Chapter III

A Diverse Ethnic Landscape

Since its development as a unitary state in the Qin |f| and Han Dynasties, China has always

been a multi-ethnic country, China’s development as a unitary state is the outcome of the
community-building of different peoples/ethnicities (see Chapter V). The Han ethnic group has
always fonned the majority of this unitary state. Starting from the Tang Hf Dynasty, a separate

administrative stracture was created for those areas that were inhabited by (non-Chinese) ethnic
groups (see Chapter V). This policy is continued in the People’s Republic of China.
After the establishemnt of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the state govemment,
aware of the multi-ethnic nature of ‘China’, started to categorize the population into different
ethnic groups. This categorization process was inspired by Stalin’s (1878-1953) policies in the
Soviet Union, and started in the early 1950s. It took until the 1960s, eventually resulted in the
recognition of 56 groups ‘minzu : 55 minority groups (shaoshu minzu ) and the

Han $7 , or Hanzu ■ Before the term shaoshu minzu was used (the term came in use in

1928), the non-Han groups had, by the CCP, been referred to as yizu minzu (alien

nationalities), gegai minzu (all such nationalities), ruoxiao minzu II(weak

nationalities), or xiao minzu 'h (small nationalities), terms pointing to the conviction that

these ethnic groups lacked the capacity for self-determination or historical agency. The tem
‘minzu’ in itself is a ‘nationalist’ tem. It has two components: the element min :

‘people’, and the element zu M ■ ‘clan, inheritance, tribe, family’. The tem ‘minzu’ thus

reflects the ‘people’s nationalist’ basis of this categorization into 56 ethnic groups. Analogous
criteria with those used by Stalin in the Soviet Union were fomulated, and the people were
invited to define themselves according to these criteria:
- common language
common territory
common economy
- common psychology (usually interpreted as ‘culture’)

The ‘people’s nationalist’ basis of this procedure resulted in it that in Yunnan Province alone,
there were 260 groups who defined themselves as a unique ‘nationality’. As acknowledging all
these ‘nationalities’ seemed impossible, only 183 minority groups for the whole of China were
registered in 1964, and of these 183 groups, only 54 were officially acknowledged. 74 of the re-
maining 129 groups were categorized as a sub-group of the already officially acknowlcdged 54
groups, and 23 groups were together given the status of ‘other nationalities’. This means that, in
the end, only 55 minority groups were recognized. These 55 and the Han are the 56 ethnic
groups recognized in contemporary China.
Some of the officially recognized ethnic minority groups only differ from the Han in a
few, sometimes minor, aspects. The Hui 0 , e.g., only differ from the Han in their religious

belief: they are Muslims (see Chapter VI). Other groups are very different from the Han. This is,
e.g., the case for the Tajik, an Iranian ethnic group, and for the Uygur, a Turkic group.
Especially with those ethnic groups who significantly differ from the Han, their recognition as
‘ethnic minority’ has led to a nationalist reflex (see Chapter V): these people have gradually
cultivated their ‘being different’. This ‘nationalist reflex’ has been important throughout the
history of the People’s Republic of China. One less-known example of such a ‘nationalist
reflex’ concerns the Zhuang )i: . There are approx. 16 million Zhuang who, before their

recognition as ‘ethnic minority’ were largely sinicized. Their recognition as ‘ethnic minority’
lias enhanced their feeling of‘difference’ and ‘ethnic unity’.
That all Han are regarded to be one and the same ethnic group does not mean that all
Han are in reality also identical. Within the Han group, there are essentially three division lines:
(1) physical diversity; (2) cultural diversity (language, food, ...); (3) religious diversity.

OverView of ethnic groups (source: C. Mackerras, The New Cambridge Handbook of Contem­
porary China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001, p.252;
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics of China) Note that 2010 is the last year for
which numbers for all ethnic minorities are available.

