eccentric Pulleys
A pure unbalance will generate a signal at the rotation speed 1X vibration signal predominant at the radial • High frequencies signals may not be • Oil-film stability problems • Loose Rotor
feet and bases in order to see a change in the
direction. transmitted • May cause 0,3-0,5X component
amplitude and phase. A decrease in amplitude fN
a [g] Resonance Step-up • Displacement sensor and continuous in the spectrum
f [cpm] and 180° phase difference will confirm this • Resonance can be confused with other common
monitoring recommended
problem. problems in machinery.

Inch/s
1X, 2X, 3XfB • Resonance requires some additional tests to be
diagnosed. Clearance problems (rotating mechanical looseness)
STATOR ECCENTRICITY
STATIC UNBALANCE f [cpm]

f [cpm] • Loose iron

The geometric center doesn’t coincide with Phase jump at 180° • Shorted stator laminations
the rotating center of the pulley. • Soft foot
f [cpm]

Grad
The belt frequency fB and first two (or High 1X of the eccentric pulley visible in the spectrum,
Blades & Vanes even three) harmonics are visible in the
spectrum.
predominant in the radial direction.
Easy to confuse with unbalance, but: PM PM
Rolling Element Bearings PM PM
2 fB generally dominates the spectrum. • Measurement phase in vertical an horizontal directions f [cpm]
may be 0° or 180°. v [Inch/s] 1X v [Inch/s] 1X
• The vibration may be higher in the direction of the
belts. 1.O. v1 = 1.18 Inch/s WEAR
Pulley Misalignment ϕ1 = 60... 80° a [g] 1X 2X
The static unbalance is seen when the machine is not in a [g] fBPF Lifetime exceeded. Bearing overload Incorrect assembly. Manufacturing error Insufficient lubrication. • 1X and 2X signals
1X of driver or driven pulley visible and Belt Resonance
operation, the rotor will turn so the unbalance mass is at the • fL without sidebands
Radial predominant in the axial reading. If the belt natural frequency coincides with • Radial predominant
Static unbalance is caused by an unbalance lowest position. The static unbalance produces a vibration 2fL
Angular misalignment is seen when the shaft centerlines coincide at one point along the projected axis of PM either the driver or driven 1X, this frequency v1 = 118.1 Inch/s • High resolution should be used when analyzing two
mass out of the gravity centerline. signal at 1X, radial predominant and on phase signals in both a [g]
both shafts. The spectrum shows high axial vibration at 1X plus some 2X and 3X with 180° phase difference may be visible in the spectrum. ϕ1 = 240° poles machines
shaft extremes.
across the coupling in the axial direction. These signals may be also visible in the radial direction at a lower PM
amplitude and in phase.
f [cpm] f [cpm]
Amplitude at rotation frequency fn by residual Strong increase in amplitude of the rotation Wear
unbalance on rigid rotor. frequency fn at the point of resonance,
MOMENT UNBALANCE step-up dependent on the excitation f [cpm]
(unbalanced condition) and damping.
PARALLEL MISALIGNMENT f [cpm]
A blade or vane generate a signal frequency Example: Twisted Offset Angular
called blade pass frequency fBPF = s fn 3 struts in the intake; x = 3
9 blades; s = 9 RUN UP OR COAST DOWN TEST Износ
Identify and trend fBPF, an increase and harmonics x · fBPF = fn · s · x
Wear
ECCENTRIC ROTOR
may be a symptom of a problem like blade-diffuser
v [Inch/s] 1X 2X 3X Performed when the machine is turned on or
or volute air gap differences.
turned off.
Radial • Rotor offset
Series of spectra at different vibration signals • Misalignment
Rotating Looseness
The vibration spectrum has a higher ‘noise’ level and bearing characteristic frequencies can be
tracking may reveal a resonance. identified. Increased level of shock pulses. • Poor base

The use of tachometer is optional and the

data collector must support this kind of test.
Moment unbalance may be statically balanced. When rotating RACE DAMAGE PM PM
dynamic unbalance produces a vibration signal at 1X, radial Rotating looseness occur by an excessive clearance between rotor and bearing.
Moment unbalance is caused by two predominant and in opposite phase signals in both shaft f [cpm]
identical unbalance masses located at 180° extremes.
in the transverse area of the shaft.
Vibration Limits - ISO 10816-3
1 – Outer race damage
2 – Inner race damage
RESONANCE DIAGNOSING TESTS 3 – Rolling element damage
0-P [g]
Mechanical vibration – Evaluation of machine vibration by measurements on non-rotating parts. 4 – Cage damage
a [g] fp 1X 2X Tslippage

