CSE30301

CSE30301
Structural Analysis
Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 1

Environmental Engineering
Weeks 1 ~ 7
Lecturer: Professor Yong XIA
Office: ZN925
Tel No.: 2766-6066
Email: ceyxia@polyu.edu.hk
https://www.polyu.edu.hk/cee/~ceyxia/index.htm
Teaching Assistant: Ms. Yushi Shan
Professor Tao YU will teach Weeks 7-13.

Assessment:
Final examination - 70%
Coursework - 30%
o Laboratory test (25%) − group report (6 members per
group)
o Computer analysis (25%) − group report (6 members)
o Assignments (20%) − five times
o Mid-term test (30%) − Week 7
Pre-requisite Subjects :
Structural Mechanics I, II
Students with weak background in SM please read relevant
materials in Appendices in Blackboard.

The course components include:
 Lecture: 2 hours/week, 13 weeks, Hybrid
 Tutorial: 0.5 hour/week+, 6 times in total, Hybrid
 Lab in Weeks 6-7 will be Computer Analysis:
1. Students in HK: 2 hours, self study — you can do it in CEE Computer
Room any time (ZN903, where SAP2000 has been installed);
2. Students out of HK — you can download educational or free version
of any structural analysis software (SAP2000 or NIDA). If you want to
access PCs at CEE Computer Room remotely (limited quota for
students out of HK only), please contact me in Week 5.
 Laboratory test in Weeks 9-10 are taught by Prof. Yu. Please
refer to his Lecture Notes for the arrangement.
+: TUT005 on Oct. 4 is a public holiday. No make-up. Please attend other

tutorial classes (Oct. 5, 7, 11, 12 and 14).
Online materials in Blackboard
 Lecture notes
 Tutorial questions (solutions will be released in due course)
 Assignment questions (solutions will be released after
marking)
 Computer analysis: descriptions of the question and
SAP2000 tutorial
 Lab experiment: descriptions of the tests
 Appendices:
o Animations of selected topics;
o Useful diagrams;
o Fundamental of structural mechanics for self study
(for those weak in structural mechanics);
o Extra problems and solutions for self study.
Syllabus
• Principle of virtual work

• Flexibility method (force method)
• Stiffness method (displacement method)
• Finite element method
• Influence lines

Reference Textbooks
• Hibbeler, R. C., Structural Analysis, 10th Edition

in SI Units, Pearson Education, Inc., 2018.
• Coates, R. C., Coutie, M. G. and Kong, F. K.,
Structural Analysis, 3rd edition, Chapman and
Hall, London, 1988.
• McCormac, J. C., Structural Analysis: a Classical
and Matrix Approach, Addison Wesley, 1997.
or any others titled “Structural Analysis”

Lecture 1
1. Introduction
2. Definitions and Conventions
3. Basic Conditions in Analysis
4. Supports and Reactions
5. Matrix Algebra

1. Introduction
Stonehenge,
2500-2000 BC
Wiltshire, UK
Physical
structure
Analytical
model
First-generation structures (wood and masonry)
Anji Bridge (or Great Stone

Bridge), China, 610 AD.
Physical
structure
Analytical
model
Second-generation structures (concrete and steel)
Physical structure
Numerical model (finite element model)

Safety under natural or man-made hazards

Tacoma Bridge, 1940
Jiu Jiang Bridge, Guangdong, 14/06/2007

Earthquakes
Others
CityU, overloading (2016)
Hung Hom, deterioration (2010, killed 5)

Functionality under normal service conditions
Humen Bridge (Guangdong, 2020)
Millennium Bridge (London, 2000)

Third-generation structures
INTELLIGENT HIGH PERFORMANCE STRUCTURES
Third-generation structures should be Intelligent, Durable,

Resilient, Green, and Performance-oriented.
 Emerging structural materials (high-strength steel, concrete, FRP)
 Smart sensors and materials
 Information technology (data analytics, AI, etc.)
 Structural health monitoring and control
 Performance-based design and life-cycle management
Department of Civil &

Core Courses in Structural Engineering
Structural Mechanics I
Structural Mechanics II
Structural Structural
Design Analysis

Structural Mechanics
1.To analyse a simple structure (truss, beam, frame

and arch) and determine the internal force (axial
force, BMD, SFD) using the equations of
equilibrium.
2. To deal with simple stress and strain.

Structural Analysis
It deals with analysing a particular structural

system under particular loads.
The objective is to find forces and displacements
of the structure.
A structural system may vary from simple
systems (like beams, columns, etc.) to more
complex systems (like buildings, bridges,
airplanes, etc.).

Continuous
beam
Plane truss
Space truss
Plane frame
In particular, 2D beams, trusses

and frames will be studied in Space frame
this subject.
2. Definitions and Conventions
Sign convention of internal forces adopted in SM
An axial force is defined as positive if it is a tensile force;
A shear force is positive if it renders the infinitesimal
rotate clockwise;
A moment is positive when it produces tension in the
fibres at the bottom of the infinitesimal.
N N
Deformations (highly
exaggerated) of a beam
element caused by (a)
shear forces, and (b)
bending moments
Note: In structural engineering including SA,

bending moments are always plotted in
the tension side of the infinitesimal.
3. Basic Conditions in Analysis
In structural mechanics and analysis, all the

analyses are based on the following three
conditions:
1) Equilibrium: Whole structural element or any
part of it must be in equilibrium, that is, the forces,
both external and internal, acting on any part of the
element must balance each other.

Equilibrium Equations
A structure is in equilibrium when the resultant of the
forces acting on it is zero. For a 2D structure it has
Fx=0, Fy=0, Mz=0
Free body
Joint, member, substructure, entire structure
Equilibrium equations can be applied to any free body,
depending on what forces to be calculated.

2) Compatibility:
This is a condition of displacement or deformation
constrain. Displacement boundary conditions are
typical compatibility conditions.
3) Constitutive Relation:
This is the stress-strain relation of the material.
Hooke’s law is an example of the constitutive
relation for one-dimensional deformation.

4. Support and Reactions
Action and reaction are equal and opposite: The force
that object 1 exerts on object 2 must be of the same
magnitude but in the opposite direction as the force
that object 2 exerts on object 1.
Reactions are closely associated with the type of

support constraints. If there is a restraint on the
movement in one direction, a reaction is generated in
the direction.

Supports and Reactions
M
N
Fixed support
Not movable, not rotatable
A fixed support provides two components of reaction force

and a fixing moment.
N V
Other forms
Hinge/Pin Support
Not movable, but rotatable
A pin support provides two components of reaction forces
but no moment.
Other form
Roller/movable hinge
Movable at one direction, and rotatable
A roller support provides one component of reaction force.

Sketch the being moment and deflection curve for the
prismatic beams

5. Matrix Algebra
Definition
Vector
 Px 
 
P   Py  P  Px Py Pz 
P 
 z
Matrix
 a11 a12  1st row
a
a21 a22  2nd row
1st 2nd
column column
Matrix multiplication
a11 x1  a12 x2  c1 

a21 x1  a22 x2  c2 
 a11 a12   x1   c1 
a    
 21 a22   x2  c2 
 a11 a12   x1   c1 
Let a x  c 
a21 a22   x2  c2 
ax  c
Matrix Inversion ax  c
1
xa c
 a11 a12 
a
a21 a22 
Adjugate matrix
1 1  a22  a12 
a   a
a11a22  a21a12  21 a11 
|a|: Determinant Cofactor
You can also use Gaussian Elimination to solve the equations.

Lecture 2
Statically determinate structures

– A brief review
Department of Civil & Y. Xia Page 1

Statically determinate structures
If all internal forces, stresses and support reactions of a structure
can be determined by using the equilibrium equations alone, the
structure is called statically determinate.
P
Ra  Rb  P  0
Rb
Ra Ra  L  P  a  0
Stable and statically determinate
P
How about this:
Ra Rc Rb
1. Beams
Bending moments are always plotted in the tension side of

the member in structural engineering.
Following simple examples should be

mastered.
GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR CONSTRUCTING SHEAR
AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS
based on two differential equations that exist among distributed
load q, shear force V and bending moment M:
dV ( x) dM ( x)
 q ( x)  V ( x)
dx dx
Slope of shear = distributed load Slope of = shear at the
at each point intensity at the moment at point
point each point
V   q ( x)dx M   V ( x )dx
Change in = area under Change in = area under

shear distributed load moment shear diagram
Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Page 4

Simply supported beam
P/2
ql/2 ql/2
P/2
P/2
–P/2
Shear Force Diagram (SFD)
PL/4 qL2 8
Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)

Cantilever beam
P
=P =ql
P
(b) SFD
0.5qL2
PL
(c) (c)
BMD
Characteristics of SFD and BMD
Uniformly Distributed Load
UDL q Concentrated load Concentrated

No external moment M
load P
C C
Abrupt change at C
Shear force Constant Varies linearly P No change at C
nd Sharp change at C Abrupt change

2 order
Bending Varies at C
moment linearly
A B M
Location of
possible No local At sections with At sections when At one side of
maximum maximum shear force = 0 shear force section C
bending value changes sign
moment

q=100 kN/m
Example 1:
B
A Beam A
C D
RA RB
0.2 m 1.6 m 0.2 m
A simple beam as shown is subjected to a UDL q, draw shear

force and bending moment diagrams
1. Compute reactions
RA= RB =1.6100/2 = 80 kN
80kN
A C
-80kN
D B
SFD
A C D B
16 kNm 1001.62/8=32
16 kNm
48 kNm
BMD
2. For BMD, segments AC and DB are linear as shear is constant.
MC=MD= 80  0.2 = 16 kN·m
3. Segment CD is a 2nd order parabola

The maximum occurs at V=0, or x=L/2=1.0 m
Mmax=16+1001.61.6/8 = 48 kN·m
q=100 kN/m
C D B
A
1.6 m
0.2 m 0.2 m
80kN
SFD
-80kN
16 kNm 1001.62/8=32
16 kNm
BMD
48 kNm
2. Planar Trusses
i. Compute reaction forces by application of equilibrium to
the entire structure;
ii. Obtain internal forces by section method/joint method.
Example 2: Find the force in members 1, 2 and 3 of the truss.
R1
R2 R3

a) Compute reactions
Determine the reactions by equilibrium to all
external forces including the reactions:
Fx=0, gives R1 = 2P;

Mz=0 along point A:
2P c + 4P c + 6P 4c  R3  6c=0
gives R3 = 5P;
Fy=0, gives R2 = 5P.

b) Free body equilibrium
Cutting section n-n gives
N1, N2 and N3 in the cut
members (shown in positive
directions)
Include external forces,
reactions, and unknown
forces on the free body.
Mz=0: 5P 2c + 2P c  4Pc  N3 c=0; → N3 = 8P
Fy=0: 5P  4P  N2cos(θ)=0; → N2 = 1.4P
Fx=0: 2P  2P + N3 + N1 + N2sin(θ)=0; → N1 = 9P

3. Portal Frames
Plot the BMD of the frame that subjected to the load
shown in the diagrams (a) and (b), respectively.
10m
10 kN 2
B EI C
10 m 1 3 10m
EI EI
1 kN
A D
(a) (b)
Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia

i. Compute reaction forces by application of equilibrium to the entire structure;
ii. Obtain internal forces one member by one member;
iii. Pay attention to the equilibrium at joints.
10m
100kNm x2
10 kN 2
B EI C
100kNm
10 m 1 3
EI EI x1 x3
A D
10 kN
(a) 10kN 10kN

10
10 Equilibrium at joint
10kNm
10kNm
10m
1 kN 1 kN 1 kN
(b)
Lecture 3
Virtual Work Method

Objective: To learn how to determine the deflection
(or rotation) of a structure.
Why? To make sure the structure not deflect/rotate

severely.
How? Double-integration methods;

Virtual Work Method

OUTLINE
1. Virtual Work Method

2. Calculation of Displacement
3. Maxwell’s Law
4. Summary

Virtual Work Method
• The method was developed by John
Bernoulli in 1717.
• It provides a general means of obtaining
the displacement and slope at a specific
point on a structure that is under loading.
Energy Method
Conservation of Energy Principle

1. Virtual Work Method
The principle of work and energy is:
Work of Work of
External Loads Internal Loads
 P  udL
Suppose we need to determine the displacement  of point
A caused by real loads P1, P2 and P3
Imaginary and does not actually

exist as part of the real loads
1. Apply the real loading P1, P2, 2. Apply a “virtual” unit load
…Pn. This causes P=1, acts in the same
displacement and internal direction as . This cause
deformation dL. internal loading u.
Virtual Work Equation
Virtual loadings
P'  =  udL
Real
displacements
P = 1 = external virtual unit load acting in the direction of 

(therefore, the method is also called as unit-load theorem)
u = internal virtual load acting on the element in the direction
of dL
∆ = external displacement caused by the real loads
dL= internal deformation of the element caused by the real
loads
1) Trusses
u = internal virtual load Nu;
dL= internal deformation due to real loads = NL/EA

N ui N i Li
P'  = udL   = i E A
i i
Procedures of analysis
• Apply a virtual load P = 1 on the structure acting at the point, in
the direction of the required deflection;
• Calculate the internal load, i.e., axial forces Nui in each member
due to the virtual load;
• Calculate the internal load, i.e.. axial forces Ni in each member
due to the real load; N ui N i Li
• Apply the equation of virtual work:  = i E A
i i
• If the result is positive, the displacement is in the same direction
as the unit load. Otherwise,  is opposite to the unit load.
Example 1
• The cross-sectional area of each member shown:

A = 400 mm2, E = 200 GPa
• Determine the vertical displacement of joint C
3 3
Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Page

Y. Xia
9
• Applying a unit virtual force (downward)
– The support reactions at A & B are calculated;
– Force Nu in each member is calculated using the method of
joint.
Nu
Nu

Y. Xia
10
• Applying the real forces
– The support reactions at A & B are calculated;
– Force N in each member is calculated using the method of
joint.