Ethnic group 1953 1964 1982 1990 2010

Han 542,824,056 651,296,368 963,674,944 1,039,187,548 1,220,844,520
(91.60%)
Zhuang 6,864,585 8,386,140 13,383,086 15,555,820 16,926,381
(1.27%)
Manchu 2,399,228 2,695,675 4,304,981 9,846,776 10,387,658
(0.78 %)
Hui 3,530,498 4,473,147 7,228,398 8,612,001 10,586,087
(0.79 %)
Miao 2,490,874 2,782,088 5,021,175 7,383,622 9,426,007
(0.71 %)
Uygur 3,610,462 3,996,311 5,963,491 7,207,024 10,069,346
(0.76 %)
Yi 3,227,750 3,380,960 5,453,564 6,578,524 8,714,393
(0,65 %)

Tujia 524,755 2,836,814 5,725,049 8,353,912

(0.63 %)
Mongol 1,451,035 1,965,766 3,411,367 4,802,407 5,981,840
(0.45 %)
Tibetan 2,753,081 2,501,174 3,847,875 4,593,072 6,282,187
(0.47 %)
Bouyei 1,237,714 1,348,055 2,119,345 2,548,294 2,870,034
(0.22 %)
Dong 712,802 836,123 1,426,400 2,508,624 2,879,974
(0.22 %)
Yao 665,933 857,265 1,411,967 2,137,033 2,796,003
(0.21 %)
Korean 1,111,275 1,339,569 1,765,204 1,923,361 1,830,929
(0.14%)
Bai 567,119 706,623 1,132,224 1,598,052 1,933,510
(0.15%)
Hani 481,220 628,727 1,058,806 1,254,800 1,660,932
(0.12%)
Li 360,950 438,813 887,107 1,112,498 1,463,064
(0.11 %)
Kazakh 509,375 491,637 907,546 1,110,758 1,462,588
(0.11 %)
Dai 478,966 535,389 839,496 1,025,402 1,261,311
(0.09 %)
She 234,167 371,965 634,700 708,651
(0.05 %)))
Lisu 317,465 270,628 481,884 574,589 702,839
(0.05 %)
Gelo 26,852 54,164 438,192 550,746
(0.04 %)
Lahu 139,060 191,241 304,256 411,545 485,966
 (0.04 %)
Dongxiang 155,761 147,443 279,523 373,669 621,500
(0.05 %)
Va 286,158 200,272 298,611 351,980 429,709
(0.03 %)
Shui 133,566 156,099 286,908 347,116 411,847
(0.03 %)
Naxi 143,453 156,796 251,592 277,750 326,295
(0.02 %)
Qiang 35,660 49,105 102,815 198,303 309,576
(0.02 %)
Tu 53,277 77,349 159,632 192,568 289,565
(0.02 %)
Sibe 19,022 33,438 83,683 172,932 190,481
(0.01 %)
Mulam 52,819 90,357 160,648 216,257
(0.02 %)
Kirghiz 70,944 70,151 113,386 143,537 186,708
(0.01 %)
Daur 63,394 94,126 121,463 131,992
(0.01 %)
Jingpo 101,852 57,762 92,976 119,276 147,828
(0.01 %)
Salar 30,658 34,664 69,135 87,546 130,607
(0.01 %)
Blang 39,411 58,473 82,398 119,639
(0.01 %)
Maonan 22,382 38,159 72,370 101,192
(0.01 %)
Tajik 14,462 16,236 26,600 33,223 51,069
(0.00 %)
Pumi 14,298 24,238 29,721 42,861
(0.00 %)
Achang 12,032 20,433 27,718 39,555
(0.00 %)
Nu - 15,047 22,896 27,190 37,523

45
 (0.00 %)
Ewenki 4,957 9,681 19,398 26,379 30,875
(0.00 %)
Jing 4,293 13,108 18,749 28,199
(0.00 %)
Juno 11,962 18,022 23,143
(0.00 %)
Benglong / 7,261 12,297 15,461 20,556
Deang (0.00 %)
Uzbek 13,626 7,717 12,213 14,763 10,569
(0.00 %)
Russian 22,656 1,326 2,917 13,500 15,393
(0.00 %)
Yugur 3,861 5,717 10,568 12,293 14,378
(0.00 %)
Bonan 4,957 5,125 9,017 11,683 20,074
(0.00 %)
Moinba 3,809 1,140 7,498 10,561
(0.00 %)
Oroqen 2,262 2,709 4,103 7,004 8,659
(0.00 %)
Drung 3,090 4,633 5,825 6,930
(0.00 %)
Tatar 6,929 2,294 4,122 5,064 3,556
(0.00 %)
Hezhen 718 1,489 4,254 5,354
(0.00 %)
Gaoshan 329 366 1,650 2,877 4,009
(0.00 %)
Lloba 1,066 2,322 3,682
(0.00 %)
Other 1,017,299 32,411 799,705 752,347 640,101
(0.05 %)
OverView of autonomous areas (source: C. Mackerras, The New Cambridge Handbook ofCon-
temporary China. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp.254-256)

