SocStud 108 Urban Geography

Chapter 1
Definition of a City
A city is a human settlement of a notable size. The term "city" has different meanings around the world and in
some places the settlement can be very small. In 1950, 30% of people lived in cities. Today, almost 60% of the
world live in cities. It may sound complicated, but urban geography provides tools to understand the
relationships between people and cities, including the challenges the arise and possible solutions to overcome
them.
In order to fully understand each of these aspects of a city, urban geography represents a combination of many
other fields within geography.
Physical geography, for example, is important in understanding why a city is located in a specific area as site
and environmental conditions play a large role in whether or not a city develops.
Cultural geography can aid in understanding various conditions related to an area's people. while e or
economic geography aids in understanding the types of economic activities and jobs available in an area. Fields
outside of geography such as resource management, anthropology, and urban sociology are also important.
An essential component within urban geography is defining what a city or urban area actually is. Although a
difficult task, urban geographers generally define the city as a concentration of people with a similar way of
life-based on job type, cultural preferences, political views, and lifestyle. Specialized land uses, a variety of
different institutions, and use of resources also help in distinguishing one city from another.
In addition, urban geographers also work to differentiate areas of different sizes. Because it is hard to find sharp
distinctions between areas of different sizes, urban geographers often use the rural- urban continuum to guide
their understanding and help classify areas. It takes into account hamlets and villages which are generally
considered rural and consist of small, dispersed populations, as well as cities and metropolitan areas considered
urban with concentrated, dense populations.
The two fundamental aspects of cities and towns, from the geographic perspective are:
1. Location ("systems of cities"): spatial distribution and the complex patterns of movement, flows and
linkages that bind them in space; and
2. Urban structure ("cities as systems"): study of patterns of distribution and interaction within cities, from
quantitative, qualitative, structural, and behavioral perspectives.
In a 1924 study of urban geography. Marcel Aurousseau observed that urban geography cannot be considered
a subdivision of geography because it plays such an important part. However, urban geography did emerge as a
specialized discipline after World War II, amidst increasing urban planning and a shift away from the primacy
of physical terrain in the study of geography.
The earliest studies of urban geography focused on site and situation. This developed out of the man-land
tradition of geography which focused on the impact of nature on humans and vice versa. In the 1920s, Carl
Sauer became influential in urban geography as he motivated geographers to study a city's population and
economic aspects with regard to its physical location.
In addition, central place theory and regional studies focused on the hinterland (the rural outlying are supporting
a city with agricultural products and raw materials) and trade areas were also important to early urban
geography.
Shortly thereafter, behavioral studies began to grow within geography and in urban geography. Proponents of
behavioral studies believed that location and spatial characteristics could not be held solely responsible for
changes in a city. Instead, changes in a city arise from decisions made by individuals and organizations within
the city.
By the 1980s, urban geographers became largely concerned with structural aspects of the city related to
underlying social, political and economic structures. For example, urban geographers at this time studied how
capital investment could foster urban change in various cities.
Throughout the late 1980s until today, urban geographers have begun to differentiate themselves from one
another, therefore allowing the field to be filled with a number of different viewpoints and focuses. For
example, a city's site and situation is still regarded as important to its growth, as is its history and relationship
with its physical environment and natural resources. People's interactions with each other and political and
economic factors are still studied as agents of urban change as well.
THEMES OF URBAN GEOGRAPHY
Although urban geography has several different focuses and viewpoints, there are two major themes that
dominate its study today.
1. The first of these is the study of problems relating to the spatial distribution of cities and the patterns of
movement and links that connect them across space. This approach focuses on the city system.
2. The second theme in urban geography today is the study of patterns of distribution and interaction of people
and businesses within cities. This theme mainly looks at a city's inmer structure and therefore focuses on the
city as a system.
In order to follow these themes and study cities, urban geographers often break down their research into
different levels of analysis. In focusing on the city system, urban geographers must look at the city on the
neighborhood and citywide level, as well as how it relates to other cities on a regional, national and global level.
To study the city as a system and its inner structure as in the second approach, urban geographers are mainly
concerned with the neighborhood and city level.
DEFINITION OF URBAN GEOGRAPHY
Geography is the study of the Physical and Human/Social environment of the Earth, while urban inquiry
focuses on the people and processes of cities and towns which now account, for the first time in human history,
for a majority of the world’s population. Urban geography, then, is concerned with the relations among people,
and between people and their environment, in cities and towns across the world.
Urban geography is a branch of human geography concerned with various aspects of cities. An urban
geographer’s main role is to emphasize location and space and study the spatial processes that create patterns
observed in urban areas.
To do this, they study the site, evolution and growth, and classification of villages, towns, and cities as well as
their location and importance in relation to different regions and cities. Economic, political and social aspects
within cities are also important in urban geography.
DEVELOPMENT OF CITIES
Key Points
. The very first cities were founded in Mesopotamia after the Neolithic Revolution, around 7500 BCE.
- Agriculture is believed to be a pre-requisite for cities, which help preserve surplus production and create
economies of scale
- Cities reduced transport costs for goods, people, and ideas by bringing them all together in one spot
Key Points:
. Old World: The known world before the discovery of the Americas.
. Neolithic Revolution: The Neolithic Revolution or Neolithic Demographic Transition, Sometimes called the
Agricultural Revolution, was the world’s first historically verifiable Revolution in agriculture.
. Urbanism: the study of cities, their geographic, economic, political, social, and cultural environment