• Virtual-work equation
Virtual Real
forces forces
Nu Nu
0.667 2 8 10.67
−0.833 2.5 5 −10.41
−0.833 −2.5 5 10.41
10.67
N ui N i Li 10.67
= = −6
= 0.000133m = 0.133mm
i Ei Ai 200 10  400 10
6
Question: How to determine the horizontal displacement of C?
1 kN
kn
Real forces N Virtual force Nu
Nu Nu
0.5 2 8 8
0.625 2.5 5 7.8125
−0.625 −2.5 5 7.8125
23.625
N ui N i Li 23.625
= = −6
= 0.000295m = 0.295mm
i Ei Ai 200 10  400 10
6
Example 2
A plane truss is subjected to two concentrated forces at D and
F. Determine the vertical displacement of Point E. The cross-
sectional area of the upper chords CE and EG is A1 =120 cm2，
…
Young’s modulus E1 = 103 kN/cm2; for lower chords, A2 =

100 cm2, E2 = 2.1×104 kN/cm2; for web members, A3 = 64
cm2, E3= 2.1×104 kN/cm2.
0 0
Solution
Apply a unit ↑
downward virtual
force at Point E. The
axial forces of the
truss due to the unit
virtual force and
actual forces are
plotted in the figure.
Due to the symmetry,
only half are plotted.

A N u Nl
Member N (kN) l (cm) E(kN/cm2) Nu (cm)
(cm2) EA
AD, FB 15 600 100 2.1×104 0.38 0.0016

AC, GB -25 500 64 2.1×104 -0.63 0.0058
CD, GF 25 500 64 2.1×104 0.63 0.0058
CE, EG -30 600 120 103 -0.75 0.1125
DE, EF 0 500 64 2.1×104 -0.63 0.0000
DF 30 600 100 2.1×104 1.13 0.0096
 0.261
The displacement of E is 0.261 cm (downward).

2) Beams and Frames
For beams and frames, axial and shear deformation are usually
small and thus neglected.
u = internal virtual load: moment Mu;
dL= internal deformation due to real loads M: rotation angle dθ
M
d = dx
EI
P'  =  udL
L
MuM
= dx
0
EI
2) Beams and Frames
Procedures of analysis – bending effect (flexural deformation) only:

• Apply virtual load P=1 on the structure acting at the point, in the
direction of required deflection
• Calculate the internal load, i.e., moment Mu due to the virtual
load, expressed as a function of x
• Calculate the internal load, i.e. moment M due to the real load
• Apply the equation of virtual work:  = L M u M dx
0
EI
• If the result is positive, the displacement  is in the same

direction as the unit load. Otherwise,  is opposite to the unit
load.

NOTE:
1) For a frame consisting of multiple beams,
L
M ui M i
 =  dx
i 0 Ei I i
2) Sometimes using diagram multiplication (next page) is

more convenient.

Diagram multiplication:  MM u dx
Example 3: Find the displacement at point B of the cantilever
beam AB under a UDL q.
M = −0.5q (l − x) 2 M u = −(l − x)
M Mu
Solution: Apply a unit downward point virtual load at B. The

bending moment diagrams of the beam under the actual load and
virtual load are:
M = −0.5q (l − x) ; M u = −(l − x)
2
l
Then the displacement at B is
l l
MuM 1  1 2 q q − (l − x) 4 ql 4
  − 2 q(l − x) − (l − x)dx = 2 EI (l − x) dx = 2 EI 

3 l
D= dx = 0 =
EI EI   4 8EI
0 0
Or using the diagram  MM u dx (please note the direction of the shapes)
5q
亿
0 .
M
上 0 .
5 qEll
4
4
ql
⼆⻢
E江
Mu
l
1 1 ql 4
D= abl =  ( 0.5ql ) ( l ) l =
2
4 EI 4 EI 8 EI
Example 4
For a simply-supported beam AB under a uniformly

distributed load q, as shown below, find the vertical
displacement at the middle point C.
q
A B
C
C

Solution: Apply a unit downward point virtual load at C. The
bending moment diagrams of the beam under the actual load and
virtual load are:
ql2/8
l l/4
M Mu
Then the displacement at C is

1 abl
C =  (1 +  )
EI 3
4
1 1 2 l  1 1  5ql
=  ql   l  1 +   =
3EI 8 4  2 2  384 EI
Displacement of prismatic beams
Disp at mid-span, rotation at right support
5ql 4 ql 3
f1 = , f5 =
384 EI 24 EI
Pl 3 Pl 2
f1 = , f5 =
48EI 16EI
Ml 2 Ml
f4 = , f1 =
16EI 3EI

ql 4
f1 =
8 EI Disp at the free end
ql 3
f2 =
6 EI Rotation at the free end
17ql 4
f3 =
384 EI
Disp at the mid-span
Pl 3
f1 =
3EI Disp at the free end
Pl 2
f2 =
2 EI
Rotation at the free end
5 Pl 3 Disp at the mid-span
f3 =
48EI
Ml 2
f1 = Disp at the free end
2 EI
Ml
f2 = Rotation at the free end
EI
f3 =
Ml 2 Disp at the mid-span
8 EI

2. Calculation of Displacement
The displacement required can be the generalised displacement
(deflection or rotation), and the virtual force applied can be the
corresponding generalised force (point load or moment).
1. For calculation of the

translational displacement,
the virtual load is a
1
concentrated unit force A
acting at the point, in the
direction required;

1
2. For calculation of rotation of one B
point, the virtual load is a unit
couple moment acting at the
point, in the direction required;
3. If the relative translation of two 1

points is to be found, two unit
B
loads are applied in opposite
directions at the given points 1
along the line joining them; A

1
4. If the relative rotation is required,
two unit couples are applied in B
opposite directions at the two
1
points. A

Examples
For a cantilever beam AB under uniform distributed
load q, as shown below, find the rotation at point B.
A F=1
ql2/2
M Mu
3
1 1 1 ql
D=  abl =  0.5ql 2 1 l =
EI 3 3EI 6 EI
Frame
10m
10 kN 2
C
B EI
10 m 1
EI
Find: Horizontal displacement at C:  CH

Solution: Apply a unit horizontal virtual load at C. The bending
moment diagrams of the frame under the actual load and virtual
load are:
10 m
100kNm x2 1
0
10 m
100kNm
1
10kN
x1
1
10 kN
1
10kN
M Mu

10 M 1 M u1 10 M M
  CH =  dx1 +  2 u2
dx2
0 EI 0 EI
=
10 (10 x1 )(x1 ) dx +
10 (10 x2 )(x2 ) dx
1 2
0 EI 0 EI
10 10 x12 10 10 x
2
= dx1 +  2
dx2
0 EI 0 EI
3 10 3 10
10  x  10  x 
= + 1 2
EI  3  0 EI  3  0
 
10 1000 6667
=  2 =
EI 3 EI

Generally, to calculate the displacement at j, apply a unit virtual
force at point j along the direction required (Fj =1, others = 0):
Axial deformation bending deformation shear deformation
Nu N M M VV
 =  dx +   u dx +   u dx
EA EI GAr
t
+  t0  N u dx +   M dx
u
h
temperature change
N, M, V = axial force, bending moment and shear force due to

external forces;
Subscript ‘u’ = the internal forces due to the unit virtual force;
α = linear thermal expansion coefficient;
t0 = average temperature change of the section;
Δt = temperature change difference (or temperature gradient) of
the section (temperature at bottom – top)
Examples
Determine the vertical displacement of joint C of the truss. Due

to radiant heating from the wall, member AD is subjected to an
increase in temperature of ΔT = +60°C. Take α = 1.08×10-5/°C
and E = 200 GPa. The cross-sectional area of each member is
indicated in the figure.
Solution
Step 1: Virtual Force – apply a vertical 1 kN force at joint C and
calculate the virtual axial forces Nu of the truss by the method
of joint.
Step 2: Real Forces – calculate the axial forces N of the truss due to
the real forces
Nu
Step 3: Virtual Work Equation – Both loads and temperature
affect the deformation
N u NL
= +  N uTL
AE
0.75(600)(1.8) 1(400)(2.4)
= −6 6
+ −6 6
+
1200(10 )[200(10 )] 1200(10 )[200(10 )]
(−1.25)(−500)(3) −5
−6 6
+ (1)[1.08(10 )](60)(2.4)
900(10 )[200(10 )]
 = 0.00193m = 1.93mm
The positive sign means that the displacement is

downward, as assumed.
3. MAXWELL’S LAW OF RECIPROCAL
DISPLACEMENTS
P P


P  = P
If P=P =

Graphically
P P
A B A B
 BA  AB
The displacement at B due to a load at A =

the displacement at A due to the same load at B.

If P =1,
1 1
i j i j
f ii f ji f ij f jj
f ij = f ji
fij = Displacement at i due to a unit load at j
f = Flexibility coefficient

Summary
Virtual Actual
Virtual force × Real displacement =

Virtual internal force × Real internal displacement
Force-disp relation
is required
Analyse the structure Analyse the structure
under virtual force under real force
Summary
Step 1: Apply an appropriate unit virtual load to the
structure and calculate the corresponding
internal forces Nu, Vu and Mu. For truss
members, only axial force is required; for beam
members, only moment is required.
Step 2: Calculate the internal forces (N, V and M) due
to the external forces.
Step 3: Calculate the integral for each member.
Step 4: Sum up all members and obtain the
displacement required.

Y. Xia
42
Lecture 4
Statically Indeterminate Structures

10kN 10kN
(a) Unstable (b) Stable and statically

determinate
10kN
(c) Stable and statically

indeterminate
Stable and Statically Indeterminate

1. Statically indeterminate structures:
an example
A two-span continuous beam carries a uniformly distributed

load of q per unit length. The beam has a constant flexural
rigidity EI. Find the reactions.
q
Equilibrium equations
R1
Fx=0: R1=0
L L Fy=0: R2+R3+R4=2qL
R2 R4
R3 Mz=0: R2L−R4L=0

The four support reactions R1, R2, R3 and R4 cannot be
determined by three equations of equilibrium only.
For statically indeterminate structures, the compatibility

conditions and constitutive relations have to be used to solve
the reactions and then internal forces.
Compatibility conditions: Displacements (including

deflection and rotation) are compatible with the support
conditions.
Constitutive conditions: Relations between force and
displacement.

q q
R3
L L 2L
R3
P + 3 = 0
q
3
P R3
2L 2L
The original continuous beam is equivalent to a simply supported

beam subject to q and R3, under the condition that the combined
displacement at the mid support is zero.
It is convenient to treat the interior support as the
redundant support, and accordingly the reaction R3
is called the redundant reaction (or redundant
force).
1. Release the interior support and consider the

reaction force R3 as an external force.
2. Calculate the displacement caused by the

applied load q and reaction force R3.