Table 9.2 PRC autonomous areas (with Capital city)

Name ofprovince Date of
establishment
1. InnerMongolian Autonomous Reofon (Hohhot) May 1,1947
2. Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (Drümqi) Oct 1,1955
3. Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (Nanning) Mar. 15, 1958
. 4. Minqxia Hui Autonomous Region (Yinchuan) Oct. 25, 1958
5. Tïfaetan Autonomous Region (Lhasa), Sept. 9,1965
6. Yanfaian Korean Autonomous Prefecture (Yanji) 3i(in Sept. 3,1952
7. Enshi Tujia-Miao Autonomous Prefecture (Enshi) Hubei Oec. 1,1983
8. Western Hunan Tujia-Miao Autonomous Prefecture (Jishou) Hunan Sept. 20, 1957
9. Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (Kangding) Sichuan Nov. 24,1950
10. Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture (Xichang) Sichuan Oct 1,1952
11. Ngavva Tibetsn-Qiang Autonomous Prefecture'{Maerkang} Sichuan Oan. 1,1953
12. Southeast. Guiühou Miao-Dong Autonomous Prefecture (Kaili). Guizhou Ouly'23,1956
13. South Guizhou Bouyei-Miao Autonomous Prefecture (Düyun) Guizhou Aug. 8,1956
14. Southwest Guizhou Bouyei-Miao Autonomous- Prefecture
(Xingyi) _ Guizhou May 1,1982
15. Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture (Jinghong) Yunnan 3an. 24,1953
16. Oe.hong Daf-Oingpo Autonomous Prefecture (Luxi) Yunnan JuLy 24, 1953
17. Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture (Liuku). Yunnan Aug: 23, 1954
18. Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture (Oali) Yunnan Nov. 22, 1956
’19. Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (Zhongdian) Yunnan Sept. 13, 1957
20. Honghe Hani-Yi Autonomous Prefecture (Gejiu) Yunnan Nov. 18, 1957
•21. Wanshan Zhuang-Miao Autonomous Prefecture (Wenshan) Yunnan Apr. 1,1958
22. Chöxfong Yi Autonomous Prefecture (Chuxiong; Yunnan . Apr. 15,1958
23. South Gansu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (Xiahe) Gansu Oct. 1,1953
24. Linxia-Hui Autonomous P.refeclure (Linxia) Gansu Nov. 19,1956
25. Yushu Tifaetan Autonomous Prefecture (Yushu) . Qinghai Dec. 25, 1951
26. South Qinghai Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (Gonghe) Qinghai Dec. 6, 1963
27. Huangnan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (Toqgren) Qinghai Dec. 22,1953
2S. North Qinghai Tifaetan Autonomous Prefecture (Menyuan
Hui Autonomous Counly) Qinghai , Dec. 31, 1953 ‘
29. Golog Tibetan-Autonomous Prefecture (Magen) Qinghai Jan. 1,1954
30. West Qinghai Mongolian-Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture
(Delingha) Qinghai Jan. 25, 1954
31. Bayingolin Mongolian Autonomous Prefecture (Korta) Xinjiang June 23, 1954
32. Bortala Mongolian Autonomous Prefecture,(BQle) Xinjiang July 13,1954
33,. Kizilsu Kirghiz, Autonomous Prefecture .(Artux) Xinjiang July 14, 1954
34- Ghangji Hui Autonomous Prefecture (Changji) Xinjiang July 15, 1954
35. Yiü Kazakh- Autonomous Prefecture (Gutja) Xinjiang Nov. 27, 1954
36. Mengcun Hui Autonomous County Hebei Nov. 30, 1955
37.. Dachang Hui Autonomous County Hebei Dec. 7, 1955
38. Qinglong Manchu Autonomous-County Hebei May 10,1987
39. Fengning'Manchu Autonomous County. Hebei May 15,1987
40. Weichang Manchu Mongolian Autonomous County Hebei June 12, 1990
41. Kuancheng Manchu Autonomous County Hebei June 16,1990
42. Harqfn Left Wing Mongolian Autonomous County Liaoning Apr, 1,1958
43. Fuxin Mongolian Autonomous County Liaoning Apr. 7,1958
Liaoning t Jan. 17,1985
44. ' Fengcheng Manchu Autonomous County
45. Xinbin,Manchu Autonomous County Liaoning - Jun. 7,1985
46. Xiuyan Manchu Autonomous County Liaoning . Jun. 11, 1985
47. Qingyuan Manchu Autonomous'County: Liaoning June 6,1990
48. Benxi Manchu Autonomous County Liaoning June 8,1990
49. Huanren Manchu Autonomous County Liaoning June 10,1990
Liaoning ■June 12, 1990
50. Kuandian Manchu Autonomous County
51. Beizhen Manchu Autonomous County Liaoning June 29, 1989

