Information Processes

and Technology
(HSC)
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Course Overview

► Core Topics
► Project Management
► Information Systems and Databases
► Communication Systems
► Optional Topics
► Transaction Processing Systems
► Multimedia Systems
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Course Requirements

► Google Classroom
► Assessment Schedule
► Assessment Tasks
► Assessment Submissions
► School Policy
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Project
Management
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Syllabus Outcomes

Students learn about: Students learn to:

► techniques for managing a project
► communication skills necessary for dealing with others ► understand the communication skills required to manage a system
► the consequences for groups that fail to function as a team, development project, such as:
including: ► active listening
► financial loss ► conflict resolution
► employment loss ► negotiation skills
► missed opportunities ► interview techniques
► project management tools, including: ► team building
► Gantt charts ► understand the need to apply project management tools to develop
► scheduling of tasks a system using a team approach
► journals and diaries ► appreciate the advantages of groups that function as a team,
► funding management plan including:
► communication management plan ► increased productivity
► identifying social and ethic issues ► enhanced job satisfaction
► the development of a quality system
► appreciate the need for complete documentation throughout all
aspects of the system
► assess the social and ethical implications of the solution throughout
the project
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Project Management

► Project management is a methodical and planned approach used to guide all

the tasks and resources required to develop projects.
► The aim is to produce a high quality system that meets its objectives and
requirements.
► In order to achieve this aim requires significant planning, including defining the
systems requirements, setting and controlling the budget, scheduling and
assigning tasks, and specifying the lines of communication between all
stakeholders.
► To implement such project plans requires leadership skills with a particular
emphasis on ongoing two-way communication between all parties, including
the client, users, participants and members of the development team.
Samuel Davis (2007)
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Project Managers

► When developing large systems a specialist project manager or even a

team of project managers will be appointed to perform project
management tasks.
► All projects require project managers; for small projects a single individual
may develop the system and also take on the role of project manager.
► Project managers must motivate the development team, negotiate with
all stakeholders, resolve conflict and at the same time ensure the project
progresses within budget and time constraints.
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Communication
Skills
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Communication Skills

► Project managers must possess excellent communication and planning

skills.
► These skills include:
► active listening
► conflict resolution
► negotiation skills
► interview techniques
► team building
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Active Listening

► Active listening means participating actively in the communication

process by encouraging the speaker to state their point of view.
► The listener supports the speaker by restating and summarising the
speaker’s point of view and by asking open-ended questions which are
designed to elicit further detail from the speaker.
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Active listening techniques

► Mirroring - involves repeating back some of the speaker’s key words. This technique indicates to
the speaker that you are interested and would like to know and understand more.
► Paraphrasing - is when the listener uses their own words to explain what they think the speaker
has just said. In addition the listener reflects feelings as well as meaning within their response.
Paraphrasing helps the speaker understand how their message sounds to others.
► Summarising - responses are commonly used to refocus or direct the speaker to some important
topic or to reach agreement so the conversation can end. A summary of an important point will
cause the speaker to elaborate in more detail on that point.
► Clarifying questions - Often speakers will neglect or gloss over important details. This is natural as
the speaker understands their points and can often assume the listener does also. The listener
asks questions or makes statements that encourage the speaker to provide more detailed
explanations.
► Motivational responses - The purpose is to encourage the speaker and reinforce in their mind
that you are indeed listening and interested in what they have to say. One common technique is
to use simple neutral words such as “I understand”, “Tell me more” or “That’s interesting” often
combined with a nod of the head.
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Conflict Resolution

► Conflict resolution is a method of resolving arguments and disputes by

using the processes of negotiation active listening and mediation.
► It encourages the conflicting parties to find common ground and agree to
compromises rather than maintaining untenable positions.
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Conflict causes

► Allocating limited resources to development tasks.

► Different goals of team members.
► Scheduling of tasks.
► Personal differences.
► Internal conflict within individuals.
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Conflict resolution strategies

► Attack the problem not the person. First try to define the problem and
explore each person’s perception of the problem. Try to understand
people’s point of view without judging them. Active listening techniques
can be of assistance.
► Brainstorming where each person expresses ideas as they come to mind.
No discussion takes place at this time. Often new and innovative solutions
can emerge.
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Conflict resolution strategies

► Mediation involves a third party who is removed from the conflict acting as
a sounding board for the conflicting persons. The conflicting parties
express their thoughts and ideas through the mediator who is then able to
steer the resolution process, ensuring it remains focussed on the problem
and its resolution. Mediators do not hand down the final decision.
► Group problem solving requires a setting where all involved are on an
equal footing and are encouraged to contribute equally. Commonly the
group is arranged in a circle to promote equality. Each person expresses
their point of view in turn whilst other group members listen without
criticism. Often new and creative solutions will emerge. Even decisions that
do not result in a “win” situation for all members are more easily accepted
when all points of view are understood.
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Negotiation skills

► Negotiation skills involve techniques for discussion and bargaining in order

to achieve agreement between parties.
► A major part of negotiation is to understand the point of view of the other
party, yet not completely concede your own position.
► A successful negotiator will generally achieve consensus of both parties
around a middle ground.
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Interview techniques

► Interview techniques include preparation for the interview by having

specific questions ready, deciding on the purpose of the interview
beforehand and communicating this to the interviewee, using active
listening during the interview, taking notes for later reference, maintaining
control of the interview in a non- threatening or non-dominating manner
and, finally, closing the interview at the appropriate time, rather than
allowing it to drag on or lose its focus.
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Interviewing Rules

► Make the interviewee aware of the purpose of the interview.