By removing the interior support, the beam becomes statically
determinate as shown below. Its mid-span deflection, ∆P,
under the action of the external load is
5q(2 L)4 5qL4

p = =
384 EI 24 EI
P
2L

The existence of the interior support prevents any deflection
at that point. The magnitude of this force must be of such
a value that the upward deflection ∆3 at the mid-span due
to R3 totally eliminates the downward ∆P.
3
R3 (2 L) 3 R3 L3
R3 3 = =
48EI 6EI
2L

3. Therefore the condition of geometrical compatibility is
ΔP − Δ3 = 0
5qL4 R 3 L3
− =0
24 EI 6 EI
the redundant reaction R3 can then be obtained as
5qL
R3 =
4
4. Apply the equilibrium equation to obtain other

reactions: 3qL
R2 = R4 =
8
q
5. The final BMD of the

1
statically indeterminate beam q( 2 L ) 2
2L 8
can then be obtained by
summing up the two BMDs
of the statically determinate 1 5qL
( 2 L) 
beam due to the external load 4 4
q and redundant support
reaction R3: 5qL
R3 =
4
M = M 0 + M R3 2L
1 2
qL
8
M
Summary of the steps for statistically
indeterminate structures
(flexibility method, or force method, or method of
consistent deformation )
1. Select some redundant supports and release them,
and consider the reaction forces corresponding to
the released supports as external forces (redundant
forces). The released structure (or primary
structure) must be statically determinate.

2. Calculate the deformation of the released structure
subjected to the applied loads and redundant
forces (The virtual work method can be used);
3. Use the compatibility conditions according to the
original structure configuration to solve the
redundant forces.
4. Finally use the equilibrium equations to solve the
remaining unknown forces.

Formalized approaches
In general, there are two types of methods:
❑ Flexibility method (force method)

− use force as unknowns; study in the first half of S1
❑ Stiffness method (displacement method)
− use displacement as unknowns; more popular, adopted
by all structural analysis software; will study in the second
half of S1

2. Degree of indeterminacy
Degree of indeterminacy (DI) is the number of

releases to render the structure determinate.
Degree of indeterminacy = the number of unknowns
− the number of equations of equilibrium
For statically determinate structures,

the number of equations of equilibrium =
the number of unknowns (internal forces &
reactions), therefore DI = 0.
Simple structures
Beam Truss Frame
DI = 1 1 3

More complicated structures

1. Plane truss
Adding two members and one
pinned joints does not change
the degree of indeterminacy.
This is because each member of
plane truss has one unknown
force, while at each pinned joint
two equations of equilibrium
can be written.
For a plane truss with m members,
j pinned joints (including
supports) and r reactions, the
statically determinate degree of indeterminacy is
DI = m + r − 2j
m=9, r=3, j=6, DI=0
m=21, r=4, j=10;
DI=21+4−102 = 5
「
m=31, r=4, j=14;

DI=31+4−142 = 7

2. Plane frame with rigid joints
177 :
4
Each member of plane frame has 0
three unknown internal forces 0
(axial, shear and moment), while

at a rigid joint three equations of
equilibrium can be written:
m=3, r=6, j=4, DI=3
Fx=0, Fy=0, Mz=0
For a rigid-jointed plane frame with
m members, j rigid joints
(including supports) and r
reactions, the degree of
indeterminacy is
DI = 3m + r − 3j m=7, r=4, j=6, DI=7

Lecture 5
Analysis of indeterminate frames and
trusses

1. Frames
The analysis procedures of frames are exactly the same
wiiz.it
as those of beams. 2 1
4 -
= 1
Example 1: Find the reactions n
-
12
and moments, shear forces

and axial forces. The flexural
rigidity of the column is EIc,
while that of the beam is 2EIc.

1. Choose the horizontal reaction at B as the
redundant force, X1. The released structure is

Then the original structure is equivalent to the released structure
under the real load and redundant force, X1, under the condition
that the combined displacement along the direction of the
redundant force is zero (same as the original structure). That is,
The compatibility condition
∆1 = D1 + DX1 = 0
D1 DX1
2. Calculate the horizontal displacement at B (of the
released structure) due to the external force.
Moments due to the external force, M0 and moments due
to a unit virtual force along X1, Mu1 are
1 1
M0 abeam is 2 EIc
Mu1
M u1 M 0 1 2 2560
D1 =   dl = − (  8 160)  6 = −
EI 2 EI c 3 EI c
In calculating displacement of frames, axial forces
and shear forces are generally neglected.
Axial forces are significant for columns in high-rise

buildings, while shear forces have a significant effect for
deep beams. Please refer to one example in Appendix.

3. Calculate the displacement due to the redundant force X1.
Moments due to X1, MX1 and moments due to a unit virtual
force along X1, Mu1 are (note that MX1 =X1×Mu1. For this
reason, we do not plot MX1 but use DX1 = f11X1 directly)
6X1 6X1
X1
1 1
MX1 Mu1
M X 1 M u1 X 1 M u1 M u1 M u1 M u1
DX 1 =   dl =   dl = X 1  
、
dl = X 1 f11
EI EI EI
2 1 1 288
f11 = (  6  6  6) + (6  8)  6 =
EI c 3 2 EI c EI c
4. Apply the compatibility condition
∆1 = D1 + DX1 = D1 + f11X1 = 0
i.e.,
2560 288
− + X1 = 0
EI c EI c
Therefore,
80
X 1 = = 8.9 kN
9

5. The final reactions and internal forces are the results of the
superposition of the effects of the external load on the
released structure and the effect of the redundant force.
a) Moments
M = M 0 + M X 1 = M 0 + M u1 X 1
53.3
M0 Mu1 X1 M
Shear and axial forces can be calculated from equilibrium
equations.
80 kN 80 kN 80 kN
8.9 kN 8.9 kN 8.9 kN 8.9 kN
80 kN
b) Shear forces c) Axial forces

2. Trusses
In trusses, only axial forces are considered.
Example 2: Find the force in member AC of the truss as

shown. EA is the same for all the members.
1. Choose the axial force of member AC as
the redundant force, X1. The released
structure (or primary structure) is
Then the original structure is equivalent to the released structure

under the real load and redundant force, X1, under the condition
that the combined displacement along the direction of the
redundant force is zero.
X1
D1 X1
DX1=X1 f11
X1
2. Calculate the relative displacement of member
AC due to the external force.
Axial forces due to the external force, N0 and axial forces
due to a pair of unit virtual force along X1, Nu1 are
(positive for tension)
N0 Nu1
N u1 N 0 N u1 N 0l 16.8
D1 =   dl =  =−
EA EA EA
3. Calculate the displacement due to the redundant
force (including all members - the redundant one!).
N X 1 N u1 X 1 N u1 N u1 N u1 N u1
DX 1 =   dl =   dl = X 1   dl = X 1 f11
EI EI EI
N u1 N u1 N u1 N u1l 10.37
f11 =   dl =  =
EA EA EA
NOTE: Again as NX1 =X1×Nu1, we do not plot NX1 but

use DX1 = X1f11 directly.

∆1 = D1 + f11X1 = 0
10.37 16.8
X1 − =0 X1 = 1.62 kN
EA EA
5. The internal forces in other members can be
obtained by equilibrium using the method of
joints or superposition:
N = N 0 + N u1 X 1
ㄨ 1 62
1.5-a6
.
0.70
‒0.97
0.53
1
-
0.70
N0 Nu1 X1 N
Another example
Example 3: The truss consists of 10 members made
of the same material, find the internal forces of
the truss under the force as shown. The cross-
sectional area of all members are the same.

1. Choose the axial force of member 10 as the

2. Calculate the relative displacement of member 10
due to the external force.
Axial forces due to the external force, N0 and axial
forces due to a pair of unit redundant force, N u1
are (positive for tension)
N0 Nu1

N u1 N 0 N u1 N 0l 55l
D1 =   dl =  =−
EA EA EA
3. Calculate the displacement due to the unit redundant

force (including all members - the redundant one!).
N u1 N u1 N N l 4.83l
f11 =   dl =  u1 u1 =
EA EA EA

∆1 = D1 + f11X1 = 0
4.83l 55l
EA
X1 −
EA
=0 X1 = 11.4 kN

5. The final reactions and internal forces are the
results of the superposition of the effects of the
external load on the released structure and the
effect of the redundant force.

3. Composite structures
(optional – self study)
• Composite structures are composed of some

members subjected only to axial force while other
members are subjected to bending.
• In calculating displacement of composite
structures, only bending is usually considered for
beam members, while only axial forces are
considered for truss members.
Example 4: The beam shown below is supported by a
pin at A & two pin-connected bars at B.
Determine the force in member BD. Take E =
200GPa & I = 300(106)mm4 for the beam, and A
= 1800mm2 for each bar.

1. Force in member BD is chosen as the redundant
X1
D1 X1f11
X1
2. Compatibility condition
– With reference to the relative disp of the cut
ends of member BD, we require
0 = D1 + X1 f11
– The method of virtual work will be used to
compute D1 and f11

3. Calculate the relative displacement of member BD
of the released structure due to the external force.
N0 Nu
M0 Mu

L M 0M u N0 Nu L
D1 =  dx + 
0 EI AE
3 (30 x − 3.333 x )(0) dx (−69.3)(−0.816)(1.8 / cos 30o )
3
= +
0 EI AE
(0)(1)(1.8 / cos 45o )
+
AE
= 0.326mm

force.

L MuMu Nu Nu L
f11 =  dx + 
0 EI AE
2
3 (0 ) dx (−0.816) 2 (1.8 / cos 30 o ) (1) 2 (1.8 / cos 45o )
= + +
0 EI AE AE
= 1.092(10 −5 )m / kN

∆1 = D1 + f11X1 = 0
0 = 0.0003264 + X 1 (1.092)(10 −5 )
X 1 = −29.9kN (C )

Another example
Example 5: Find the internal forces. The flexural
rigidity of AB is EI=10000 kNm2 , For
other members EA = 10000 kN .

1. Choose the axial force of member CD as the
2. Calculate the relative displacement of member
CD due to the external force.
Axial forces due to the external force, N0 ,
axial forces due to a unit redundant force, Nu1 and
moment due to a unit redundant force, Mu1 are
-8.3 -8.3
6.7
N0 Nu1 Mu1

N u1 N 0l 1
D1 =  = (0.67  6.7  8 + 0.83  8.3  5  2)
EA 10000
= 0.0105

force (including moment and axial force)
M u1M u1 N u1 N u1l
f11 =   dl + 
EI EA
1 4 2 2 1
= (   2)  2 + (0.83  0.83  5)  2
10000 2 3 10000
1 1
+  1 1 3 +  0.67  0.67  8
10000 10000
= 2.31 10 −3
∆1 = D1 + f11X1 = 0
0.00231X1 + 0.0105 = 0
X1 = −4.55 kN

5. The final reactions and internal forces are the
results of the superposition of the effects of the
external load on the released structure and the
effect of the redundant force.
-4.55 kN
-4.55 kN
-4.55 kN
3.63 kN
9.1 kNm

Lecture 6
Flexibility matrix
Statically indeterminate structures with

multiple unknowns (redundant forces)

Example: A beam ABC fixed at C, resting on roller supports at
A and B, and carrying a uniformly distributed load of q per
unit length. The beam has a constant flexural rigidity EI.
Find the reactions of the beam.
0 1
1 3
Degree of indeterminacy is two: two unknown reactions are

chosen as redundant forces.

1. Choose the two unknown reactions as redundant forces, X1
and X2: vertical reaction at B and moment at C, such that
the released structure is a simply-supported beam.
Let 1 and 2 are general

coordinates and X1 and
X2 X2 are general forces.
∆1 and ∆2 are displacements
along the general
coordinates, due to the
X1 external forces and
redundant forces. They
are positive if in the same
The compatibility condition is direction of the forces.
∆1 = 0 DI=2, implies that we need
∆2 = 0 two more eqns. besides
the equilibrium eqns.
Then the original
X2 structure is equivalent to
the released structure
X1 under the real load and
redundant forces, X1 and
X2, under the condition
that the combined
displacements along the
direction of the general
coordinates (or
X1 redundant forces) are
zero.
X2
X2
∆1 = D1 + f11X1 + f12X2 = 0
↓
X1 ∆2 = D2 + f21X1 + f22X2 = 0
X1
×X1
X2 U
×X2
2. Calculate the displacements of the released
structure due to the external force.
D1 is the displacement along general coordinate 1, under the
external forces; D2 is the rotation along general coordinate 2,
under the external forces.
Both are negative in the case.
How to calculate D1 and D2?