47
 52. üian Gorios Mongolian Autononious County Jilin Sept 1,1956
53. Changba! Korean Autdnomous County Jilfn Sept. 15,1958
54. Yitong Manchu Autonomous Cóunty Jilin Aug. 30, 1989
55. Dorbod Mongolian Autonomous County Heilongjiang Dec. 5,1956
56.' Oïngning Shs Autonomous Couirtv_________ Zbaiano Dec. 24. 1986
57.' Changyang Tujia Autonomous’ County Hubei Dec. 8,1984
58. Wufeng Tujia Autonomous County Hubei Dec. 12,1984
59. Tongdao Dong Autonomous County Hunan May 7,1954
60. Oianghua Yao Autonomous County , Hunan Nov. 25, 1955
61. Cherigbu Miao Autonomous County Hunan Nov. 30, 1956
62. Xinhuang Dong Autonomous County Hunan Dec. 5,1956
63. Zhijiang Dong Autonomous County Hunan Sept. 27, 1987
64. Jingzhou Miao-Dong Autonomous County Hunan Feb. 19,1987
65. Mayang Miao Autonomous County Hunan Apr. 1, J1990
66. Liannan Yao Autonomous County Guangdong Dan: 25,1953
67. Lianshan Zhuang-Yao Autonomous County Guangdong Sept. 26, 1962
68. Ruyuan Yao Autonomous County Guangdong Oct 1, 1963 '
69. Longsheng Multinational Autonomous County Guangxi Aug. 19, 1951
70. Jinxiu Yao Autonomous County Guangxi May 28, 1952
71. Rongshui Miao Autonomous County Guangxi Nov. 26, 1952
72. Sanjiang Dong Autonomous County Guangxi Dec. 3,1952
73. Longlin Multinational Autonomous County Guangxi Jan. 1,1953
74. Du'an Yao Autonomous County Guangxi Dec. 15,1955
75. Barna Yao Autonomous County Guangxi Feb. 6,1956
76. Fuchuan Yao Autonomous County. Guangxi Jan. 1,1984
77. Luocheng Mularn Autonomous County Guangxi Jan. 10,1984
78. Huanjiang Maönan Autonomous County Guangxi Nov. 24, 1987
79. Dahua Yao Autonomous County Guangxi Dec. 23,1987
80. Gongcheng Yao Autonomous County Guangxi Oct 15,1990
Sl. Baisha Li Autonomous County Hainan ■ Dec 30,19.87
82. Baoting Li Autonomous County Hainan Dec. 30, 1987
83. Changjiang Li Autonomous County Hainan Dec 30, 1987
84. Ledong Li Autonomous County Hainan Dec. 28,1987
85. Lingshui Li Autonomous County Hainan Dec 30,1987
86. Qiongzhong Li Autonomous County Hainan Dec. 28,1587
87. Muli Tibetan Autonomous County Sichuan Feb. 19,1953
88. Ebian Yi Autonomous County Sichuan Oct. 5,1984
89. Mabian Yi Autonomous County Sichuan Oct 9,1984
90. Xiushan Tujia-Miao Autonomous County Chongqing Nov. 7,1983
91. Xiyang Tujia-Miao Autonomous County Chongqing • Nov. 11,1983
92. Pèngshui Miao-Tujia Autonomous County, Chongqing Nov. 10,1984
93. Qianjiang Tujia-Miao Autonomous County Chongqing Nov. 13,1984
94. Shizhu Tujia Auton'omous County Chongqing Npv. IS, 1984
95. Weining Yi-Hui-Miao Autonomous County Guizhou Nov. 11,1954
96. Songtao Miao Autonomous County Guizhou Dec 31,1956
97. Sandu Sbui Autonomous County- Guizhou Jan. 2,1957
98. Zhenning Bouyei-Miao Autonomous County Guizhou Sept. 11,1963
99. Ziyun Miao-Bouyei Autonomous County Guizhou Feb. 11, 1966
100. Gu&nling Bouyei-Miao Autonomous County Guizhou Dec 31,1981
101. Yuping Dong Autonomous County Guizhou Nov. 7, 1984
102. Wuchuan Mulam-Miao Autonomous County Guizhou Nov. 26,1987
103. Daozhen Mulam-Miao Autonomous County .Guizhou Nov. 29, 1987
104. Ya.nhe Tujia Autonomous County Guizhou Nov. 23, 1987
105. Yinjiang Tujia-Miao Autonomous County Guizhou Nov. 20, 1987