► Ask open-ended questions so that the interviewee must provide
information.
► Check the responses by restating the interviewee’s viewpoint.
► Try to be aware of the interviewee’s body language. It may by
communicating a different attitude.
► Close the interview by reviewing the main points and thanking the
interviewee.
► Review notes immediately and follow up with the interviewee on any
information that is unclear.
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Interviewer Attributes

Positive interviewer attributes: Negative interviewer attributes:

► Well-prepared questions. ► Lack of preparation.
► Attention and careful listening. ► Not allowing enough time for the interview.
► Personal warmth and an engaging manner. ► Talking too much.
► Losing focus.
► The ability to sell ideas and communicate
enthusiasm. ► Letting the interviewee direct the
conversation.
► Putting the interviewee at ease.
► Biased towards people with similar ideas and
► Politeness and generosity. styles to their own.
► Focus on the topics that need to be covered. ► The tendency to remember most positively
the person last interviewed.
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Team-building

► Team-building means establishing trust between the various members of a

team and establishing an environment where each member feels valued
and contributes fully to the overall project.
► The team leader must ensure that each member is working and
contributing in a positive manner towards the same common goal.
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Teamwork Advantages

► Groups that function as a team are more productive and the systems they develop are of higher
quality.
► When team members co-operate they exchange ideas and formulate solutions together. The
different skills, experiences, attitudes and behaviours of individuals complement each other
rather than causing conflict.
► This joint sharing approach means more is achieved in less time. The team is more productive
when working together than would have been the case if each member worked independently.
► Furthermore such collaboration results in higher quality systems – systems that exceed their
requirements, have fewer bugs, are more tolerant of faults and are easier to maintain.
► There also advantages for the individual team members. There is less conflict within a
collaborative team environment and responsibility for task completion is shared. This positive
atmosphere increases job satisfaction. As job satisfaction increases then so too does productivity
and pride in the quality of one’s work. Increasing job satisfaction leads to higher productivity and
quality, which in turn further improves job satisfaction – a positive cycle of improvement evolves.
(p23. Samuel Davis, 2007)
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Failed Groups

► Groups that fail to function as teams can result in financial loss, employment loss and
missed opportunities.
► Such groups are unable to reliably meet deadlines, produce quality work and operate
within financial constraints. The group becomes a liability that lowers productivity and
profit levels. If a company is unable to perform it cannot compete and hence it will
have difficulty attracting clients, its profits will fall and staff will need to be retrenched.
► Individuals also suffer when team performance is poor.
► Teams operate cooperatively such that each member learns and grows through their
interactions with other team members.
► When real teamwork is not occurring each individual’s skills will stagnate – a particular
issue in the IT field where new technologies are constantly emerging. Furthermore the
poor performance of a team reflects poorly on each of its members. Such issues reduce
opportunities for promotion and advancement.
(p23. Samuel Davis, 2007)
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Team building skills and techniques

► To build strong and productive teams requires an understanding of how

teams form and develop and also the composition of successful teams.
► Tuckman’s (1965) widely accepted stages of team development.
► Tuckman describes four stages of team development, namely forming, storming,
norming and performing.
► Forming. This is when team members are getting to know each other.
► Storming. People are beginning to feel comfortable with each other.
► Norming. Team members now recognise their differences.
► Performing. The team is now operating as an effective productive unit.
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Other team building techniques

► The Belbin model is one popular technique used to build and develop
productive management and work teams.
► The model has been extensively tested and is now used by many of the world’s
major corporations – including McDonalds, Nike, Nokia, Rolls Royce and
Starbuck’s Coffee.
► The main objective is to construct a team containing a balance of
complimentary yet different behavioural and personality types. Research and
experience indicates that such teams out perform those built based on skills
alone.
► Belbin have identified nine different clusters of behaviour that are displayed in
the workplace. These are called the nine Belbin Team Roles.
► Visit https://www.belbin.com for more information.
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Project
Management
Tools
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Project Management Tools

► Project management tools are used to document and communicate:

► what each task is,
► who completes each task,
► when each task is to be completed,
► how much time is available to complete each task, and
► how much money is available to complete each task.
► Some of the commonly used project management tools, include:
► Gantt charts
► scheduling of tasks
► journals and diaries
► funding management plan
► communication management plan
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Gantt Chart

►A Gantt chart is a bar chart with each bar

representing a task or stage in the system
development cycle. The vertical axis of a
Gantt chart lists the tasks, and the
horizontal axis shows the time frame.
►Horizontal
bars of varying lengths show the
sequence, timing and length of each task.
►Schedule the timing of major tasks and
who will do the work. The success of a new
system depends on accurate time
estimates for each task.
►A schedule that doesn’t allow a
reasonable amount of time for each task
can actually result in delays and additional
costs.
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Journals and Diaries

► Diaries are an organisational tool and a memory aid.