The Earliest Cities

Early cities arose in a number of regions, and are thought to have developed for reasons of agricultural
productivity and economic scale. Early cities developed in a number of regions, from Mesopotamia to Asia to
the Americas. The very first cities were founded in Mesopotamia after the Neolithic Revolution, around 7500
BCE. Mesopotamian cities included Eridu, Uruk, and Ur. Early cities also arose in the Indus Valley and ancient
China. Among the early Old World cities, one of the largest was Mohenjo-daro, located in the Indus Valley
(present-day Pakistan); it existed from about 2600 BCE. And had a population of 50,000 or more. In the ancient
Americas, the earliest cities were built in the Andes and Mesoamerica, and flourished between the 30 century
BCE and the 18 century BCE. Ancient cities were notable for their geographical diversity, as well as their
diversity, in form and function. Theories that attempts to explain ancient urbanism by a single factor, such as
economic benefit, fail to capture the range of variation documented by archeologists. Excavations at early urban
sites show that some cities were sparsely populated political capitals, others were trade centers, and still other
cities had a primarily religious focus. Some cities had large dense populations, whereas others carried out urban
activities in the realms of politics or religion. without having large associated populations. Some ancient cities
grew to be powerful capital cities and centers of commerce and industry, situated at the centers of growing
ancient empires. Examples include Alexandria and Antioch of the Hellenistic civilization, Carthage, and ancient
Rome and its eastern successor, Constantinople (later Istanbul).
The Rise of the Earliest City
The earliest city to rise in the region of Mesopotamia is considered by modern-day scholars to be Uruk, around
4500 BCE, and then that of Ur around 3800 BCE, both of which were then situated in proximity to the banks of
the Euphrates River. To the Sumerians, however, the first city was Eridu which was founded in 5400 BCE but
probably was not a “city” in the same way that Uruk or Ur would be defined (see definition of City). In the
myth of Inanna and the God of Wisdom, the dictates of civilization, known as the meh, are taken from Eridu to
Uruk and it is thought the subject of this poem represents the shift in paradigm from a more pastoral way of life
(symbolized by Eridu) to one more urbanized (represented by Uruk).
 The structure of the city, and the security of urban living, seems to have attracted the populace of the region to
urban centers although the theory has been suggested that the populace was forcibly removed from agricultural
holdings and re-located in the cities whose rulers then appropriated the lands for the state. This theory, however,
fails to account for the continuation of urbanization throughout the history of Mesopotamia or its replication in
other nations.
By the year 2600 BCE Ur was a thriving metropolis and, by 2900 BCE, was a walled city with a population of
approximately 65,000 Urbanization, however, continued as the city expanded out from the center and, in time,
the once fertile fields which fed the populace were depleted. The over-use of the land, combined with a
mysterious shift in the Euphrates which drew the waters away from the city, resulted in the complex finally
being abandoned around 500 BCE. Eridu, for perhaps similar reasons, was abandoned in 600 BCE and Uruk in
650 BCE. Though many factors no doubt contributed to the decline of cities such as Ur (Sargon of Akkad
plundered the city in 2340 BCE, for example, and repeated military excursions against the city persisted through
the ages with the Elamites finally sacking the city in 1750 BCE), it has been suggested that urbanization and.
Especially, the over-use of the surrounding lands for farming, was a central cause.
At the center of Ur, as with all of the cities in ancient Mesopotamia, was the great temple which was the locale
of ceremonial, commercial and social functions. Religious activities, such as festivals, were the main social
gatherings of the time and these occasions were often used to distribute surplus food and supplies to the
populace of the city. The priests of the temple, who were also the rulers of the city from about 3400 BCE, were
responsible for this distribution and relied heavily on the farmers of the region to supply such surplus as they
needed (a role which would eventually be taken over by the king, as royalty superseded the priestly class in
power in the third millennium BCE with the emergence of the warrior-king known as the ‘Lugal’, meaning “Big
Man”) This excess production of the countryside not only supplied the population of the city with food but also
increased long distance trade with other cities along the Euphrates such as Tikrit and Eridu. As urbanization
continued, however, the need for more and yet more raw materials depleted the natural resources of the region
and eventually, led to a lack of necessary assets and the abandonment of the city.
The field of urban geography Is anything but new. Over 8000 years ago cities began to appear around the globe,
with the first ones holding only hundreds of people. The region of Mesopotamia in the Fertile Crescent is
considered to be the first urban hearth the world had ever seen. The cities of Ur and Babylon located between
the Tigris and Euphrates were founded around 3500 BCE, and it not a coincidence that the wheel was invented
at that same time. These ancient cities were both centers of religion and economic nodes. There were many
urban hearth proceeding Mesopotamia but the largest city of the ancient world was Tenochtitlan, know today
simply as Mexico City. At its peak, over 15 thousand inhabitants lived and worked there. Tons of urban
planning went into building in designing the city.
First, the Aztecs dumped soil in Lake Texcoco until they created a small artificial island in the middle. They
carefully planned their cities to fit their social, economic, and religious structures such as placing emphasis on
religious monuments. You may ask yourself how they had the time and resources to build and maintain these
large and dynamic cities. The answer lies in social stratification and agricultural surplus. Social stratification is
when a society forms a hierarchy socially, politically. And economically. This is especially prevalent in today’s
free market system where some people have more money and power than others. Social stratification allows for
the division of labor which creates mare time for people to innovate and improve.
Agricultural surplus is when a society has a surplus of food, and this allows people to break off into different
industries that are not agricultural. This is when innovation occurs because engineers, scientists, and social
leaders enter the job market. By utilizing urban geography to study how these historical processes influenced
how people structured and built cities, we can begin to understand how these influenced the way that people
consumed, organized social classes, and how they lived day by day.
The Formation of Cities
Why did cities form in the first place? There is insufficient evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the
first cities, but some theorists have speculated on what they consider pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that
could explain the rise of cities. Agriculture is believed to be a pre-requisite for cities, which help preserve
surplus production and create economies of scale. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the
Neolithic Revolution, with the spread of agriculture. The advent of farming encouraged hunter gatherers to
abandon nomadic lifestyles and settle near others who lived by agricultural production. Agriculture yielded
more food, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. Farming led
to dense, settled populations, and food surpluses that required storage and could facilitate trade. These
conditions seem to be important prerequisites for city life. Many theorists hypothesize that agriculture preceded
the development of cities and led to their growth.
A good environment and strong social organization are two necessities for the formation of a successful city. A
good environment includes clean water and a favorable climate for growing crops and agriculture. A strong
sense of social organization helps a newly formed city work together in times of need, and it allows people to
develop various functions to assist in the future development of the city (for example, farmer or merchant).
Without these two common features, as well as advanced agricultural technology, a newly formed city is not
likely to succeed.
Cities may have held other advantages, too. For example, cities reduced transport costs for goods, people, and
ideas by bringing them all together in one spot. By reducing these transaction costs, cities contributed to worker
productivity. Finally, cities likely performed the essential function of providing protection for people and the
valuable things they were beginning to accumulate. Some theorists hypothesize that people may have come
together to form cities as a form of protection against marauding barbarian armies.
PRE-INDUSTRIAL CITIES
Preindustrial cities had important political and economic functions and evolved to become well-defined political
units.
Key Points
•Preindustrial cities were political units, like today's states. They offered freedom from rural obligations to lord
and community.
•In the early modern era, larger capital cities benefited from new trade routes and grew even larger.
•While the city-states, or poleis, of the Mediterranean and Baltic Sea languished from the 16th century, Europe's
larger capitals benefited from the growth of commerce following the emergence of an Atlantic trade.
Key Terms
•Lord: A titled nobleman or aristocrat
•Rural obligations: For people during the medieval era, cities offered a newfound freedom from rural
obligations. City residence brought freedom from customary rural obligations to lord and community.
•Preindustrial cities: While ancient cities may have arisen organically as trading centers, preindustrial cities
evolved to become well defined political units.
Cities as Political Centers
While ancient cities may have arisen organically as trading centers, preindustrial cities evolved to become well
defined political units, like today's states. During the European Middle Ages, a town was as much a political
entity as a collection of houses. However, particular political forms varied. In continental Europe, some cities
had their own legislatures. In the Holy Roman Empire, some cities had no other lord than the emperor. In Italy,
medieval communes had a state-like power. In exceptional cases like Venice, Genoa, or Lübeck, cities
themselves became powerful states, sometimes taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing
extensive maritime empires. Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case of Sakai, which enjoyed a
considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan..
For people during the medieval era, cities offered a newfound freedom from rural obligations. City residence
brought freedom from customary rural obligations to lord and community (hence the German saying, "Stadtluft
macht frei," which means "City air makes you free"). Often, cities were governed by their own laws, separate
from the rule of lords of the surrounding area.
Trade Routes
Not all cities grew to become major urban centers. Those that did often benefited from trade routes in the early
modern era, larger capital cities benefited from new trade routes and grew even larger. While the city-states, or
poleis, of the Mediterranean and Baltic Sea languished from the 16th century, Europe's larger capitals benefited
from the growth of commerce following the emergence of an Atlantic trade. By the early 19th century, London
had become the largest city in the world with a population of over a million, while Paris rivaled the well-
developed regional capital cities of Baghdad, Beijing, Istanbul, and Kyoto. But most towns remained far smaller
places in 1500 only about two dozen places in the world contained more than 100,000 inhabitants. As late as
1700 there were fewer than 40, a figure which would rise thereafter to 300 in 1900. A small city of the early
modern period might have contained as few as 10,000 inhabitants.
INDUSTRIAL CITIES
Key Points
• Rapid growth brought urban problems, and industrial-era cities were rife with dangers to health and safety.
Poor sanitation and communicable diseases were among the greatest causes of death among urban working
class populations.
•In the 19th century, better sanitation led to improved health conditions
Key Terms
•Industrial cities: Rapid growth brought urban problems, and industrial-era cities were rife with dangers to
health and safety. Quickly expanding industrial cities could be quite deadly, full of contaminated water and air,
and communicable diseases.
•Industrial era: During the industrial era, cities grew rapidly and became centers of population and production.
During the industrial era, cities grew rapidly and became centers of population growth and production. The
growth of modern industry from the late 18th century onward led to massive urbanization and the rise of new,
great cities, first in Europe, and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants
from rural communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in cities. Since the
industrial era, that figure, as of the beginning of the 21st century, has risen to nearly 50%. The United States
provides a good example of how this process unfolded; from 1860 to 1910, the invention of railroads reduced
transportation costs and large manufacturing centers began to emerge in the United States, allowing migration
from rural to urban areas.
Rapid growth brought urban problems, and industrial-era cities were rife with dangers to health and safety.
Rapidly expanding industrial cities could be quite deadly, and were often full of contaminated water and air, and
communicable diseases. Living conditions during the Industrial Revolution varied from the splendor of the
homes of the wealthy to the squalor of the workers. Poor people lived in very small houses in cramped streets.
These homes often shared toilet facilities, had open sewers, and were prone to epidemics exacerbated by
persistent dampness. Disease often spread through contaminated water supplies.
In the 19th century, health conditions improved with better sanitation, but urban people, especially small
children, continued to die from diseases spreading through the cramped living conditions. Tuberculosis (spread
in congested dwellings), lung diseases from mines, cholera from polluted water, and typhoid were all common.
The greatest killer in the cities was tuberculosis (TB). Archival health records show that as many as 40% of
working class deaths in cities were caused by tuberculosis.