106. Eshan Yi Autonomous County Yunnan May 12,1951
107. Lancang Lahu Autonomous County Yunnan Apr. 7, 1953
108. Oiangcheng Hani-Yi Autonomous County Yunnan May 18,1954
109. Menglian Dai-Lahu-Va Autonomous County Yunnan June 16,1954
110. Gengma Dai-Va Autonomous County Yunnan Oct 16,1955
111. Ninglang Yi Autonomous County Yunnan Sept. 20,1956
112. Gongshan Drung-Nu Autonomous County’ Yunnan Oct. 1,1956 .
113. Weishan Yi-Hui Autonomous County Yunnan Nov. 9, 1956
114. Lu'nan Yi Autonomous’ County Yunnan Dec. 31,1956
115. Lijiarig Maxi Autonomous County Yunnan Apr. 10,1961
116. Pingbiari Miao Autonomous County Yunnan July 1,1963
117. Hekou Yao Autonomous County Yunnan July 11,1963
118. Cangyuan Va Autonomous County Yunnan Feb. 28, 1964
119. Xinieng Va Autonomous County Yunnan Mar. 5,1965
120. Nanjian Yi Autonomous County Yunnan Nov. 27,1965
121. Mojiang Hani Autonomous County Yunnan Nov. 28, 1979
122. Xundian Hui-Yi Autonomous County Yunnan Dec. 20, 1979
123. Yuanjiang Hani-Yi-Dai Autonomous County Yunnan Nov. 22, 1980
124. Xinping Yi-Dai Autonomous County Yunnan Nov. 25, 1980
125. Weixi Lisu Autonomous County Yunnan Oct. 13,1985
126. Oingdong Yi Autonomous County Yunnan Dec. 20, 1985
127. Jinggu Dai-Yi Autonomous County Yunnan Dec. 25, 1985
128. Uinping Miao-Yao-Dai Autonomous County Yunnan Dec 7,1985
129. Luquan Yi-Miao Autonomous County Yunnan Nov. 25, 1985
130. Puer Hani-Yi .Autonomous County Yunnan Dec’15,1985
 131. Yang’fri Yi Autonomous County ■ •Yunnan Nov. 1,1985
132. Shuangiiang Lahu-Va-B[ang-Dai Autonomous County Yunnan Déc. 30r 1985
■133. Lanpfng Bai-Pumi Autonomous County Yunnan May 5,1988
134. Zhenyuan Yi-Hani-Lahu Autonomous County Yunnan May 15,1990
135. Tianzhu Tibetan Autonomous County Gansu May 6,1950
136. Nortb Gansu Mongotian Autonomous County Gansu My 29, 1950
137. Dongxiang Autonomous County Gansu Sept 25,1950
138. Zhangjiachuan Hui Autonomous County Gansu July 6,1953
139. South Gansu Yugiir Autonomous .County Gansu Feb. 20,1954
140. Aksay Kazakh Autonomous County Gansu Apr. 27, 1954
141. listri shan Bonan-Dongxiang-Salar Autonomous County Gansu Sept. 30, 1981
142. Henyuan Hui Autonomous County Qinghai Dec. 19,1953
143. Huzhu Tu Autonomous County Qirighai Feb. 17,1954
144. Hualong Hui Autonomous County Qinghai Mar. 1,1954
145. Xunhua Salar Autonomous County Qinghai Mar. 1,1954
146. Henan Mongolian Autonomous County Qinghai Oct 16, 1954
147. Datong Hui-Tu Autonomous County Qinghai July 10,1986
148. Minhe Hui-Tu Autonomous County Qinghai Dune 27, 1986
149. Yanqi Hui Autonomous County Xinjiang Mar. 15,1954
ISO. QapqaLSibe Autonomous County Xinjiang Mar. 25, 1954
151. Mori Kazakh Autonomous County Xinjiang My 17,1954
152. Hoboksar Mongolian Autonomous County Xinjiang Sept. 10,1954
153. Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County Xinjiang Sept 17,1954
154. Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County Xinjiang Sept. 30, 1954
155. Oroqen Autonomous Banner Inner Mongolia OCt. 1,1951
156. Ewenki Autonomous Banner Inner Mongolia Aug. 1,1958
157. Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner Inner Monqolia Aua. 15,1958