M u1 M 0
D1 =  dx
EI
M0
1 1 1 2 L  1  
1 2 =−   qL   1 +   L 
qL EI  3 8 4  4 
8
5q ( 2l )
4
5qL4 5ql 4
=− =− =−
L4 384 EI 384 EI 24 EI
Mu1
X1=1 M u2M 0
D2 =  dx
EI
1 1 1 1 2 
=−  qL  1  L
EI  3 8 
Mu2 q(2l )
3
qL3 ql 3
=− =− =−
X2=1 24 EI 24 EI 3EI
3. Calculate the displacements due to the unit
redundant forces.
f11 is the displacement along general coordinate 1, under a
unit redundant force X1; f21 is the rotation along general
coordinate 2, under a unit redundant force X1. Both are
positive in the case.
How to calculate f11 and f21?

L4
M u1 M u 1
f11 =  dx
Mu1 EI
1 1 L L 
=    L
X1=1 EI  3 4 4 
=
L3
=
(2l )
=
l3
3
L4 48 EI 48 EI 6 EI
Mu1
M u 2 M u1
X1=1 f 21 =  dx
EI
1 1 L  1 
=    1  L  1 + 
1 EI  6 4  2 
Mu2 =
L2
=
(2l )
=
2
l2
16 EI 16 EI 4 EI
X2=1

Similarly, f12 is the displacement along general coordinate 1,
under a unit redundant force X2; f22 is the rotation along
general coordinate 2, under a unit redundant force X2.
Both are positive in the case.
Mu2
X2=1
L4
M u 2 M u1 l2
f12 =  dx = f 21 = Mu1
EI 4 EI
X1=1
M u2M u2 1 1  L 2l
f 22 =  dx =  1  1  L = =
EI EI  3  3EI 3EI
The final displacement are the results of the
superposition of the effects of the external loading
and the redundants on the released structure:
∆1 = D1 + f11X1 + f12X2 = 0
∆2 = D2 + f21X1 + f22X2 = 0
Or in the matrix form:
 1   D1   f11 f12   X 1  0

  =  +    = 
 2   D2   f 21 f 22   X 2  0

Let
 f11 f12   X1   D1 
f =  X  =   D =  
 f 21 f 22  X2   D2 
Then one has D+  f X  = 0

where [f] is called flexibility matrix and its elements
are flexibility influence coefficients. In particular,
fij represents the displacement at coordinate i due
to a unit redundant at coordinate j. It is noted that
[f] depends on the choice of redundant forces.

Then the redundant forces can be obtained by
solving the above equation
X = − f −1D
 l3 l2 
 6 EI  8 − 3l 
4 EI  ql 3 − 5l 
 f  =    f −1 =
12 EI   D =  
l 2
2l 
 7l 3   24 EI −8
 − 3l 2l 
2
 4 EI 3EI 
ql 16  8 ql 2
X  =   X 1 = ql X2 =
14  l  7 14
The final reactions and internal forces are the results
of the superposition of the effects of the external
loadings on the released structure and the effect of
the redundant forces.

M = M 0 + M u1 X 1 + M u 2 X 2
1 1
M0 M B = q(2l ) = ql 2
2
8 2
2l/4
2l
MB =  X1
Mu1 X1 4
l 8 4
=  ql = ql 2
2 7 7
1/2 1
MB =  X2
Mu2 X2 2
1 1 1 2
=  ql 2 = ql
2 14 28
3ql 2
28 ql 2 1 2 4 2 1 2 3 2
M B = − ql + ql + ql = ql
14 2 7 28 28
General cases
If the number of releases is n, The simultaneous
equations of compatibility are
∆1 = D1 + f11X1 + f12X2 ++ f1iXi + + f1nXn = 0
∆2 = D2 + f21X1 + f22X2 ++ f2iXi + + f2nXn = 0

∆i = Di + fi1X1 + fi2X2 ++ fiiXi + + finXn = 0

∆n = Dn + fn1X1 + fn2X2 ++ fniXi + + fnnXn = 0

Or in the matrix form, the order of the vectors and matrix
{X}, [f] and {D} is n1, nn, n1 :
Dn1 +  f nn X n1 = 0
 f11 f12  f1n 
f f 22  f 2n 
 f  =  21 
     
 
 f n1 f n2  f nn 
1. [f] is symmetric, i.e, fij = fji, which is the Maxwell’s
law of reciprocal displacements.
2. All the diagonal elements are positive. Others can be
positive, negative or nil.
The redundant forces can be obtained by solving the
above equation as
X n1 = − f n−1n Dn1
The final reactions and internal forces are the results of
the superposition of the effects of the external
loadings on the released structure and the effect of the
redundant forces. It is usual to derive the moments
first based on M0 and Mu that are ready, then calculate
the shear forces and axial forces as the determinate
structures.
M = M 0 + M u1 X 1 + M u 2 X 2 +  + M un X n
M0 is the moments due to external forces;
M u1 , M u 2 , , M un are the moments due to a unit redundant.

Lecture 7
Effects of Environmental Changes
1. Temperature change
2. Fabrication error (misfit)
3. Support movement

1. Temperature change
The force method can be applied to analyze a
statically indeterminate structure subjected to
effects other than applied loads.
Internal forces are developed in a statically
indeterminate structure when free movement of a
joint is prevented, for example, due to temperature
change.
Calculation of flexibility matrix [f] is the same as that
under applied forces, while computing
displacements {D} is different.
Dn1 +  f nn X n1 = 0

1.1 Axially loaded bars
An axially loaded bar AB is subjected a uniform temperature
change Δt in the cross-section. The coefficient of thermal
expansion = α.
E, A t
A B
t
L
1) Released structure
x1

2) Released structure under temperature change
E,A t
A B
t
L
D1t = − Lt

3) Released structure under the redundant force X1
x1
= X1  1
f11
1 L
f11 = L=
EA EA

4) Compatibility condition
1 = 0 = D1t + X 1 f11
D1t  Lt
 X1 = − = =  EAt
f11 L
EA
X1 E, A t X1
t
L

1.2 Beam
Beam ABC is subjected to a rise ∆T2
in temperature varying linearly h
between the top and bottom
∆T1
faces as shown. If support B is A B C
removed, the beam becomes
statically determinate and
deflect upward (or downward)
by DB.
The temperature change at the beam’s axis is (∆T1+ ∆T2)/2, then

longitudinal strain due to the temperature change is
 =  (T1 + T2 ) / 2
t.emperaturecoeffic.int
The upward curvature is (h is the height of the X-section)
 =  (T1 − T2 ) / h
If the beam is to remain attached
to the support B, a downward
force FB will develop to correct
the error in displacement DB.
The geometry compatibility is
then satisfied.
The displacement due to the temperature changes is calculated
using the virtual force method (neglect shear deformation):
D =   N udx +   M udx
T1 + T2 T − T2

=  ( )  N u dx +   ( 1 )  M u dx
2 h
where Nu and Mu are the internal forces due to a unit virtual force.

Undeformed
ef − cd d (  − y ) − d
= =
h cd d
c d
y
=− = −y

1 = T1 = −y1
 2 = T2 = −y2
∆T2
1 −  2 = T1 − T2
c d =  ( y2 − y1 ) = h
∆T1 T1 − T2
 =
Deformed h
(assume ∆T1>∆T2)
Example 1: Beam AB is subjected to a temperature
change in the top and bottom faces. Length l = 4m,
E=2.01010 Pa, and the coefficient of thermal
expansion is α = 1.010-5/oC. Find the internal forces.
40 cm
A −35oC B
60 cm
+5oC
l = 4m

1. Choose the vertical reaction at B as the redundant
force, X1. The released structure is
A EI B
X1
l = 4m

2. Calculate the vertical displacement at B due to the
temperature change.
Moments due to the unit redundant force, M u1 is
4 1
T1 − T2 5 − ( −35) 4  4

D1t =   ( )  M u dx =  ( ) = 533
h 0.6 2

3. Calculate the displacement due to the unit
redundant force.
M u1 M u1 l3 64
f11 =   dx = =
EI 3EI 3EI

∆1 = D1t + f11X1 = 0
64
X 1 + 533 = 0
3EI
0.4  0.63
X 1 = −25EI = − 25  10−5  2  1010  = −36kN
12
5. The final internal forces are the results due to the
redundant force. The temperature causes the
released structure (statically determinate) move
but does not cause any internal forces.
144 kNm
36 kN

2. Fabrication Error (misfit)
L+e
L Forces are set up

after assembly.
Member too long
1) Released structure x1

2) Released structure subject to fabrication error
D1e = −e
L e
3) Released structure subject to a unit axial load
L 1
f11 =
EA
f11
4) Compatibility condition
D1e −e EAe
 1 = D1e + X 1 f11 = 0 X1 = − =− =
f11 L L
EA
Examples that misfits are intentionally created:
Tension rod Prestressed beam

3. Support movement
Example 2: For the prismatic beam AB, find the

reactions at the supports due to the downward
translation of a at support B.
A EI B
a

1. Choose the vertical reaction at B as the redundant
force, X1. The released structure is
A EI B
X1
l

2. Calculate the displacement
due to the unit redundant
force.
1
M u1 M u1 l 3 l
f11 =   dx =
EI 3EI
3. The compatibility condition
3EIa
∆1 = −a = f11X1 X1 = − 3
l

4. The final reactions are the results of the redundant
forces only, because the movement of the support
in the released structure (determinate) does not
cause internal forces.
3EIa
When a = 1, the fixed l2
end moment is
3EI
M= 2 A B
l

End-forces caused by end
displacements of prismatic beams
The above example can be extended to other

cases of prismatic beams.

=1
M1 = 4EI/L EI = const. M2 = 2EI/L

Q1 = 6EI/L2 Q2 = 6EI/L2
L
=1
M1 = 6EI/L2 M2 = 6EI/L2
Q1 = 12EI/L3 Q2 = 12EI/L3
=1
M1 = 3EI/L
Q1 = 3EI/L2
Q2 = 3EI/L2
=1
M1 = 3EI/L2
Q1 = 3EI/L3 Q2 = 3EI/L3
Lecture 8
Determination of displacements
of statically indeterminate
structures

Principle of virtual work
A general formula to calculate displacement at j:
D j =   N u  dx +   M u dx +   Vu dx
Nu N M M VV
=  dx +   u dx +   u dx
EA EI GAr
ε, κ, γ – longitudinal strain, curvature and shear strain of
the original structure due to external forces (including
environmental factors).
Subscript ‘u’ represents the internal forces of a released
structure due to a unit virtual force applied at the
coordinate j where the displacement is required.
The integral can be obtained using diagram multiplication.
1. The principle of virtual work is applicable to any
structure, whether determinate or indeterminate.
2. The internal forces in all parts of the structure must be
known due to: i) the actual loads, and ii) a unit virtual
force. The former requires the solution of the statically
indeterminate structure.
3. The original structure is equivalent to the released
structure that includes redundant forces. The displacement
of the original structure is thus identical to the released
counterpart. Consequently the virtual force can be applied
to the released structure that satisfies the requirement of
equilibrium.
4. The redundant forces can be chosen arbitrarily and the
displacement results should be the same.