DYNAMIC UNBALANCE Rolling element bearing Journal bearing

Bump Test
aENV [g] Radial s [micron] Radial Radial
2fL
Outer race damage
Rotation Rotation 1BPFO 2 .. 3 .. 4BPFO
a [g]
frequency 1X frequency 1X
Excitation – force pulse Response – component vibration
and harmonics harmonics and
subharmonics v[Inch/s]
s[Inch] α angle of contact t [ms]
D pitch diameter f [cpm]
d rolling element diameter
Z number of rolling elements Outer race damage
Parallel misalignment is produced when the centerlines are parallel but offset. The spectrum shows high Decaying function frequency BPFO as well as • fp, 1X, 2X and 2fL signals • Modulation of the vibration time
n shaft RPM f [cpm] • 1X and 2fL with sidebands at fP signal with the slip frequency fslip
radial vibration at 2X and a lower 1X with 180° phase difference across the coupling in the radial direction. harmonics clearly visible
These signals may be also visible in the axial direction in a lower amplitude and 180° phase difference across f [cpm] f [cpm] • Radial predominant • Tslip ≈ 2–5 s
the coupling in the axial direction. Shock component, Frequency response, vertical Frequency response, Inner race damage • High resolution needed

In practice, dynamic unbalance is the most common form of natural vibration, vertical horizontal a [g]
Ball Pass Frequency, Outer Race fSidebands at intervals of 1X
unbalance found. When rotating the dynamic unbalance N

Dynamic unbalance is static and moment produces a vibration signal at 1X, radial predominant and the 2nd mod.
1st mod. n · Z (1 – d cos α)
unbalance at the same time. phase will depend on the mass distribution along the axis. ALIGNMENT TOLERANCE TABLE BPFO =
60 · 2 D
1BPFI 2 .. 3 .. 4BPFI

Permissable overall vibra�on values v in mm/s (RMS) - according to ISO 20816-8

Natural frequency, vertical Natural frequency, horizontal
Ball Pass Frequency, Inner Race Inner race damage frequency ROTOR PROBLEMS
* Small bore BPFI as well as numerous f [cpm]
Frame Cylinder (lateral) Cylinder (rod) n · Z (1 + d cos α)
Component Founda�on Design type Design type connec�ons; BPFI = sidebands at intervals of 1X.
(top) horiz. vert. horiz. vert. piping; dampers 60 · 2 D
40

DOCUMENTATION OF BALANCING
28.5
Vibra�on 30
19.5
24.0 24.0
19.5
Ball Spin Frequency Rolling element damage
velocity 20
12.0 16.0 16.0 19.0 Sidebands in 1. Rotor thermal bow
d
2 · BSF = n · D (1 – [ cos α]2) a [g]
13.0 13.0 12.7
10 10.7 10.7 intervals of FTF
8.0 8. 7 8.7 60 · d D 1X
v in mm/s 5 4.5
(RMS) 5.3 a [g]
3 Fundamental Train Frequency
3.0 Radial
Fluid
2
2.0 FTF = n (1 – d cos α) • Unbalanced rotor bar current
1
© Copyrigh t 2 018 PRÜFTECHNIK A G
60 · 2 D • Unbalance rotor conditions
Before
DIN ISO 13373-3:2015 Large Bearings Small bearings Rolling elements rollover
• Observable after some operation time
After frequency BSF with harmonics
as well as sidebands in intervals f [cpm]
of FTF.
a��[m/s2] Example of rollover frequencies
Valid for reciproca�ong compressors on rigid founda�ons in the speed range 120 - 1800 RPM. Ball bearing SKF 6211; n = 2998 RPM
There are two basic moving fluid problems PM PM Frequency range for movable omponents: 2 - 1000 Hzl for sta�onary components: 10 - 200 Hz. Cage damage
diagnosed with vibration analysis: a [g] FTF and 2nd, 3rd, 4th
* Note: Refer to the descrip�on of the DIN ISO 10816-8 before using the table.
• Turbulence harmonics
• Cavitation f [cpm]
Dimensions Rollover frequencies
D = 3.05 Inch BPFO = n / 60 · 4,0781 = 12240 cpm
d = 0.56 Inch BPFI = n / 60 · 5,922 = 17640 cpm 2. Broken or cracked rotor bars
Cage rotation frequency
Frequency spectra before/after balancing, and balancing diagram. Z = 10 2 BSF = n / 60 · 5,239 = 15840 cpm
α = 0° FTF = n / 60 · 0,4079 = 1200 cpm FTF and harmonics visible
f [cpm]