The outlying regions of China - those regions that have come under Han govemment more
recently - have the largest number of non-Chinese population. When this non-Chinese
population mainly belongs to one and the same ethnicity, an ‘autonomous region ‘ (zizhiqu jij

/'□K ) has been created for them (see Chapter V). An autonomous region is further subdivided

into autonomous districts (zizhizhou jij >□(;!'['[ ). In Inner Mongolia, these are called ‘banners’ qi

(«). When a region is inhabited by a number of different ethnic groups, an autonomous district

{zizhizhou jij >□(;)'['[ ) is created for each of these individual groups. These autonomous districts

are sub-ordinated to the provincial level (see Chapter V). In total, there are five autonomous
regions, 62 autonomous districts, and 659 autonomous cities and villages. The party-secretary
of all autonomous regions is an ethnic Han (se Chapter V). The five autonomous regions are:
- Neimenggu zizhiqu P^K’É’S'/aK (Inner Mongolia), established already in 1947

- Xinjiang Weiwu’erzu zizhiqu (Xinjiang), established in 1955

- Ningxia Huizu zizhiqu ~rH 0 tiiR ÉJ /□ IA , established in 1957 (Mao Zedong had

recognized the Hui as a separate ethnic group already in 1936)

- Guangxi Zhuangzu zizhiqu , established in 1958

- Xizang zizhiqu /'nK (Tibet), established in 1965

The foliowing provinces mainly consist of autonomous districts:

- Qinghai WM

- Yunnan

- Hainan

49
The total number and the percentage of ethnic minorities vis-a-vis the Han has developed as
foliows (figures based on the population census):
1953 35,320,360 6.06 %
1964 39,883,909 5.78 %
1982 67,233,254 6.67 %
1990 90,570,743 8.01 %
2000 106,225,173 8.47 %
2010 111,966,349 8.40 %

Territorial presence of ethnic minorities (source: C. Mackerras, The New Cambridge Handbook
of Contemporary China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001, p.257)

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The territory inhabited by the ethnic minorities amounts to 60 % of the total territory of the
People’s Republic of China. Especially as a result of recent Han migration (see chapters V and
IX), the number of indigeneous population in Inner Mongolia has become smaller than the
number of Han population. Manchuria was majoritarily inhabited by Han already before the
establishment of the People’s Republic of China. Recently, also Xinjiang and Tibet witness a
large Han migration. Apart from through natural growth, the growth of the number of ethnic
minorities vis-a-vis the total population of the People’s Republic of China is also the result of
Han people who register as members of an ethnic minority. This phenomenon is given in by the
desire to enjoy the same kinds of advantages also the respective ethnic minority group enjoys
(e.g., a more flexible implementation of the ‘one child policy’), and the phenomenon of
‘rightist nationalism’ mentioned above.
There is a series of regulations that only apply to those people who live in an
autonomous region or in an autonomous district. As mentioned, one such an example is a more
flexible implementation of the ‘one child policy’. An outcome of this regulation is that the
growth of the population in the domains inhabited by ethnic minorities since the 1980s was at
an average of 2 to 2.4 %. This is doublé the growth rate of the population in the coastal areas in
the east of the country. If we take 1953 as norm 100, than the growth of the Han population and
the five major ethnic groups between 1953 and 1990 is as follows:
Han 100 191
Menggu 100 330
Weiwu’er 100 199
Hui 100 243
Zhuang 100 226
Zang 100 166