► Journals, and sometimes diaries, document work completed by team
members during the project’s development.
► Journals and diaries are tools for recording the day-to-day progress and
detail of completed tasks.
► Diaries are arranged in chronological order with a page or section for
each day’s events. Meetings, appointments, tasks and any other events
are recorded in advance. Both diaries and journals are used to record
details of events that have recently occurred. After or during an event
diaries tend to be used to record factual information, whilst journals
include a more detailed analysis and reflection on recent events.
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Funding Management Plan

► A finance plan aims to ensure the project is developed within budget.

► Funding management plans should specify:
► How funds will be allocated to tasks. Will the funds be released in full before the task
commences, progressively during the task or after the task is complete?
► Mechanisms to ensure money is spent wisely throughout the System Development Life
Cycle (SDLC). The plan should specify the procedures to be followed each time a
product or service is ordered during the system’s development.
► Accountability for each task’s budget. Ultimately the money spent on every detail of
the system’s development contributes to the total development process remaining
within budget.
► The procedure for reallocating funds during development. Funding plans should
include sufficient flexibility so that funds can be redirected should problems occur.
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Communication Management Plan

► Communication management plans specify how communication

between all parties is to take place.
► Strategies documented in the communication management plan provide
a structure that supports and reinforces effective ongoing communication
between all team members throughout the project’s development.
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Communication Management Plan

► A typical communication management plan should specify:

► The communication medium to be used, for example e-mail, newsgroups, facsimile,
meetings, weekly bulletins or even telephone calls.
► The lines of communication. The communication management plan should specify
how each party is able to obtain answers to questions or communicate other details
to and from other project team members and the client. Who is allowed to contact
who?
► Methods for monitoring the progress of the system’s development. This includes
completion of tasks, monitoring costs and also verifying requirements as part of
ongoing testing. E.g. scheduled meetings to monitor milestones.
► Changing or emerging requirements. During the development of most projects new
requirements will emerge or existing requirements will require alteration. The
communication management plan should pre-empt such occurrences so that these
new or changed requirements can be effectively communicated to all parties.
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Social and
Ethical Issues
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Social and Ethical issues

► A number of social and ethical issues could arise when managing the
development of an information system. Some of the factors to consider
include:
► Work environment.
► Design of the system.
► Security of data and information.
► Privacy and copyright.
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Work Environment

► The design of a system impacts on the work environment. The impact can
be positive or negative. When designing a new system, it is important to
consider the health and safety issues and the nature of the work.
► The work environment including health and safety issues such as
ergonomic design of furniture, appropriate lighting and noise levels, varied
work routines, and also procedures for reporting and resolving potential
WHS problems must be addressed.
► The total work environment of the development team has a significant
effect on productivity, commitment and also the moral of individual team
members.
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Design of systems

► The information processes in a system should exploit the strengths and avoid the
weaknesses of people and machines. Machine-centred systems and human-centred
systems provide examples of contrasting designs.
► Machine-centred systems are designed to simplify what the computer must do at the
expense of participants. They assume people will follow confusing procedures and
illogical user manuals. If errors occur in a machine-centred system, they are usually
blamed on the participant (operator error) rather than on the technology.
Machine-centred systems are not always the best systems for participants.
► Human-centred systems are those that make participants’ work as effective and
satisfying as possible. They allow people to do their work without wasting time and effort
struggling with the information technology.
► In the past, information systems were difficult to use. People needed to understand a
programming language to complete the simplest tasks. Today, with developments in
technology such as graphical user interfaces, computers are much more user-friendly.
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Security of data and information

► Often existing system data is required to assist the development of

information systems.
► Team members must respect the confidentiality of such data and not
divulge its content to others. Restricting access to authorised personnel by
using passwords, encryption and assigning different levels of access could
maintain the security of data.
► Other mechanisms must also be used to protect against loss of data, such
as regular offsite backups and physical barriers.
► Development systems should also be protected against virus attack and
hackers.
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Privacy and Copyright

► Copyright issues including who will retain the copyrights for the new system must be
considered. Often parts of existing systems are utilised within new or modified systems.
Permission should be obtained from copyright holders and documented before such
components are used or modified.
► Often team members are required sign a contract that hands over all copyrights to the
development company. Procedures should also be in place for obtaining permission
and documenting the use of copyrighted material during development. This includes
software used to assist development and also software that is incorporated within the
solution.
► Respect for the rights and needs of individual team members must be considered. This
includes respecting a person’s right to privacy such as individuals deciding how much of
their private life they wish to reveal. Also supporting team members as they complete
courses to improve their work skills – many companies assist financially or are flexible
about work hours prior to examinations.
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Questions?