Example 1: Find the vertical displacement at the mid-span of
the fixed-fixed beam due to a uniform distributed load q. The
flexural rigidity is EI.
Original structure Released structure

Using the Force Method, we can calculate the two redundant
forces as (the process is omitted here)
ql 2
X1 = X 2 =
12
Final moment of the beam:
ql 2 ql 2
12
✓ 12
点点
M
-䶠 ql 2
8
For calculating the displacement at mid-span C:
Solution 1: Applying a unit downward virtual force at C in
the original structure. Using the Force Method again, we are
able to calculate the two redundant forces as
1 1
X1 X2
Original structure Released structure
(the process is omitted here) X 1 = X 2 = l 8
l 8 l 8
l 8 l 8
l 8
Mu
l 4
l 8 l 8
l 8
M Mu
Then the downward displacement of point C is
f =
MuM
dx = 
( M u1 + M u 2 )( M 1 + M 2 ) dx
EI EI
=
1
EI
( M u1 M 1dx +  M u1M 2 dx +  M u 2 M 1dx +  M u 2 M 2 dx )
1 l ql 2 2 l ql 2 1 l ql 2 1 ql 2 l  1  ql 4
=  l  −  l  −  l  +    l  1 +  =
EI 8 12 3 8 8 2 4 12 3 8 4  4   384 EI
(Note: M and Mu can be divided into two parts shown in Slides

5 and 6, such that diagram multiplication can be used)
➢ In the above solution, one needs to analyse the indeterminate
structure twice: one is under the real load and the other is
under the unit virtual load.
➢ As the original indeterminate structure (a) is equivalent to the
released structure (b) under two redundant forces. The
displacement of the original structure (a) equals the
displacement of the released structure (b).
(a) Original structure (b) Released structure
➢ How to calculate the displacement of the released structure (b)?

Solution 2: Applying a unit downward virtual force at C in the
released structure (simply-supported beam).
M Mu
Then the downward displacement of point C is
MuM M (M + M 2 ) M M M M
f = dx =  u 1 dx =  u 1 dx +  u 2 dx
EI EI EI EI
1  1 l ql 2  1  1 ql 2 l  1  ql 4
= −   l  +     l  1 +   =
EI  2 4 12  EI  3 8 4  4  384 EI

Solution 3: If the cantilever is chosen as the released structure,
the final moment of the beam (M) is the same as before,
while the moment due to the unit virtual force is different.
M Mu
The downward displacement of point C is the same as above:
MuM 1  1 ql 2 l l 1 ql 2 l l  ql 4
f = dx =     −     =
EI EI  2 12 2 2 4 8 2 2  384 EI

Example 2: The frame shown in Figure has the same cross section. Support A
is fixed while B is pinned. Using the flexibility method (force method),
1) find the reactions at support B,
2) draw the bending moment of the frame, and
3) calculate the rotation at support B, EI = 2 ×107 N/m for both members.
The axial deformation and shear deformation can be ignored.

1. Take two reactions at B (X1 and X2 ) as the redundant
forces, the corresponding released structure is
X2
X1
n
The compatibility condition is

∆1 = D1 + f11X1 + f12X2 = 0
∆2 = D2 + f21X1 + f22X2 = 0

2. Calculate the displacement of the released
structure due to the external forces.
1
ql2/2 l
1
M0 Mu1 Mu2
M u1M 0 1 1 1 2 ql 4 3240
D1 =   dl = (  ql  l  l ) = =
EI EI 2 2 4 EI EI
M u2M 0 1 1 2 1 1 2 5ql 4 8100
D2 =   dl = ( ql  l  l +  ql  l  l ) = =
EI EI 2 4 2 8EI EI
3. Calculate the displacement due to the unit redundant forces.
l3 72 l3 108
f11 = = f12 = = = f 21
3EI EI 2 EI EI
1  3 l 3  288
f 22 =  l +  =
EI  3  EI
4. The compatibility condition is
 72 108   3240 
X  0  X 1 = −6.44kN
 EI EI   1   EI    
   +  =  
108 
288  X   8100  0  X = −25.71kN
  2      2
 EI EI   EI  

5. The final BMD is
1
180 6
1
M0 Mu1 X1 Mu2 X2
25.8
M
12.9
6. A unit virtual moment is applied at B to calculate the
oration at B. The BMD of the released structure is 180
1 25.8
154.3
Mu 12.9
M
(M of the beam can be divided into
two parts for diagram multiplication )
The rotation at B is
MuM 1 1 1 1 6 
B =   dl =  180  1  6 −  154. 3  1  6 +  ( 25 . 8 − 12 . 9 )
EI EI  3 2 2 
64.2  103
=− = −3.21  10−3 rad
EI
Lecture 10 Influence lines (I)
1. Definition of influence lines
2. Equilibrium method
3. Muller-Breslau’s principle
Professor Tao YU
Office: ZN921; Tel.: 2766-6042
Email: tao-cee.yu@polyu.edu.hk
Department of Civil & Page 1

Teaching contents
Week Contents
7 Lecture 10. Influence lines (I)
Lecture 11. Influence lines (II)
8-11 Lecture 12. Slope-deflection equations
Lecture 13. Stiffness methods (I) − beams
Lecture 14. Stiffness methods (II) − trusses
Lecture 15. Stiffness methods (III) − frames
12-13 Lecture 16. Matrix analysis (IV) − 3D structures
Lecture 17. Introduction to finite element method
Lecture 18. Finite element analysis for planar trusses

1. Definition
•Moving load
varying magnitude, direction, position
•Response
Varies according to the position of loads
•Issues
Maximum response (reaction, shear, bending
moment), and position of loads

P=1 l/4 P=1
R=1 R=3/4
l/2 P=1 3l/4 P=1
R=1/2 R=1/4
P=1 R
1 3/4 1/2
1/4 X
R=0
•Definition
An influence line is a graph of a
response function of a structure as a
function of position of a downward
unit load moving across the structure.
•Methodology
Equations of equilibrium
Muller-Breslau’s principle

2. Equilibrium method
1. Beam (statically determinate)
Response function in terms of the position of load
1) Reaction
A B
 mA = 0 YB = x / l l
YA YB
Equation of the influence
line for YB
YB 1
 mB = 0
YA = 1 − x / l YA 1
2) Shear and bending moment
A k B
x  a using free body KB l
YA a b YB
m K =0 M K = YBb = bx l
1 MK
A B
F y =0 QK = −YB = − x / l
YA YB
QK
xa using free body of AK

MK
ab / l
 mK = 0 M K = YAa a
b
= a − ax / l
F y =0 QK = Y A = 1 − x / l 1 b/l
QK
a/l 1
Exercise: Influence line for YA , MA , MK , QK
A B
K
l/2 l/2

MA x P=1
 mA = 0 MA = −x
A K
x
l/2 l/2
F y =0 YA = 1
YA
l MA
x<l/2 MK=0 QK=0
x−l/2 1 YA
MK P=1
QK l/2 MK
x>l/2 MK= -(x - l/2 )

1 QK
QK=1
x 1
2. Plane frame (determinate) x
C
Influence line for QC , ME , NE , MD , QD E
A D B
1) QC
1
x  l / 4 QC = −1 l/4 l/4 l/2
QC
x  l/4 QC = 0
Qc 1
x−l/2
=1
2) ME , NE NE 1
ME
F y =0 N E = −1 NE
l/2
ME
m E =0 M E = − ( x − l / 2) l/2
x 1 x
MD C
3) MD , QD E
A D B
YA QD
YA = 1 − x / l l/4 l/4 l/2
F y = 0 QD = Y A = 1 − x / l
QD 1
m A =0 M D = YA  l / 4
MD l/4

1
3. Plane truss (determinate) E F G H
1) N1 2 3 4 a
E F A C 1 D B
N2 a a a
N2
A B
C N1 N1 D 1 YA
YA YB
X>2a:
1
m F =0
N 1 = YA
YB
X<a: 2
m F =0 N 1 = 2YB 1 N1

1
E F G H
2) N2
a
X>2a:  FY = 0 N 2 = 2YA
2 3 4
A C 1 D B
X<a: F Y = 0 N 2 = − 2YB
a a a
3) N3 N2 N3
2 N2
N3 = − 2 N 2 / 2
D 2
4) N4 1
N3
1
X<2a: N4 = 0
X=3a: N4 = -1
1 N4
3. Muller-Breslau’s principle
Principle of virtual work
The influence line for a force (moment) response
function is given by the deflected shape of the
released structure obtained by removing the
restraint corresponding to the response function
from the original structure and by giving the
released structure a unit displacement (rotation)
at the location and in the direction of the response
function.

1) Reaction x P=1
A B
l
YB   B − P  y( x) = 0 YB
1 y( x ) P=1
YB ( x) =  y ( x) B
B
YB
Let B = 1
1
+
YB ( x) = y( x) YB
1
YA
YA
2) Shear and x P=1
bending moment A k B
l
a b
A 1 B
Qk a 1（
A B
Mk
b/l
a/l ab/l
Qk a
+
Mk
Influence lines for YA , MA , MK , QK
P=1
A K Mk
l/2 l/2 Mk
1
）
1
l/2
YA
1
Qk
1
）
1
MA Qk
1
l
Lecture 11 Influence lines (II)
1. Applications of influence lines

2. Influence lines for statically indeterminate
structures (optional)

Applications
1. Multiple loads P1 P2 PN
k
M k = P1 y1 + P2 y2
+  + PN y N
N
y1 y2 yN
= ∑ Pi yi
i =1 Mk

2. Distributed load q(x)dx
q(x)
a k b
dM k = q( x )dx ⋅ y( x )
y(x)
xb
M k = ∫ dM k y(x)
xa
xb x
= ∫ q ( x) y ( x)dx 0 Xa x x+dx Xb
xa
Mk
q(x) = constant
xb
M k = q ∫ y( x )dx
xa

3. Maximum response function
Determine the maximum values of response
functions at particular locations in structures due
to variable loads
P
1) A single moving a b
k
concentrated load
max
Mk = Py k Mk y a
yk yb
min
Mk = Py a P
Load position P
To determine the maximum positive value of a
response function due to a single moving
concentrated load, the load must be placed at the
location of the maximum positive ordinate of the
response function influence line, whereas to
determine the maximum negative value of the
response function, the load must be placed at the
location of the maximum negative ordinate of the
influence line.

2) A series of concentrated loads
Example 1: Consider the simply supported beam, the

max positive shear at C is to be determined due to a
series of concentrated loads moving from right to left.

Critical loading occurs when one of the loads is
placed just to the right of C.
Case 1
(VC )1 = 4.5(0.75) + 18(0.625) + 18(0.5) = 23.63kN

Case 2
Case 3
(VC ) 2 = 4.5(−0.125) + 18(0.75) + 18(0.625) = 24.19kN

(VC )3 = 4.5(0) + 18(−0.125) + 18(0.75) = 11.25kN
Moment
M Cmax = 9(1.35) + 18(2.25) + 13.5(18

.)
= 77.0kNm

q
3) A uniformly
distributed load a
k
b
xb
M k = q ∫ y( x )dx
xa
Mk ya yk yb
max
Mk
Load position min
Mk

To determine the maximum positive (negative)
value of a response function due to a uniformly
distributed load, the load must be placed over
those portions of the structure where the ordinate
of the response function influence line are
positive (negative) .

Example 2: Determine the max positive moment that
can be developed at point D in the beam shown due to a
concentrated moving load of 16 kN, a uniform moving
load of 3 kN/m & a beam weight of 2 kN/m.

∑MD = 0
− M D − 20(2) + 19(4) = 0
M D = 36kNm

About the Labs
 The lab instruction sheet is on Blackboard
 You should prepare the group lab report and submit it on time

Statically indeterminate structures (Optional)
x P=1
∆1 = 0
A B
YB ( x ) δ 11 ⋅ x1 + δ 1 P = 0
P=1
1
x1 = − δ 1P
x1 δ 11
δ P1 = −δ1P
δ P1 δ11
x1 = 1 1
x1 ( x) = δ P1 ( x)
δ11
P=1 1
δ 1P YB ( x) = δ P1 ( x)
δ11
Influence lines for YA、MA、YC、Mk、Qk、MC
P=1
B C k D
A E
YA
YA
MA
MA
YC
YC

P=1
B C k D
A E
Mk
Mk
Qk
Qk
MC
MC

Determine the most unfavourable distribution of loads
k
Mk
max
Mk
min
Mk
Lecture 12
Slope-Deflection Equations
An introduction to displacement methods or stiffness methods

1. An introduction example
M
C
B
θB
L
EI = const.
A
L
Degree of indeterminacy = ?
Unknown displacement = ?
M MBC θB
MBC MCB
MBA
MBA B C
B
θB Slope-Deflection Equations
relates the forces (including shear forces
and bending moments) at the ends of a
member to the displacements (including
rotations and deflections) of its ends and
MAB A the external loads applied to the member.