The structures of cities

Key Points
•In the grid model of cities, land is divided by streets that run at right angles to each other, forming a grid. This
model promotes development.
•The concentric ring model describes the city as an ecosystem in which residents sort themselves into a series of
rings based on class and occupation. This model ‘s general applicability has been challenged.
•Urban structure can also describe the location of the central business district, industrial parks, or urban open
spaces.
• The sectoral model says the city develops in wedge-shaped sectors instead of rings: certain areas of a city are
more attractive for various activities, which flourish and expand outward in a wedge.
• The multiple nuclei model assumes that car ownership granted people more mobility and led the development
of specialized regional centers within cities.
•The irregular pattern model was developed to better explain urban structure in the Third World. It attempts to
model the lack of planning or construction found in many rapidly built Third World cities.
Key Terms
•Central business district: The central area of a city in which a concentration of certain retail and business
activities takes place, especially in older cities with rail transportation.
•Urban open space: In land use planning, urban open space is open space areas for parks, green spaces, and
other open areas.
• Ecology: Human ecology described the city as analogous to an ecosystem, with natural processes of
adaptation and assimilation.
Urban structure is the arrangement of land use, explained using different models.
1. Grid.
In grid models, land is divided by streets intersect at right angles, forming a grid. Grid plans are more
common in North American cities than in Europe, where older cities tend o be built on streets that radiate out
from a central square or structure of cultural significance. Grid plans facilitate development because developers
can subdivide and auction off large parcels of land. The geometry yields regular lots that maximize use and
minimize boundary disputes. However, grids can be dangerous because long, straight roads allow faster
automobile traffic. In the 1960 urban planners moved away from grids and began planning suburban
developments with dead ends and cul-de-sacs.
2. Concentric Ring Model
The concentric ring model was postulated in 1924 by sociologist Ernest Burgess, based on his
observations of Chicago. It draws on human ecology theories, which compared the city to an ecosystem, with
processes of adaptation and assimilation. Urban residents naturally sort themselves into appropriate rings, or
ecological niches, depending on class and cultural assimilation. The innermost ring represents the central
business district (CBD), called Zone A. It is surrounded by a zone of transition (B), which contains industry and
poorer-quality housing. The third ring (C) contains housing for the working-class-the zone of independent
workers homes. The fourth ring (D) has newer and larger houses occupied by the middle-class. The outermost
ring (E), or commuter’s zone, is residential suburbs.
This model ‘s general applicability has been challenged. It describes an American geography in which
the inner city is poor while suburbs are wealthy-elsewhere, the converse is the norm. In new, western U.S. cities
such as Los Angeles, advances in transportation and communication have blurred these “zones.” Further, the
model fails to account for topographical and physical features of the landscape. Even in Chicago, the concentric
rings were semi-circles, interrupted by Lake Michigan.