1X 2X 3X 4X
Assessment of vibra�ons in piping systems according a [g]
Frequency range for
WHERE IS TO BE MEASURED? a [g] 1X
Turbulence a [g]
1X fBPF Cavitation to VDI 3842 RMS and 0P acceleration
Radial • 1X and harmonics with sidebands at fP
• High resolution spectrum needed
200 measurements is LUBRICATION PROBLEMS • Possible beating signal
The measurement locations with the highest 1X vibration level are dependent on the rotor structure and the 10Hz - 10kHz
Random

location of the unbalance. 100

Major fluctuation in level of
The suggested alignment tolerances shown above are general values based upon experience and should not mm/s a���[m/s2] shock pulses and damage Subsequent small Large temperature
be exceeded. They are to be used only if existing in-house standards or the manufacturer of the machine or Random RMS temperature increase increase after lubrication
frequencies
coupling prescribe no other values. Bearing in good Bearing condition is to Bad bearing
condition be concidered condition

f [cpm]
10
Vibra�on velocity

f [cpm] f [cpm]

3. Loose rotor bar

1X 2X fbar 2fbar
Shaft Bending 1
1 10 Frequency
© Copyright 2 0 18 PRÜFTECHNI K A G

100 Hz 300 • Race damage • Insufficient lubricant • Maintenance error

a [g]

• Defective sealing • Underrating • Defective grease regulator • fbar and 2fbar with 2fL sidebands
Danger Correc�on Marginal Design
Fan Categories and Vibra�on Limits Pumps Pumps
• Contaminated lubricant used • Grease nipple blocked Radial • 2fbar can be higher
• 1X and 2X can appear
according to ISO 14694
A shaft bending is produced either by an axial asymmetry
of the shaft or by external forces on the shaft producing
BEARING RINGS DEFORMED
the deformation. 12,5 12,5 12,5 12,5
A bent shaft causes axial opposed forces on the bearings 11,8 11,8 11,8 11,8
11,2 11,2 11,2 • Incorrect installation Bearing forces on floating bearing
identified in the vibration spectrum as 1X in the axial
• Wrong bearing storage • Incorrect installation
vibration. 2X and radial readings can also be visible.
• Shaft manufacturing error • Wrong housing calculation f [cpm]
• Bearing housing overtorqued • Manufacturing error in bearing housing
9,0 9,0 9,0 9,0
Permissable evalua�on velocity in mm/s - according to VDI 3834
4. Loose connections
7,1 7,1 7,1 7,1 7,1 7,1 7,1 7,1 7,1 7,1 Frequency range 10 H z - 1000 Hz 10 Hz - 1000 Hz 10 H z - 1000 Hz ≤ 0.1 Hz - 1 0 H z
Severe
1X 2X 6,3 6,3 6,3 6,3 100 vibration
n
100

v [Inch/s] Bearing 1X 2X 2fL

50
60
a [g]
Axial temperature
30
20
4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,5 V in mm/s 10.0
increases Radial • 2fL excessive signal with sidebands at 1/3 fL
10
n Fixed bearing
WO

5
5.6
6.0 • Electrical phase problem
RMS in mm/s 3.2
Shock
2,8 2,8 2,8
3
2
3.5
Air gap • Correction must be done immediately
2.0 pulse
©PRÜFTECHNIK AG 1

rigid flex. rigid flex. rigid flex. rigid flex. rigid flex. rigid flex. rigid flex. Damage Floating bearing
Main bearing Gearbox Generator Nacelle/Tower frequencies
P ≤ 300 kW P ≤ 15 kW P > 15 kW P ≤ 37 kW P > 37 kW P ≤ 75 kW P > 75 kW envelope Cocked bearing
Industrial, Component Incorrect installation
Power Generator Transportation, Marine Petrochemical Transit,Tunnel
Dirt Axial 1X, 2X & 3X
f [cpm] MBR GBX GEN NAT
Very good condi�on Good condi�on Limited condi�on/alarm Cri�cal condi�on/shutdown f [cpm]

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