θ=1

Q1 = 6EI/L2 Q2 = 6EI/L2
L
∆=1
M1 = 6EI/L2 M2 = 6EI/L2
Q1 = 12EI/L3 Q2 = 12EI/L3
θ=1
M1 = 3EI/L
Q1 = 3EI/L2
Q2 = 3EI/L2
∆=1
M1 = 3EI/L2
Q1 = 3EI/L3 Q2 = 3EI/L3
Page 4
4 EI 4 EI
M BA = θB M BC = θB
l l
M BA + M BC = M
 4 EI 4 EI 
 + θ B = M
 l l 
θB: Unknown displacement

4 EI
l M BA = M BC = θ B = 0.5M
θB = M l
8 EI 2 EI
M AB = M CB = θ B = 0.25M
l
0.5M
C
B
0.25M
A
0.25M
2. Slope-Deflection Equations - a general
case
θA
QBA
MAB
∆ MBA
QAB θB
4 EI 2 EI 6 EI
M AB = θA + θB + 2 ∆
l l l
2 EI 4 EI 6 EI
M BA = θA + θB + 2 ∆
l l l
6 EI 6 EI 12 EI
Q AB = QBA = 2 θ A + 2 θ B + 3 ∆
l l l Page 7
EI
i= , ∆ = y A − yB
l
6i 6i
M AB = 4iθ A + 2iθ B + y A − y B
l l
6i 6i
M BA = 2iθ A + 4iθ B + y A − y B
l l
6i 6i 12i 12i
Q AB = QBA = θ A + θ B + 2 y A − 2 yB
l l l l
Page 8
12i 6i 12i 6i 
 l2 − 2
l l l y
 Q AB   6i 6i  A 
M   4i − 2i  θ 
 AB   l l   A 
  = 12i 6i 12i 6i  y B
 QBA   2 − 2  
 M BA   l l l l  θ 
 6i 6i  B 
 2i − 4i 
 l l 
{Force} = [Stiffness] × {Displacement}
Rotation and moment: anti-clockwise is positive. More will

be described later (here sign of Q is not consistent with y)

Standardisation of procedures
•Discretization 5 6
6
Elements, Joints (nodes)
•Element analysis 2 5
End-force ⇔End-displacement 3 3
4
Element stiffness matrix 1 4
•Assembly 1 2
Global stiffness matrix

Load vector
•Global analysis
e
Nodal displacement - unknown
•Elemental analysis
Elemental internal force Page 10
Lecture 13
Stiffness methods (I): Continuous beam

6
4
•Assembly 1 2

Load vector
•Global analysis
e
Elemental internal force
Continuous beam
1. Discretization 离散化 1 1 2 2 3
1 2 --- element number i1 i2
l1 = l l2 = l
1,2,3 --- joint number
(1),(2),(3) --- DOF DoF roration
.
…
boFani
:
n
δ ↓δ δ 3
Number of displacement 1 2
unknowns, independent
displacements, degrees of
freedom (DOFs), kinematic (1) (2) (3)
indeterminacy

2. Element (member) analysis element
δ e

member end displacement {δ } =  e 
0
e 1
δ 2 
 F1e 
member end force {F }e =  e
 F2 
δ 1
e
e
δ e
2
F1e F2e
1 2
F = 4i δ + 2ieδ
1
e
e 1
e e
2
e
 F1  4ie 2ie  δ 1 
e
  =   
F = 2i δ + 4ieδ
2
e
e 1
e e
2
 F2  2ie 4ie  δ 2 
{F } = [K ] {δ }
e e e
Elemental stiffness equation
[K ] e
related to foreF
.
1
Element stiffness matrix
 k
“k ee
 4ie 2ie 
[K ] = 
e 12
O O
11
e 
e
= 
k 2
k 22   e
21
i 4ie
kije Stiffness coefficient, the force in the direction of

i required, to cause a unit displacement at j
while all other end displacements are zero.
δ ej = 1, δ ie = 0
symmetricity k =k e
ij
e
ji
Element 1: e=1 Element 2: e=2
δ 1
1
δ 1
2 δ 1
2
2
δ 22
1
F11 F
2
1
F12 F22
1 2 1 2
(1) (2) (2) (3)
F11 = k111 δ11 + k121 δ 21 F12 = k112 δ12 + k122 δ 22
F21 = k 21δ1 + k 22
1 1 1
δ 21 F22 = k 212 δ12 + k 222 δ 22
σ
F11 = k111 δ11 + k121 δ 21 + 0 × δ 22 contribute from er
( )+ k
∠
F +F =k δ + k δ +k δ
2
1
1
2 1 1
21 1
1 1
22 2
2 2
11 1 δ
2 2
12 2
F22 = 0 × δ11 + k 212 δ12 + k 222 δ 22

3. Assembly elemene
(
δ 1
element
1
δ 0
1
δ 2 elemener
2joint 2 1 joine
1 δ 22
1
2 3
1 δ1 global δ2 δ3
P1 P3
P2
(1) (2) (3)
P1 = k111 δ1 + k121 δ 2 + 0 × δ 3
P2 = k 21
1
δ1 + k 22
1
( )
+ k112 δ 2 + k122 δ 3
P3 = 0 × δ1 + k 212 δ 2 + k 222 δ 3
P1 = k11δ1 + k12δ 2 + k13δ 3
P2 = k 21δ1 + k 22δ 2 + k 23δ 3
P3 = k31δ1 + k32δ 2 + k33δ 3
momene
 P1   k11 k12 k13  δ 1  ⼀ 7

rotarion
 P1  δ1 
         
 P2  = k 21 k 22 k 23  δ 2  {P} =  P2 , {∆} = δ 2 
 p  k k k  δ  p  δ 
 3   31 32 33   3   3  3
k11 = k111 k 21 = k 1
21
k31 = 0
k12 = k12
1
k 22 = k + k11
1
22
2
k32 = k 212
k13 = 0 k 23 = k 2
21 k33 = k 22
2
Global stiffness equation
{P} = [K ]{∆}
Global stiffness matrix [K ]
kij Stiffness coefficient, the force in the direction
of i required, to cause a unit displacement at j
while all other joint displacements are zero.
j-th column of K consists of the joint loads
required to cause a unit displacement at j
symmetricity kij = k ji
Assembly of matrix – element code number
(1) (2)
1 2
k1
k 
1
[K ] 1
= 11
1
12
1 
1 (1)
0
(1) (2) (3)
k21 k 
22 2 (2)
 k1↓
11 k121 0
0 (1)

[K ] =  21
k 1 1
k 22 + k112 k122 (2)
k 2
k 
2
1 (2) 
[K ] = 
2 11
2
12
2  0 k 212 k 222 (3)
k 21 k 
22 2 (3)
1 2
(2) (3)
4. Global analysis
 P1  δ1 
   
{P} = [K ]{∆} {P} =  P2 , {∆} = δ 2 
p  δ 
 3  3
Calculate nodal displacement
{∆} = [K ] {P} −1
5. Calculate member end force

δ = δ1 δ = δ2
{F } = [K ] {δ }
1 1
e e e 1 2
δ12 = δ 2 δ 22 = δ 3

6kN.m 3kN.m 3kN.m
Example 1
i1 = 1 i2 = 2
1. DOFs 1
IQ
2 3
2. Stiffness matrix 1 2
(1) (2) (3)
(1) (2)
4 2 (1)  8 4  (2)
[K ]1 = 4 xi zix [K ] = 44 8 (3)
,
2 i =
2 iz
2 4 (2)  
(2) (3) 3. Joint force
(1) (2) (3)
2 0 (1) − 6 (1)
4
[K ] = 2 12 4 (2)
{P} = − 3 (2)
 3  (3)
0 4 8 (3)  
4. Joint displacement − 17 / 12 (1)
{P} = [K ]{∆} {∆} =  − 1 / 6  (2)
 11 / 24  (3)
 
5. Member end forces
{F } = [K ] {δ }
e e e
δ = δ1 δ = δ 2 δ = δ 2 δ = δ 3
1
1
1
2 1
2 2
2
4 2 − 17 / 12   − 6  clockwise
{F } = [K ] {δ } =   
1 1 1
= 
2 4  − 1 / 6   − 7 / 2 
8 4  − 1 / 6  1 / 2 ↓
{F } = [K ] {δ }
2 2 2
=   = 
4 8 11 / 24  3 
3.5
0.5
δ
6 3
5kN.m 8kN.m P3
Example 2
Post-process i1 = 1 i2 = 2
boundary condition 1 2 3
1 2
(1) (2) (1) (3)
(2)
4 2 (1) 8 4 (2)
[K ]
1
= 
[K ]
2
= 
2 4 (2) 4 8 (3)
(2) (3)
(1) (2) (3)

4 2 0 (1) 4 2 0 δ1  − 5
2 12 4 δ  = − 8
[K ] = 2 12 4 (2)   2   
0 4 8 (3) 0 4 8  δ 3   P3 
 4δ1 + 2δ 2 + 0 × 0 = −5
  4 2   δ 1   − 5
δ3 = 0  2δ1 + 12δ 2 + 4 × 0 = −8 ⇒   = 
0 × δ + 4δ + 8 × 0 = P 2 12 δ 2  − 8
Boundary  1 2
condition 3
4 2 0 δ1  − 5
 −1 
4 2  δ1  − 5  
2 12 4 δ  = − 8
2 12 δ  = − 8
{∆} = − 0.5
  2      2     0 
0 4 8 δ 3   P3   
4 2  − 1   − 5 
{F } = [K ] {δ } =     =  
1 1 1 4 2
2 4 − 0.5 − 4 
 −   −  5 4
 8 4  0. 5 4
{F }2 = [K ]2 {δ }2 =     =  
4 8  0  − 2 
5kN.m 8kN.m P3
Critical thinking
i1 = 1 i2 = 2
In example 2, if joint 3
rotates by 0.1 rad 1 2 3
clockwise. 1 2
(1) (2) (3)
4 2 0 δ1  − 5
2 12 4 δ  = − 8
  2    δ 3 = −0.1
0 4 8  δ 3   P3 
 4δ1 + 2δ 2 + 0 × (− 0.1) = −5
  4 2  δ 1   − 5 
 2δ1 + 12δ 2 + 4 × (− 0.1) = −8 ⇒   = 
0 × δ + 4δ + 8 × (− 0.1) = P 2 12 δ 2  − 7.6
 1 2 3
 − 1.018 
δ1   − 1.02  
{∆} = − 0.464 
 = 
δ
 2  − 0 .46   − 0.1 
 
4 2  − 1.018   − 5 
{F } = [K ] {δ } =   
1 1 1
= 
 2 4  − 0 .464   − 3 . 89 
8 4 − 0.464   − 4.11
{F } = [K ] {δ } =   
2 2 2
= 
 4 8  − 0 . 1   − 2 . 66  3.89 2.66
5 4.11

Equivalent nodal load
 PQ1 
{PQ } = PQ 2 
 
P 
 Q3  FE1 FE 2 FE 3
 ∑ FE1 
 2
= −∑ FE 
 F3
∑ E 
PQ1 PQ 2 PQ 3

Example 3
q P ql 2 / 12 q P Pl / 8
1 2 3
1 2
l l/2 l/2
(1) (2) (3)
q ql 2 / 12 P Pl / 8
2
1 2
ql / 12 Pl / 8

Fixed end forces
 ql 2
/ 12   Pl / 8 
{FE } =  2 
1
{FE } 2
= 
− ql / 12   − Pl / 8 
Elemental equivalent nodal load
− 2
/ 12 (1)  − Pl / 8  (2)
{FQ } =  ql 2 / 12  (2)
1 ql
{F }
Q
2
=
Pl / 8  (3)
   
Pl ql 2
 PQ1   − ql 2 / 12  (1) ql 2 / 12 − Pl / 8
8 12
{PQ } = PQ 2  = − Pl / 8 + ql 2 / 12 (2)
P   Pl / 8 
 Q3    (3)

Example 4
q
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
(1)
l (2)
l (3)
l (4)
2
ql / 12 2
ql / 12  PQ1  − ql 2 / 12
P   
{PQ } =  P  =  2 
 Q2   0
 Q 3   ql / 12 
 PQ 4   0 