3. Sectoral
 In 1939, the economist Homer Hoyt adapted the concentric ring model by proposing that cities develop
in wedge-shaped sectors instead of rings. Certain areas of a city are more attractive for various activities,
whether by chance or geographic/environmental reasons. As these activities flourish and expand outward, they
form wedges, becoming city sectors. Like the concentric ring model, Hoyt’s sectoral model has been criticized
for ignoring physical features and new transportation patterns that restrict or direct growth.
4. Multiple Nuclei
The multiple nuclei model was developed in 1945 to explain city formation after the spread of the
automobile. People have greater movement due to increased car ownership, allowing for the specialization of
regional centers. A city contains more than one center around which activities revolve. Some activities are
attracted to particular nodes while others try to avoid them. For example, a university node may attract well
educated residents, pizzerias, and bookstores, whereas an airport may attract hotels and warehouses.
Incompatible activities will avoid clustering in the same area.
5. Irregular Pattern
The irregular pattern model was developed to explain urban structure in the Third World. It attempts to
model the lack of planning found in many rapidly built Third World cities. This model includes blocks with no
fixed order; urban structure is not related to an urban center or CBD,
6. Alternate Uses of “Urban Structure”
Urban structure can also refer to urban spatial structure; the arrangement of public and private space in
cities and the degree of connectivity and accessibility. In his context, urban structure is concerned with the
arrangement of the CBD, industrial and residential areas, and open space.
A city’s central business district (CBD), or downtown, is the commercial and often geographic heart of a
city. In North America, this is referred to as “downtown” or “city center”. The downtown area is often home to
the financial district, but usually also contains entertainment and retail. CBDs usually have very small resident
populations, but populations are increasing as younger professional and business workers move into city center
apartments.
An industrial park is an area zoned and planned for the purpose of industrial development. They are
intended to attract business by concentrating dedicated infrastructure to reduce the per-business expenses. They
also set aside industrial uses from urban areas to reduce the environmental and social impact of industrial uses
and to provide a distinct zone of environmental controls specific to industrial needs.
Urban open spaces provide citizens with recreational, ecological, aesthetic value. They can range from
highly maintained environments to natural landscapes. Commonly open to public access, they may be privately
owned. Urban open spaces offer a reprieve from the urban environment and can add ecological value, making
citizens more aware of their natural surroundings and providing nature to promote biodiversity. Open spaces
offer aesthetic value for citizens who enjoy nature, cultural value by providing space for concerts or art shows,
and functional value-for example, by helping to control runoff and prevent flooding.

Chapter 3
HETEROGENEITY OF CITIES

Heterogeneity is a generic term derived from the ancient Greek heterogenes, from hetero meaning “different,”
and genos, “kind.” In the globalization, the term “heterogeneity” is generally used to describe a quality of
cultural diversity. Diversity is defined as the presence or coexistence of a number of specific socio-economic,
socio-demographic, ethnic and cultural groups within a certain spatial entity. Heterogeneity in cities is a
satisfying mix of ideas, cultures, races, genders, economic statuses and other characteristics necessary for
growth and learning among a group. Heterogeneity is a word that signifies diversity.

Factors of Cities Heterogeneity

1. Sex and Gender Role
Sex refers to the biological characteristics that define humans as female or male. Gender-Gender refers to the
socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions and identities of girls, women, boys, men and features like
masculine, feminine, common and neuter.

2.Sexual Orientation – is the emotional, romantic or sexual attraction that a person feels to persons of the
opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender or to both sexes or more than one gender.
•Heterosexual. People who are heterosexual are romantically and physically attracted to members of the
opposite sex.
•Homosexual. People who are homosexual are romantically and physically attracted to people of the same sex.
Females who are attracted to other females are lesbian; males who are attracted to other males are often known
as gay.
•Bisexual. People who are bisexual are romantically and physically attracted to members of both sexes.
•Asexual. People who are asexual may not be interested in sex, but they still feel emotionally close to other
people.

3.Age Differentiation – it refers to the people of different ages and generations.

Infancy (from its birth to 1-year-old
Toddler (2-4 years old)
Childhood (5-12 years old)
Teenager (13-19 years old)
Adult (20-39)
Middle Age (40-59)
Senior Adult (60 and above)

4.Personality Differences – refers to the enduring characteristics and behavior that comprise a person's unique
adjustment to life, including major traits, interests, values, self-concept, abilities, and emotional patterns.
Causes: heredity, environment and situations

5.Social Classes –division of a society based on social and economic status.

Upper class – the economic group with the greatest wealth and power in society.
Middle class individuals and households who typically fall between the working class and the upper class
within a socio-economic hierarchy.
Lower class – the economic group with the least wealth and power in society. They are in lowest social rank or
standing due to low income and lack of skills or education.
6.Educational Attainment – Refers to the level of education that an individual has completed.

7.People interest and hobbles- refers to the differences of the interest and hobbies of the people.
Hobby – a hobby is an activity done regularly in one’s leisure time for pleasure.
Interest – interest is a feeling of wanting to know or learn about something or someone.
8. Career Differences – A career is a long-term professional journey you may determine based on your passion.
It is the path you embark upon to fulfill your professional goals and ambitions. You may require a certain level
of education or training to achieve these goals. Job a paid position of regular employment.

9. Beliefs and Religious Diversity-is the coexistence of two or more religious communities in a specific
geopolitical setting. It is the fact that there are significant differences in religious belief and practices of every
people.