Some more examples are:

Yao 100 321
Li 100 388
Jingpo 100 117
Kirghiz 100 284

In the territories inhabited by ethnic minorities, the policies of the Chinese Communist Party
have not always been imposed simultaneously or with the same speed as this was done in the
Han inhabited tenitories. For the ethnic minorities, the law on land reform of 1950 (see Chapter
V), e.g., was only implemented in 1952-1953. The law only came into effect after a study had
been made to the degree in which the ethnic groups would be capable to cope with the land
reform measures. On the one hand, this shows the Chinese Communist Party’s respect for the
peculiarities of minority cultures, but on the other hand it also reveals the Han nationalist
ideology of the Chinese Communist Party: the Chinese Communist Party saw it as her task to
liberate the non-Han ethnic groups and to help them in the progress of histoiy (see chapter V).
This diversified approach often had strange side effects: the regions inhabited by sedentary
Mongols were obliged to implement the land reform policies earlier than their ethnic brothers
who were still living as nomads; the Yi of Yunnan had to liberate their slaves, but the Yi of
Sichuan were thought to be less culturally developed, and therefore were allowed to keep their
slaves.
In 1956, the collectivization of the agriculture was implemented with an increased speed
in those areas that were inhabited by ethnic minorities (after this had already been done in Han
inhabited regions in 1955). Taking the developmental level of the ethnic minorities into account,
some were forced into ‘Small Type Cooperations’ {hezuoshe 'n'fkfh), while others were forced

into ‘Large Type Cooperations’. During the ‘Let One Hundred Flowers Bloom, Let One
Hundred Schools Contend’ Campaign (Jktihua qifang, baijia zhengwu ),

also the ethnic minorities could vent their griefs. Some groups demanded their independence
from China, other groups stated that they feit like being forced to assimilate with the Han, still
others complained that the collectivization was in disaccord with their traditional cultures. The
Party interpreted this Tocal nationalism’ as anti-socialist, and the ‘Anti Rightist Campaign’
{Fan youpai yundong JyC&MslSÖ) struck hard in the regions inhabited by ethnic minorities as

welk During the ‘Great Leap Forward’ (1958-1959), regions that had known a different degree
of collectivization in the preceding period, were all forced into the ‘People’s Communes’
{renmin gongshe AtLYrft). Sometimes, members of different ethnic groups were brought into

one and the same ‘People’s Commune’. Everything that was thought to hinder production was
forbidden: traditional festivities, traditional clothes, ... Research into the languages, histories,
and cultures of the ethnic minorities was brought to a halt. The ‘Great Leap Forward’ was as
big a catastrophy in the territories inhabited by ethnic minorities as it was in the territories
inhabited by the Han, however, an important psychological difference manifested itself: for the
ethnic minorities, the chaos was caused by the Han, in an attempt to destroy their traditional
cultures. In some places, the discontent of the ethnic minorities resulted in open revolt. This
was the case in Tibet and in Xinjiang, as well as among the Hui and the Yi. Refugees from
Tibet and Xinjiang fled to India and to the Soviet Union. The ‘Tibet issue’ was thus put on the
international agenda in 1959. After the ‘Great Leap Forward’ and the dismantling of the
‘People’s Communes’, some local leaders who had been purged during the ‘Anti Rightist
Campaign’ of 1958 were rehabiiitated. The policies from 1959 onwards, tried to reconnect to
the period 1949 to 1957.