Combined nodal load q Pl P
1 2 3
Equivalent nodal load 1 2
 − ql 2 / 12  l l/2 l/2
(1) (2) (3)
 
{PQ } = − Pl / 8 + ql / 12
2
 Pl / 8 
   0 
{PD } = − Pl 
Direct nodal load  0 
 
 − ql 2 / 12 
 
Combined nodal load {P} = {PD }+ {PQ } = − 9 Pl / 8 + ql / 12
2
 Pl / 8 
 
q Pl P
1 2 3
Member end forces 1 2
l l/2 l/2
(1) (2) (3)
{P} = [K ]{∆} ql 2 / 12 q Pl / 8
P
{F } = [K ] {δ }
e e e
ql 2 / 12
+ {FE }
e ql 2 / 12 − 9 Pl / 8 Pl / 8

Example 5 10kN 4kN/m
(1) (2) EI1 = 6 EI 2 = 24 EI1 = 6
4 × 6 / 8 1.5 (1)
[K ] 1
=  (2)
4m 4m 12m 8m
 1 . 5 3 
1 2 3 4
(2) (3) 1 2 3
4 × 24 / 12 4 (2)
[K ] = 
2
 (3) (1) (2) (3) (4)
 4 8 
(3) (4)  3 1. 5 0 0 
1.5 11 4 0 
 3 1.5 (3) [K ] =  
[K ] =  3
 (4)  0 4 11 1.5
1 . 5 3   
 0 0 1 . 5 3 

10kN
Joint load vector
1  10  − 10
Pl / 8 = 10 10 {FE }
1
=
− 10
 {F }
Q
1
=
10

   
ql 2
4kN/m = 48  48  − 48
12 {FE }
2
=
− 48
 {F }
Q
2
=
48

2    
48
 10   − 10  (1)
 38  − 38 (2)

{PE } =   
{PQ } =  48 
 
(3)
− 48  
 0   0  (4)

Boundary condition
 3 1.5 0 0  δ1   − 10 
1.5 11 4 0  δ  − 38
  2  
 = 
0 4 11 1.5 δ 3   48 
   
0 0 1.5 3  δ 4   0  
Solving equations
11 4  δ 2  − 38 δ 2  − 5.81
 4 11 δ  =  48   =
δ 6. 476

  3     3  
δ1   0 
δ  − 5.81

{∆} =  2  =  
δ
 3  6 .476 
 
δ 4 
  0  

Member end forces
 3 1.5  0   10   1.29 
{F } = 
1
  + =  
1.5 3  − 5.81 − 10 − 27.43
8 4 − 5.81  48   27.43 
{F } =   
2
+ = 
 4 8  6 . 476   − 48   − 19 . 43
 3 1.5 6.476 0 19.43

{F } =  3
  +  =  
1 . 5 3  0 0
    9 . 71 
27.43 19.43
BMD 1.29
9.71

10kN 4kN/m
Pre-process of
boundary condition EI1 = 6 EI 2 = 24 EI1 = 6
(0) (1) 4m 4m 12m 8m

 3 1.5 (0)
[K ] 1
=  Post- 1 2 3 4
1 . 5 3  (1) 1 2 3
process
(1) (2) (1) (2) (3) (4)
8 4  (1)
[K ] 2
=  Pre- 1 2 3 4
 4 8  (2) 1 2 3
process
(0) (1) (2) (0)
(2) (0)
 3 1.5 (2)
[K ] 3
=  (0) 3 + 8 4  (1)
1. 5 3  [K ] =   (2)
 4 8 + 3
(1) (2)
− 10 (0) − 48 (1)

{F }
Q
1
=  {F }
Q
2
= 
 10  (1)  48  (2)
− 38 (1)
{P} =  
 48  (2)
Joint displacement
 0 
11 4  δ1  − 38 δ1  − 5.81 − 5.81

 4 11 δ  =  48   =  {∆} =  
  2    δ 2   6.476   6. 476 
 0 
 

Lecture 13
Stiffness methods (I): Continuous beam

6
4
•Assembly 1 2

Load vector
•Global analysis
e
Elemental internal force
Continuous beam
1. Discretization 1 1 2 2 3
l1 = l l2 = l
(1),(2),(3) --- DOF
δ1 δ2 δ3
Number of displacement
indeterminacy

2. Element (member) analysis
δ e

member end displacement {δ } =  e 
e 1
δ 2 
 F1e 
member end force {F }e =  e
 F2 
δ 1
e
e
δ e
2
F1e F2e
1 2
F = 4i δ + 2ieδ
1
e
e 1
e e
2
e
 F1  4ie 2ie  δ 1 
e
  =   
F = 2i δ + 4ieδ
2
e
e 1
e e
2
 F2  2ie 4ie  δ 2 
{F } = [K ] {δ }
e e e
Elemental stiffness equation
[K ] e
 k e
k e
 4ie 2ie 
[K ] =  e e  = 
e 11 12

2i
k 21 k 22   e 4ie
kije Stiffness coefficient, the force in the direction of

i required, to cause a unit displacement at j
while all other end displacements are zero.
δ ej = 1, δ ie = 0
symmetricity k =k
e
ij
e
ji
Element 1: e=1 Element 2: e=2
δ 1
1
δ 1
2 δ 1
2
2
δ 22
1
F11 F
2
1
F12 F22
1 2 1 2
(1) (2) (2) (3)
F11 = k111 δ11 + k121 δ 21 F12 = k112 δ12 + k122 δ 22
F21 = k 21δ1 + k 22
1 1 1
δ 21 F22 = k 212 δ12 + k 222 δ 22
F11 = k111 δ11 + k121 δ 21 + 0 × δ 22

F +F =k δ + k δ +k δ
2
1
1
2 1 1
21 1 ( 1 1
22 2
2 2
11 1 )+ k δ
2 2
12 2
F22 = 0 × δ11 + k 212 δ12 + k 222 δ 22

3. Assembly
δ 1 δ 1
2 δ 1
2 δ 22
1
2 3
1 δ1 δ2 δ3
P1 P3
P2
(1) (2) (3)
P1 = k111 δ1 + k121 δ 2 + 0 × δ 3
P2 = k 21
1
δ1 + k 22
1
( )
+ k112 δ 2 + k122 δ 3
P3 = 0 × δ1 + k 212 δ 2 + k 222 δ 3
P1 = k11δ1 + k12δ 2 + k13δ 3
P2 = k 21δ1 + k 22δ 2 + k 23δ 3
P3 = k31δ1 + k32δ 2 + k33δ 3
 P1   k11 k12 k13  δ 1   P1  δ1 

         
 P2  = k 21 k 22 k 23  δ 2  {P} =  P2 , {∆} = δ 2 
 p  k k k  δ  p  δ 
 3   31 32 33   3   3  3
k11 = k111 k 21 = k 1
21
k31 = 0
k12 = k12
1
k 22 = k + k11
1
22
2
k32 = k 212
k13 = 0 k 23 = k 2
21 k33 = k 22
2
Global stiffness equation
{P} = [K ]{∆}
Global stiffness matrix [K ]
kij Stiffness coefficient, the force in the direction
of i required, to cause a unit displacement at j
j-th column of K consists of the joint loads
required to cause a unit displacement at j
symmetricity kij = k ji
Assembly of matrix – element code number
(1) (2)
1 2
k1
k 
1
1 (1)
[K ] 1
= 11
1
12
1 
(1) (2) (3)
k21 k 
22 2 (2) 1
 11
k k121 0 (1)

[K ] =  21
k 1 1
k 22 + k112 k122 (2)
k 2
k 
2
1 (2) 
[K ] = 
2 11
2
12
2  0 k 212 k 222 (3)
k 21 k 
22 2 (3)
1 2
(2) (3)
4. Global analysis
 P1  δ1 
   
{P} = [K ]{∆} {P} =  P2 , {∆} = δ 2 
p  δ 
 3  3
Calculate nodal displacement
{∆} = [K ] {P} −1
5. Calculate member end force

δ = δ1 δ = δ2
{F } = [K ] {δ }
1 1
e e e 1 2
δ12 = δ 2 δ 22 = δ 3
element global
6kN.m 3kN.m 3kN.m
Example 1
i1 = 1 i2 = 2
1. DOFs 1 2 3
2. Stiffness matrix 1 2
(1) (2) (3)
(1) (2)
4 2 (1)  8 4  (2)
[K ]1 =   [K ] = 4 8 (3)
2
2 4 (2)  
(2) (3) 3. Joint force
(1) (2) (3)
2 0 (1) − 6 (1)
4
[K ] = 2 12 4 (2)
{P} = − 3 (2)
 3  (3)
0 4 8 (3)  
4. Joint displacement − 17 / 12 (1)
{P} = [K ]{∆} {∆} =  − 1 / 6  (2)
 11 / 24  (3)
 
{F } = [K ] {δ }
e e e
δ = δ1 δ = δ 2 δ = δ 2 δ = δ 3
1
1
1
2 1
2 2
2
4 2 − 17 / 12   − 6 
{F } = [K ] {δ } =   
1 1 1
= 
2 4  − 1 / 6   − 7 / 2 
8 4  − 1 / 6  1 / 2
{F } = [K ] {δ }
2 2 2
=   = 
4 8 11 / 24  3 
3.5
0.5
6 3
5kN.m 8kN.m P3
Example 2
Post-process i1 = 1 i2 = 2
boundary condition 1 2 3
1 2
(1) (2) (1) (3)
(2)
4 2 (1) 8 4 (2)
[K ]
1
= 
[K ]
2
= 
2 4 (2) 4 8 (3)
(2) (3)
(1) (2) (3)

4 2 0 (1) 4 2 0 δ1  − 5
2 12 4 δ  = − 8
[K ] = 2 12 4 (2)   2   
0 4 8 (3) 0 4 8  δ 3   P3 
 4δ1 + 2δ 2 + 0 × 0 = −5
  4 2   δ 1   − 5
δ3 = 0  2δ1 + 12δ 2 + 4 × 0 = −8 ⇒   = 
0 × δ + 4δ + 8 × 0 = P 2 12 δ 2  − 8
 1 2 3
4 2 0 δ1  − 5
 −1 
4 2  δ1  − 5  
2 12 4 δ  = − 8
2 12 δ  = − 8
{∆} = − 0.5
  2      2     0 
0 4 8 δ 3   P3   
4 2  − 1   − 5 
{F } = [K ] {δ } =     =  
1 1 1 4 2
2 4 − 0.5 − 4 
 −   −  5 4
 8 4  0. 5 4
{F }2 = [K ]2 {δ }2 =     =  
4 8  0  − 2 
5kN.m 8kN.m P3
Critical thinking
i1 = 1 i2 = 2
In example 2, if joint 3
rotates by 0.1 rad 1 2 3
clockwise. 1 2
(1) (2) (3)
4 2 0 δ1  − 5
2 12 4 δ  = − 8
  2    δ 3 = −0.1
0 4 8  δ 3   P3 
 4δ1 + 2δ 2 + 0 × (− 0.1) = −5
  4 2  δ 1   − 5 
 2δ1 + 12δ 2 + 4 × (− 0.1) = −8 ⇒   = 
0 × δ + 4δ + 8 × (− 0.1) = P 2 12 δ 2  − 7.6
 1 2 3
 − 1.018 
δ1   − 1.02  
{∆} = − 0.464 
 = 
δ
 2  − 0 .46   − 0.1 
 
4 2  − 1.018   − 5 
{F } = [K ] {δ } =   
1 1 1
= 
 2 4  − 0 .464   − 3 . 89 
8 4 − 0.464   − 4.11
{F } = [K ] {δ } =   
2 2 2
= 
 4 8  − 0 . 1   − 2 . 66  3.89 2.66
5 4.11

 PQ1  ⼀
{PQ } = PQ 2 
 
P 
 Q3  FE1 FE 2 FE 3
 ∑ FE1 
 2
= −∑ FE 
 F3
∑ E 
PQ1 PQ 2 PQ 3
~

Example 3
q P ql 2 / 12 q P Pl / 8
1 2 3
1 2
l l/2 l/2
(1) (2) (3)
q ql 2 / 12 P Pl / 8
2
1 2
ql / 12 Pl / 8