10. Linguistic Diversity – is the differences concerning the language used by people from different cultures and
backgrounds. Language barriers are things that prevent people from understanding each other, it significantly
distorts effective communication.

11. Socioeconomic Status - refers to a person’s position in the social hierarchy, as determined by a combination
of economic and social factors

12. Various Establishment – A business or other organization, or the place where an organization operate.

13. Life experience -A life experience is an experience that changes an individual. This is taking, effort and
originality whereby individuals associated with hardships, problems, risk stretch themselves to improve their
character, talents and knowledge.

14. Location –Geographic location refers to the physical place a statistical unit is located and for which
statistics are collected and disseminated.

15. Race and ethnicity- Race and ethnicity are two concepts related to human ancestry. Race is defined as “a
category of humankind that shares certain distinctive physical traits. The term ethnicities are more broadly
defined as “large groups of people classed according to common racial, national, tribal, religious, linguistic, or
cultural origin or background”

16. Political Views-it’s refers to the belief or view that has some bearing issues dealt with by government.

Defining and Responding to Urban dis(Order)

Definition of Terms
 An urban area is the region surrounding a city. Most inhabitants of urban areas have nonagricultural
jobs. Urban areas are very developed, meaning there is a density of human structures such as houses,
commercial buildings, roads, bridges, and railways. “Urban area” can refer to towns, cities, and suburbs.

Dis(Order) could be defined as a set of problems, which result in causing significant difficulty, distress,
impairment and/or suffering in a person’s daily life. Disorder can be in a form of complication, chaos,
disturbance, lawlessness, confusion, disarrangement, disorderliness and disorganization.

a. Poor access to land and proper housing

– As the urbanization accelerates the poorest city dwellers will face shortage of housing options. A lot of
urban households can’t access affordable and secure accommodation.
-The World Resources Institute released a recommendations aimed at addressing needs of the urban housing
crisis:
1. Upgrading informal settlements where they are.
• Upgrading informal settlements in their existing location, with their participation, is a more effective method
than relocation.
• Effective housing upgrades come from community participation, which means that public and private
authorities must be open to including non-experts in the process. This could include participatory budgeting, in
which community members help to make decisions on a public budget, or the use of shared data.
• We cannot solve this problem unless government and people’s resources work together. Upgrading informal
settlements, through participation, is the way to do that,” said Diana Mitlin, managing director of the Global
Development Institute.
2. Promoting rental housing
• The recommendations emphasize the need to expand rental capacity in cities, both in terms of space available
and institutional mechanisms to facilitate access.
• In many urban areas today, renting lower income units can be risky for both landlords and tenants, which leads
to fewer rental options. Landlords risk housing tenants who fail to pay rent, damage property or are difficult to
evict. Tenants face issues including insecurity about long-term housing, unwarranted eviction and exploitation.
Cities can provide landlords with contract templates so that rental terms are clearly laid out and both parties
have legal documents to reference in a dispute.
• Governments can also restructure tax codes to incentivize renting, lower registration costs for rental
agreements and provide service tax exemptions for low income rentals.
3. Converting underutilized urban land to affordable housing.
• WRI recommends additional government policies to incentivize construction of affordable housing. These
include taxing underutilized or vacant land to encourage the development of affordable housing: changing
zoning regulations so that developers are required to keep a proportion of their units for lower income residents
and encouraging housing density such that the costs of infrastructure are shared among a larger net of residents
and businesses.

• Community land trusts are another option. Land is purchased with some sort of endowment and then retained
for community use. Community ownership gives the trust leverage to require affordable housing. Funds for
purchasing the land can come from community groups, philanthropists or the government.
B. Growth of Slums

What is a Slum?
-The word "slum" is often used to describe informal settlements within cities that have inadequate housing,
unpleasant and miserable living condition. They are often overcrowded, with many people crammed into very
small living spaces.
• These settlements lack basic municipal services such as water, sanitation, waste collection, storm drainage,
street lighting, paved sidewalks and roads for emergency access. Most also do not have easy access to schools,
hospitals or public places for the community to gather. They are also prone to crimes and unemployment are on
the rise.
• Like all informal settlements, housing in slums is built on land that the occupant does not have a legal claim to
and without any urban planning or adherence to zoning regulations. Slum dwellers are not a homogeneous
population, but a diverse group of people with different interests, means and backgrounds.
Well known slum areas in the Philippines are Tondo, San Andres, Payatas, Aroma and Ulingan.

UN-HABITAT defines a slum household as a group of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area
who lack one or more of the following:
• Durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against extreme climate conditions
• Sufficient living space, which means not more than three people sharing the same room
• Easy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an affordable price.
• Access to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or public toilet shared by a reasonable number of people.
• Security of tenure (tenure means "pagmamay-ari) that prevents forced evictions. Land tenure is the right of an
individual or group to occupy or use a piece of land.

Why do Slums develop?

• Slums are not a new phenomenon. They have been part of the history of most cities, particularly in the early
years of urbanization and industrialization as populations boomed.
• Slums are generally the only type of settlement affordable and accessible to the poor in cities, where
competition for land and profits is intense.
• Population Growth, Urban Migration, Bad and Poor Governance are the main reasons why Slums developed.

Urban Migration Happens for a Reason:

a. The pushing and pulling factors of migration
Some people migrate because they are pushed out of their place of origin by factors such as natural disasters
or sustained ecological changes. Others are pulled to a new destination by better job prospects, education,
health facilities, or freedom from restrictive social or cultural realities,