52
 For the ethnic minorities the ‘Cultural Revolution’ was a new period of forced
assimilation. From 1971 onwards, along with the purge of Lin Biao (1907-1971), the

‘Cultural Revolution’ ebbed away in the regions inhabited by the ethnic minorities: minority
languages could be used again, religieus festivities were allowed again.
Under Deng Xiaoping 7|i /b T' (1904-1993), policies vis-a-vis the ethnic minorities

were relaxed. There are different reasons to explain this: a more lenient attitude towards the
ethnic minorities had to stimulate them to develop private initiatives in the economy; a good
understanding of the Han with the ethnic minorities was seen as a politically interesting signal
for the neighboring countries, and had to bring in foreign investments in China; ... With this
aim, economie incentives were given, and commerce with the neighboring countries was stim-
ulated (see Chapter YIII). In this way, special regulations were stipulated for commerce
between Tibet and Nepal; Xinjiang and the Soviet Union; Inner Mongolia and the People’s
Republic Mongolia (later Republic Mongolia) and the Soviet Union; Yunnan and Myanmar
(Burma), Laos and Thailand. Also tourism in the territories inhabited by ethnic minorities was
stimulated. The govemment subsidized the restauration of temples and mosques; education in
the own language was re-installed. The larger idea behind these new policies was that a
spontaneous development of the ethnic minorities would automatically lead them forward in
the history of mankind. In the end, they would thus auto-matically assimilate with the Han.
These policies have led to a major increase of the income of the thnic minorities, and a
population growth. 22 ethnic minorities have their own written language,10 literacy has grown
(albeit it is still 10 % lower than that of the Han), and 6 % of the university students belong to
one or other ethnic minority. At present, universities are obliged to intake a quotum of students
of ethnic minorities (also see Chapter IV).
A law of 1982 stipulated that 12 % of the total number of representatives in the People’s
Congress (see Chapter Y) had to belong to an ethnic minority. A law of 1984 stipulates that, on
some issues, the autonomous regions and districts can issue their proper laws according to their
own traditions. Problems do remain however. The income gap with the Han is gowing, there is
a negative impact of tourism, foreign contacts have stimulated religieus extremism. The new
economie policies are increasingly demanding. Members of ethnic minorities who do not know
Chinese are disfavored on the labor market. This explains the tendency to study Chinese and to
become knowledgeable in modern Sciences. In its turn, this development has led to it that those

10 The Han have developed a writing system for some of the ethnic minorities. The use of script should not only
help them preserve their own traditions, but is also seen as an instrument to inform them of the Chinese Com­
munist Party’s policies.
members of ethnic minorities who stick to their own languages and habits are seen as
‘reactionary’ by the Han.
The People’s Republic of China is increasingly portrayed as a multicultural state - a
new interpretation of the age-old Confucian concept ‘all under heaven’ / ‘The Chinese realm’

{Tianxia TcT ): the ethnic minorities and their cultures do not exist out of their own right, but

as part of the Greater Chinese Unity (see above and Chapter Y). This, and growing geopolitical
tensions that are concomitant with the changing world order, have added to cultural tensions in
recent years. The most-wellknown examples are Tibet and Xinjiang.
Taiwan’s indigenous peoples number around 559,000, comprising approximately
2.37 % of the population of Taiwan. Recent research suggests that their ancestors may have
been living on Taiwan for approximately 5,500 years in relative isolation before Han migration
begain in the 17th century, There were nine officially recognized indigenous tribes throughout
most of the last century. These tribes were classified by Japanese colonial authorities, and the
designations were kept by the Taiwanese government. In 2001, the govemment promulgated
the ‘Status Act for indigenous Peoples’ to promote the recognition and reconstruction of
indigenous identity. Currently, 16 tribes are recognized: the Ami Atayal or Taiya Ws-ffi-

M, Paiwan WfMM, Bunun Puyuma Rukai, Tsou IP, Saisiyat #10^, Tao IÉ

‘\nM or Yami, Thao -afiM, Kavalan Truke or Taroko Sakizaya

M, Sediq Saaroa or Hl’alua and the Kanakanavu

The rise in the number of officially recognized ethnic tribes highlights the efforts to
protect indigenous diversity and to respect the will of indigenous eoples seeking to promote
their unique thnic identities. Each ethnic tribe has its own particular form of democratie
practices and deliberation that are connected to their traditional social organisations and culture.
On Indigenous Day, 1 August 2018, indigenous rights advocates protested on Taipei’s
Keagalan Boulevard, urging President Tsai Ing-wen to deliver on her promise, made 2 years
prior, to promote transitional justice for the nation’s aboriginal tribes. President Tsai delivered
a landmark apology on 1 August 2016 to indigenous people on behalf of current and past
govemments, promising to reinstate traditional indigenous territories and promote the
preservation of their culture and language.
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