Another reason slums develop is bad governance. Governments often fail to recognize the rights of the urban
poor and incorporate them into urban planning, thereby contributing to the growth of slums.
Slum development prevention according to the Cities Alliance:
1. Government Intervention
There are basic things a government can do to prevent new slums from developing. One is to recognize that
urbanization is going to happen. Sometimes governments believe that adopting alternative policies, such as
focusing on rural development, will stop urbanization. This approach is rarely effective.
Once governments accept the reality of urban growth, the next step is to plan for it and determine where
the new residents will live. Authorities should identify land and plan for its settlement even if money is not
available for urban services. Once people settle on that land and feel that they have a right to live there, they
will begin investing in it. Over time, the area will upgrade incrementally.
c. Families facing poverty and unemployment
Unemployment and underemployment lies at the core of poverty. For the poor, labor is often the only asset
they can use to improve their well-being.
Proposed possible solution according to UN org:
a. The creation of productive employment
Opportunities is essential for achieving poverty reduction and sustainable economic and social
development. It is crucial to provide decent jobs that both secure income and empowerment for the poor,
especially women and younger people.
Given the importance of employment for poverty reduction, job-creation should occupy a central place in
national poverty reduction strategies.
Rapid economic growth can potentially bring a high rate of expansion of productive and remunerative
employment, which can lead to a reduction in poverty. Nevertheless, the contribution of the growth process to
poverty reduction does not depend only on the rate of economic growth, but also on the ability of the poor to
respond to the increasing demand for labor in the money productive categories of employment.
There should be a focus on creating better and more productive jobs, particularly those that can absorb the
high concentrations of working poor. Among the necessary elements for creating such jobs are investing in
labor-intensive industries, especially agriculture, encouraging a shift in the structure of employment to
higher productivity occupations and sectors, and upgrading job quality in the informal economy. In addition,
there should also be a focus on providing poor people with the necessary skills and assets that will enable them
to take full advantage of any expansion in employment potential.
d. Safety and crime problems
Poorly designed and managed places can create opportunities for crime and make people feel unsafe.

Proposed possible solution according to Crime Community Prevention

a. Urban Design
 The practice of shaping the built environment, including buildings, streets, public spaces and neighborhoods,
to improve the livable of cities and towns.
Changing the built environment can be difficult and costly, so applying good urban design at the outset can
help to prevent problems and greater expense later. Where this is not possible and there are existing crime
problems, applying good urban design principles to a particular location is one way in which a crime problem
can be addressed.
Good urban design should also address the accessibility and sustainability of the site and include
consideration of the ongoing engagement, activation and management that is necessary to ensure a safe,
welcoming and inclusive community space.
e. Pollution and health issues
Urban pollution may come from natural sources, but the most detrimental are those emissions related to
human activities.
The anthropogenic sources of pollution, such as factories, industries, transportation, and so on, are
typically getting worse in cities due to the local
Our comment is constantly exposed to harmful contaminants. Our air, water and soil is being polluted at the
expense of human activities that are focused on short term convenience. Petrol and diesel transportation,
production of heat and electricity, disposing of waste to landfill and initializing crops are all key players in
the pollution of our planet.
Breeze Technology suggests ways to reduce pollution:
a. Use public transportation b. Walk and cycle more c. Buy local products and produce d. Join urban
gardening initiatives
Question to Ponder: How and what do you think our Government intervention helps in mitigating the Urban
Disorder?
To sum up everything, the rapid URBANIZATION is the root cause of all these problem.
Conclusion
Disorder, however it is identified, constitutes a permanent fact, inherent in the urban condition; it is neither the
result of wrong planning, nor of a perverse will, but rather of the dynamic mechanisms of the city itself.
Change brings disorder but public commitment through institutions cannot but aspire to recover a level of order,
hopefully, more advanced.

Chapter 4

DIVERSE AND SPATIAL DIFFERENTIATION IN THE CITY

Sub- Topic 1: Movement and Settlement in the City
It is clear that the city is a place where diversity and spatial differentiation are both present. A city is an
urban area with a high population density and various services, infrastructures, and facilities that support the
community’s needs. Cities are often centers of economic activity and innovation and offer a wide range of
opportunities for employment, education, and cultural experiences. The term “city” can also have legal or
administrative meaning, such as a municipality with its own government, laws, and services. The exact
definition of a city can vary depending on the country, region, or context in which it is used.
The city is made up of both physical and social spaces:
Physical space in the context of a city refers to the actual physical environment in which people live and
work. This may include buildings, streets, public spaces, parks, and other physical elements that make up the
cityscape. The physical space of a city can have a significant impact on the quality of life of its residents,
affecting everything from public health and wellness to economic opportunities and social cohesion. Urban
planners and designers often work to create physical spaces that are functional, aesthetically pleasing, and
conducive to the needs of the community they serve.
Social space in the context of a city refers to the physical locations where people come together and
interact with each other, such as parks, public plazas,cafes, restaurants, and other public spaces. These spaces
provide opportunities for people to engage in social activities, form relationships, share ideas, and build a sense
of community. Social space can be important in promoting social inclusion, reducing social isolation, and
fostering a sense of belonging and well-being. Urban planners and designers often work to create and enhance
social space in cities, with the goal of creating vibrant, safe, and accessible places where people can gather and
interact.
1. MOVEMENT
The movement of people refers to the act of people changing their geographic location, typically from
one place to another. This can occur for a variety of reasons, including migration for work or resettlement,
travel for tourism or other reasons, or displacement due to conflict or other forms of crisis. The movement
of people can have a significant impact on the places they leave and the places they go, affecting everything
from economic activity and cultural exchange to social dynamics and political systems.
What is human mobility?
Human mobility, the movement of human beings in space and time, reflects the spatial-temporal
characteristics of human behavior. Human mobility" is an umbrella term that refers to all aspects of the human
movement of people.

What causes of human mobility?

Human mobility is driven by diverse factors including;
 conflict and instability environmental degradation
 climate change
 Poverty
 Marginalization
 Poor governance.

2. SETTLEMENT
Settlements can take various forms, ranging from small rural villages to sprawling urban centres.
Settlements can be temporary or permanent and can be established for various reasons, such as economic
opportunities, cultural or religious reasons, or political circumstances, among others. The process of
settlement often involves the creation of infrastructure, such as buildings, roads, water supply systems, and
other necessary facilities for the community's inhabitants.
Types of Settlement:
1. Urban settlements are densely populated areas where there is a high concentration of people and buildings,
often characterized by skyscrapers and other tall structures. These are usually the main centers of economic,
cultural, and political activity within a region.
2. Rural settlements, on the other hand, are areas that are outside of urban areas and are generally less densely
populated. Rural settlements tend to be characterized by agricultural activity and natural landscapes.
3. Compact settlements are a type of rural settlement where the houses and buildings are located close together
in a centralized location, often surrounded by fields or farmland. It consists of structures that were closely built
together with residential and commercial areas being zoned away from the agriculture or the environment.
4. Dispersed settlements, also known as scattered settlements, are a type of rural settlement where the houses
and buildings are spread out over a larger area, with each household having more space and privacy. Dispersed
settlements are often found in remote and mountainous areas where land is more abundant. It is least populated
type of settlement and located in remote and very far away from other settlements of any type.
Why do we have types of settlement?
We have different types of settlements primarily because settlement patterns can vary based on factors such
as geographic location, population density, natural resources, and economic activity. Settlements can take
different forms based on these factors and other cultural and historical factors. For example, urban settlements
tend to develop around areas of economic activity and are designed to accommodate high population densities,
while rural settlements are often characterized by agricultural activity and natural landscapes.
Settlement sites are also chosen because of many good reasons for locating a settlement such as;
 water supply
 flat and arable land
 building supply
 protection

 shelter from weather

 bridging point, crossroad - intersection road
Migration
 It refers to the movement of people from one location to another, typically to establish a new permanent or
temporary residence due to economic, social, or environmental factors. People may migrate within a country or
across international borders. Migration can be voluntary or forced, and can occur for various reasons, such as
job opportunities, marriage, education, political instability, conflict, natural disasters, and climate change.
Understanding migration patterns, social dynamics, and the factors that drive migration is an important area of
research for policymakers and scholars in various fields, including sociology, economics, and political science.
The Two Factors of Migration
1. Pull Factors -"push'" people away from their home that include things like poverty, lack of social mobility,
violence, or persecution. Pull factors are factors that attract people to move to a particular location or region.
These factors can include economic opportunities, job availability, low cost of living, good quality of life, better
climate, political stability, and access to education. Pull factors are often contrasted with push factors, which are
factors that cause people to leave or migrate from a location, such as poverty, war, political unrest, natural
disasters, and lack of opportunities.

2. Push Factor – "pull" people to a new home which attracts an individual to settle in a particular place. Push
factors refer to the factors or circumstances that force or encourage people to leave a particular location,
community country and move elsewhere. These factors can be economic, social, political, environmental or
other factors that cause people to experience a lack of opportunities, safety, security, or quality of life in their
current location. Push factors are often characterized by negative circumstances such as poverty,
unemployment, poor living conditions, political instability, violence, and discrimination.

Types of Human Migration

1. Internal Migration - moving within a state, country or continent. It also known as domestic migration refers
to the movement of people from one region or area within a country to another. This type of migration can be
motivated by a variety of factors. Including economic opportunities, family reasons, environmental conditions,
or political issues. It can also be voluntary or forced, depending on the circumstances that push or pull people to
relocate. Internal migration is an important phenomenon that shapes demographic and economic patterns within
countries, and can have significant social and political implications. Researchers often analyze internal
migration patterns to understand the factors that drive it and to design policies that address the needs of migrant
populations.
2. External Migration - moving to a different state. country, or continent. It refers to the movement of people
across international borders from one country to another country. This type of migration can be driven by
various factors such as economic opportunities, social and political instability, conflicts and environmental
factors. External migration can also be voluntary or forced. The movement of people to developed countries is
often referred to as immigration, while the movement of people away from their home countries is called
emigration.
3. Emigration - leaving one country to move another. It also known as outward migration refers to the act of
leaving one's country or region with the intent to settle permanently in another country or region. This is
different from immigration, which refers to the act of entering new country or region with the intent to settle
permanently. Emigration can be driven by a variety of factors, such as economic opportunities, political
instability, persecution, natural disasters, or environmental factors. Emigrants may face challenges in adapting
to new cultures and environments, but also bring skills, ideas, and diversity to their new homes.

3. Immigration - the act of leaving one's own country to settle permanently in another, moving abroad. It refers
to the act of entering a new country or region with the intent to settle permanently. Immigration can be driven
by a variety of factors, such as economic opportunities, family ties, environmental factors, political issues, or a
desire for better quality of life. Immigrants may face challenges in adapting to new cultures and environments,
but also bring skills, ideas, and diversity to their new homes. Understanding immigration patterns and the
factors that drive it is important for policymakers and researchers in various fields, including demography,
economics, and politics.

4. Return Migration - moving back to where you came from. It refers to the process of people returning to their
country of origin after having migrated to another country. This type of migration can be voluntary or forced,
and can be driven by a variety of factors such as economic opportunities, family ties, political or social
circumstances, or a desire to return to one's culture or homeland. Return migration is an important topic of study
for researchers in various fields, including demography, economics, and sociology, as it can have implications
for the societies and economies of both the origin and destination countries.

5. Seasonal Migration - moving with each season or in response to labor or climate change conditions. It refers
to the movement of people from one place to another on a seasonal basis, typically for work or environmental
reasons. It can occur due to seasonal shifts in demand for labor, such as in agriculture or tourism, or due to
changing environmental conditions. such as drought or extreme weather events. Seasonal migration is common
in many parts of the world and has important economic and social implications for both the origin and
destination regions. It may involve temporary or circular migration, where migrants return to their place or
origin after a period of time, or more permanent settlement in a new location.

POLITICAL ECONOMIC, CULTURAL, AND SOCIAL FACTORS OF CITY

MOVEMENTS AND SETTLEMENTS

POLITICAL FACTORS
 People often do not own or have control of the land they live on. The marked for some product string, it
will be exploited or cultivated regardless of environmental impact.
Political factors refer to external factors related to government policies and regulations, political
stability, and political trends that can impact the operations and decisions of businesses, organizations, or
individuals. It can also include broader social and cultural factors, such as attitudes toward innovation,
social issues, or environmental regulations. It is important for businesses and organizations to monitor
political factors that could impact their operations and develop strategies to address or adapt to these
factors as needed.
There are political factors that cause people to move from their home country to another country such as:
PUSH FACTORS:
 War and the absence of political factors in migration- May people forced to migrate because of war civil
war or state policies which discriminate against particular groups of citizens the political opponents of
people of those in power.
 Forced migration
 State persecution- a program or campaign to exterminate due away, or subjugate people based on their
membership in a religious, ethic, social or RACIAL Group.

 Lack of political liberties- the right and epidemic corruption act as push factors for migrants seeking
greater freedoms even though they are not persecuted in their places of birth concerns that limit people
freedom cause them to love so this is the reason why people leave their country.
 Conflict and war avoid treats, loss property destruction death
PULL FACTORS:
 Freedom and safety- it focuses on protecting individuals freedom from unreasonable detention, as
opposed to protecting personal safety.
 Lure of freedom
 Boundary changes- majority status
 Conflict and war- offer asylum to refuges
 Promise of stable government and safety.
ECOMOMIC FACTORS

 Economic factors of migration are related to labour standards, unemployment, and the overall health of a
country’s economy. Moving to find work or follow a particular career path. Economic factors refer to
external factors related to economic conditions, such as inflation, interest rates, exchange rates, supply
and demand , and economic policies that can impact the operations and decisions of businesses,
organizations, or individuals. Economic factors can also include broader social and cultural factors, such
as attitudes towards consumption patterns or demographic shifts in the population. It is important for
businesses and organizations to monitor economic factors that could impact their operations and develop
strategies to address or adapt to these factor as needed.
PULL FACTORS:
 Job Opportunities- People always choose or migrate to the city for new occupations and for
employment purposes.
 Labor standards and higher wages- to have a better salary to a decent job
 Better employment opportunities
 Higher standard of living – it cam access to many resources such as foods and basic needs of the
people
 Educational Opportunities – in the cities there has a lot of opportunities that can enhance your ability
and knowledge.
PUSH FACTORS:
 Unemployment
 Poor health of country’s economy
 Poor medical care
 Lack of opportunities for advancement
 Exhaustion of natural resources and natural calamities
CULTURAL FACTORS

 Cultural push factors usually involve slavery, political instability, ethnic cleansing, famine and war.
People who choose to flee or forced to flee as a result of these problems are often refugees. Cultural
factors are external factors that influence the values, beliefs and attitudes of individuals and groups
within a particular society or community. Cultural factors can include a wide range of factors, including
religion, language customs and traditions, social norms, art, music and literature. They can also include
broader social and economic factors, such as politics, history and geography that have an impact on the
culture of a particular region or country.

PUSH FACTORS:
 Slavery
 Political Instability
  Ethnic Cleansing
 Famine
 War
SOCIAL FACTORS

 Moving somewhere for a better quality of life to be closer to family of friends. Social factors refer to
the external factors that influence the behaviour, attitudes, and values of individuals and groups
within a particular society or community.
These factors can include a wide range of elements such as socioeconomic status, education level,
cultural background, religious beliefs, family size, social network and access to resources. Social
factors are closely related to cultural and economic factors and can interact with them to shape the
social and economic environment of a particular region or country.
PULL FACTORS:
 Marital Status
 Facilities
 Religious freedom
 Education available
 Close to family

Chapter 5
OBSERVING SPATIAL PATTERNS AND SEGREGATION
What to Discuss:
1. The City and urban sprawl
2. Observing Spatial Patterns and Segregation
Spatial pattern and segregation
 Is imposed or preferred separation of group of people in a particular territory or places by lines of race
language, religion, or income status.
 Spatial pattern- is an analysis tools use to study people in terms of their physical location.
THE CITY AND URBAN SPRAWL
City- is a large town and a place where in many people live in.
(e.g. in Metro Manila you can see the buildings, the slums areas and sub division and many more.)
Advantages

 Greater no. of jobs available or easy to find a job opportunities.

 Accessible to transportation

 Needs are close to home

 If there’s have an emergency, it is close for easy access to hospitals or any health care clinics.
Disadvantages
  Crowded place
 Stressful and nakaka-pressure
 Many or large population
 More expensive to live in

URBAN SPRAWL
What is Urban Sprawl?
 Urban sprawl is a phenomenon that refers to the uncontrolled and unplanned expansion of cities into
surrounding rural areas.
TYPES OF URBAN SPRAWL
Leapfrog Sprawl:
 This refers to the expansion of cities into rural areas that are located far from existing urban
development.
Ribbon Sprawl:
 This refers to the development of linear urban areas along transportation corridors, such as highways or
rail lines.
Edge Cities:
 This refers to the development of large suburban areas that have their own distinct commercial and
employment centers.
CAUSES OF SPRAWL

 Population growth and demand for single- family housing.

 Public Investment in roads, public buildings, water, sewer and infrastructure in peripheral areas;
Decrease in investment in existing centers.
 Preference of business and industry for easy highway access, plenty of free parking and corporate
identity.
 Demand of commercial tenants for particular location and designs for building and sites
 Lack of proper planning policies and/or failure to enforce planning policies.
ADVANTAGES

 Land and building costs are cheaper

 Houses are more affordable
 More construction jobs

DISADVANTAGES
  Damage of the environment
 Animal habitats are destroyed
 Less street and vegetation
 More use of car thus causing more air pollution

OBSERVING SPATIAL PATTERNS AND SEGREGATION

A Spatial pattern is a perceptual structure, placement or arrangement of objects on Earth. Patterns may
be recognized because of their arrangement may be in a line or by clustering points. Spatial pattern also
known as a spatial distribution patterns or the study of spatial distribution is an analysis tool used to study
people or objects in terms of their physical location.
Segregation is an inherent feature of cities and it has been the focus of interest in different scientific
fields. It can have an ethnic, racial, economic, religious and gender basis among others. Also, the separation of
people activities functions and it can hardly be approached with considering it’s spatial aspect. Segregation
occurs when individuals who identify or are identified with different groups occupy different geographies within
cities.
Segregation in the city Urban segregation is the unequal distribution of different social groups in the urban
space, based mainly on occupation, income and education, as well as on gender and ethnicity.
Examples of segregation:
 Segregation of facilities included separate schools, hotels, bars, hospitals, toilets, parks, even telephone
booths, and separate sections in libraries, cinemas, and restaurants, the latter often with separate ticket
windows and counters.
 Residential segregation refers generally to the spatial separation of two or more social groups within a
specified geographic area, such as a municipality, a county, or a metropolitan area.
 Spatial segregation can be understood as the imposed or preferred separation of groups of people in a
particular territory by lines of race, caste, ethnicity, language, religion or income status. Spatial
segregation exists whenever the proportions of populations are not homogeneous throughout a defined
space.
Population can be considered any plant or animal species, human genders, followers of a certain religion,
people if different nationalities, ethnic group etc.
3 CAUSES OF SPATIAL SEGREGATION
1. Socio cultural
2. Institutional
3. Economic factors
What are the effects of spatial segregation in the cities?
 The combination of residential segregation by class and by social or ethnic groups and the
systematically uneven spatial distribution of quality schools results in poor inner city enclaves where
children attend substandard schools, which in turn limits their life chances.