Fixed end forces
 ql 2
/ 12   Pl / 8 
{FE } =  2 
1
{FE } 2
= 
− ql / 12   − Pl / 8 
Elemental equivalent nodal load
− 2
/ 12 (1)  − Pl / 8  (2)
{FQ } =  ql 2 / 12  (2)
1 ql
{F }
Q
2
=
Pl / 8  (3)
   
Pl ql 2
 PQ1   − ql 2 / 12  (1) ql 2 / 12 − Pl / 8
8 12
{PQ } = PQ 2  = − Pl / 8 + ql 2 / 12 (2)
P   Pl / 8 
 Q3    (3)

Example 4
q
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
(1)
l (2)
l (3)
l (4)
2
ql / 12 2
ql / 12  PQ1  − ql 2 / 12
P   
{PQ } =  P  =  2 
 Q2   0
 Q 3   ql / 12 
 PQ 4   0 

Combined nodal load q Pl P
1 2 3
Equivalent nodal load 1 2
 − ql 2 / 12  l l/2 l/2
(1) (2) (3)
 
{PQ } = − Pl / 8 + ql / 12
2
 Pl / 8 
   0 
{PD } = − Pl 
Direct nodal load  0 
 
 − ql 2 / 12 
 
Combined nodal load {P} = {PD }+ {PQ } = − 9 Pl / 8 + ql / 12
2
 Pl / 8 
 
q Pl P
1 2 3
l l/2 l/2
(1) (2) (3)
{P} = [K ]{∆} ql 2 / 12 q Pl / 8
P
{F } = [K ] {δ }
e e e
ql 2 / 12
+ {FE }
e ql 2 / 12 − 9 Pl / 8 Pl / 8

Example 5 10kN 4kN/m
(1) (2) EI1 = 6 EI 2 = 24 EI1 = 6
4 × 6 / 8 1.5 (1)
[K ] 1
=  (2)
4m 4m 12m 8m
 1 . 5 3 
1 2 3 4
(2) (3) 1 2 3
4 × 24 / 12 4 (2)
[K ] = 
2
 (3) (1) (2) (3) (4)
 4 8 
(3) (4)  3 1. 5 0 0 
1.5 11 4 0 
 3 1.5 (3) [K ] =  
[K ] =  3
 (4)  0 4 11 1.5
1 . 5 3   
 0 0 1 . 5 3 

10kN
Joint load vector
1  10  − 10
Pl / 8 = 10 10 {FE }
1
=
− 10
 {F }
Q
1
=
10

   
ql 2
4kN/m = 48  48  − 48
12 {FE }
2
=
− 48
 {F }
Q
2
=
48

2    
48
 10   − 10  (1)
 38  − 38 (2)

{PE } =   
{PQ } =  48 
 
(3)
− 48  
 0   0  (4)

Boundary condition
 3 1.5 0 0  δ1   − 10 
1.5 11 4 0  δ  − 38
  2  
 = 
0 4 11 1.5 δ 3   48 
   
0 0 1.5 3  δ 4   0  
Solving equations
11 4  δ 2  − 38 δ 2  − 5.81
 4 11 δ  =  48   =
δ 6. 476

  3     3  
δ1   0 
δ  − 5.81

{∆} =  2  =  
δ
 3  6 .476 
 
δ 4 
  0  

Member end forces
 3 1.5  0   10   1.29 
{F } = 
1
  + =  
1.5 3  − 5.81 − 10 − 27.43
8 4 − 5.81  48   27.43 
{F } =   
2
+ = 
 4 8  6 . 476   − 48   − 19 . 43
 3 1.5 6.476 0 19.43

{F } =  3
  +  =  
1 . 5 3  0 0
    9 . 71 
27.43 19.43
BMD 1.29
9.71

10kN 4kN/m
Pre-process of
boundary condition EI1 = 6 EI 2 = 24 EI1 = 6
(0) (1) 4m 4m 12m 8m

 3 1.5 (0)
[K ] 1
=  Post- 1 2 3 4
1 . 5 3  (1) 1 2 3
process
(1) (2) (1) (2) (3) (4)
8 4  (1)
[K ] 2
=  Pre- 1 2 3 4
 4 8  (2) 1 2 3
process
(0) (1) (2) (0)
(2) (0)
 3 1.5 (2)
[K ] 3
=  (0) 3 + 8 4  (1)
1. 5 3  [K ] =   (2)
 4 8 + 3
(1) (2)
− 10 (0) − 48 (1)

{F }
Q
1
=  {F }
Q
2
= 
 10  (1)  48  (2)
− 38 (1)
{P} =  
 48  (2)
Joint displacement
 0 
11 4  δ1  − 38 δ1  − 5.81 − 5.81

 4 11 δ  =  48   =  {∆} =  
  2    δ 2   6.476   6. 476 
 0 
 

Lecture 14
Stiffness Method (2): Plane Truss

6
4
•Assembly 1 2

Load vector
•Global analysis
e
Elemental internal
Department force
of Civil &
Continuous beam
Discretization 1 1 2 2 3
l1 = l l2 = l
(1),(2),(3) --- DOF
δ1 δ2 δ3
Number of displacement
indeterminacy

Discretisation Y
X
DOFs per joint = 2
joint dof ( because
2(3,4)
4
4(7,8)
8
6(11,12) 8(15,16)
12 16
↑
Tcanmoveertandhoricaliycoanealay
10(19,20)
5 7 11 13
1 9 17
3 15
6 9(17,18)
2 3(5,6) 10 7(13,14)14
1(1,2) 5(9,10)

Element analysis
δ 2
e
coordinate iystem
1 l , A, E 2
local
Oleemene x
OF
→
圆
F1 e element
F2e
=
7
δ e
←
Force ive .
1 EAY EEA
OA = =
J
EA e EA e EA e EA e
F1 = ⋅ δ1 −
e
⋅δ 2 F =−2
e
⋅ δ1 + ⋅ δ 2
l l l l
e e e
 F1   EA / l − EA / l  δ1  EA  1 − 1 δ 1 
  =    =    
F2  − EA / l EA / l  δ 2  l − 1 1  δ 2 
{F } = [K ] {δ }
e e e
Element stiffness matrix in local coordinate
EA  1 − 1
[K ] = l − 1 1 
e
 
Properties of K [ ] e
1. Symmetricity [K ] = ([K ] )
e e T
2. Singularity ( )
det [K ] = 0
e

y δ 2e
1 l , A, E 2
F1 e e F e x
δ 1
e
because
Fiy
2
, Fiy are 0
e e
 F1  1 0 − 1 0  δ 1 
  0   
F
 1 y  EA  0 0 0 δ1 y 
  =  
 F2  l − 1 0 1 0  δ 2 
F2 y    
  0 0 0 0 δ 2 y 
Global coordinate
y F1e = F1e cos α + F2e sin α
y F4e F 2
e
x
F1ey = − F1e sin α + F2e cos α = 0
e
F3e F2e = F3e cos α + F4e sin α
F1
e
α
e F e
The
x F2ey = − F3e sin α + F4e cos α = 0
F1 2 angel rolate anTiclockwise uatil reach local x
- coordinate
local global
e e
degree of freedom  F1   cos α sin α 0 0   F1 
    F 
F
 1y   − sin α cos α 0 0  2
{F } = [T ] {F }
e e e
 
F
 2
=
 0 0 cos α sin α


 
 F3 
 F2 y   0 0
 
− sin α cos α   F4 
 

δ1e = δ1e cos α + δ 2e sin α
δ1ey = −δ1e sin α + δ 2e cos α
☆ α α
glohal
~
δ 2e = δ 3e cos α + δ 4e sin α
δ 2ey = −δ 3e sin α + δ 4e cos α
{δ } = [T ] {δ }
e e e

[T]e – coordinate transformation matrix
orthogonal 〉
([T ] ) [T ] = [I ]
e T e
([T ] ) = ([T ] )
e T e −1
{F }
e
( ) {F } {F } = [K ] {δ }
= [T ]
e T e e e e
= ([T ] ) [K ] {δ } {δ } = [T ] {δ }
e T e e e e e
= ([T ] ) [K ] [T ] {δ } = [K ] {δ }
e T e e e e e
[K ] e
= [T ]( ) [K ] [T ]
e T e e

Element stiffness matrix in the global coordinate
e
 cos α 2
cos α sin α − cos α2
− cos α sin α 
 
EA  cos α sin α sin α
2
− cos α sin α − sin α 
2
[K ] = 
e
l − cos 2 α − cos α sin α cos 2 α cos α sin α 

 
− cos α sin α − sin α cos α sin α sin α 
2 2
 A − A
− A A  Sub-matrix A
 
α = 0 1 0 − 1 0 α = 90 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 − 1
EA  EA 
[K ]
e
= [K ]e
= ×
l − 1 0 1 0 l 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 1
Example 3 4(1,2)
2(0,0) P
Find the internal forces by using
the matrix method. EA=60, 3m
P=100. 2 1
EA
1 = 20 α 1 = 90 1(0,0) 3(0,0)
l
1 0 − 1 0 4m
0 0 0 0
[K ] 1
= 20 × 
− 1 0 1 0
  Element localisation vector
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 (0) 0
0 0
− 1 0 0
[K ] full 1
= 20 × 
1 0 (0)  
λ = 
1
[K ] 1
=
0 0 0 0 (1) 1  0 20
  
0 −1 0 1 (2) 2 

(0) (0) (1) (2)
EA 3 4(1,2)
2 = 12 cos α = 4 / 5, sin α = 3 / 5 2(0,0)
P
l
3m
2 1
Member length l or EA
1(0,0) 3(0,0)
may be different!
4m
 7.68 5.76 − 7.68 − 5.76  0

 5.76 0
4.32 − 5.76 − 4.32  
[K ] full 2 = λ 2
= 
− 7.68 − 5.76 7.68 5.76  1 
  
2 
− 5.76 − 4.32 5.76 4.32  
7.68 5.76 
[K ] 2
=
5.76 4.32

3 4(1,2)
EA P
3 = 15 α 3 = 0 2(0,0)
l
3m
2 1
1 0 − 1 0
0 0 0 0 3(0,0)
[K ] 3
= 15 × 
− 1 0 1 0
1(0,0)
4m
 
0 0 0 0
0
0 15 0
[K ] full 3
= [K ]
3  
λ = 
3
[K ] 3
=
1  0 0
2 
 
3
0 0  7.68 5.76  15 0
[K ] = ∑ [K ] =  i
 +  +
i =1 0 20 5.76 4.32  0 0
22.68 5.76 
=  Global stiffness matrix
 5 . 76 24 . 32 
3 4(1,2)
Nodal load vector 2(0,0)
P
100 3m
{P} =   2 1
 0 
1(0,0) 3(0,0)
Joint displacement 4m
22.68 5.76  δ1  100 δ1   4.69 

 5.76   =   = 
 24.32 δ 2   0  δ
 2  − 1 . 11
Member end forces
{F } = [K ] {δ }
e e e
{F } = [T ] {F }
e e e

3 4(1,2)
0 0 0 0
P
0 1 0 − 1 2(0,0)
[K ] full1 = 20 ×  3m
0 0 0 0 1
  2
0 −1 0 1
1(0,0) 3(0,0)
4m
0 0 0 0  0   0 
0 1      local joine 1
0 − 1  0   22.2 
{F }1 = 20 ×   = 
0 0 0 0   4.69   0 
 
0 − 1 0 1  − 22.2
 
− 1.11 
N1 = 22.2 (tension or compression ?)

 7.68 5.76 − 7.68 − 5.76   0  − 29.63
 5.76 4.32 − 5.76 − 4.32 
 0  − 22.22
  
{F }
2
=  =
  
− 7.68 − 5.76 7.68 5.76   4.69   29.63 
 
− 5.76 − 4.32 5.76 4.32   − 1.11
   22.22 

 0.8 0.6 0 0
− 0.6 0.8 0 0 
[T ]2 =  
 0 0 0.8 0.6
  、
 0 0 − 0 .6 0 .8 
 0.8 0.6 0 0  − 29.63 − 37.03

− 0.6 0.8 0 0  − 22.22  0 
    
{F }2 = [T ]2 {F }2 =  = 
0 0 0.8 0.6  29.63   37.03 
 
 0 0 − 0. 6 0 . 8   22.22   0 
N 2 = 37.03 (tension)
1 0 − 1 0
0 0 0 0
[K ] 3
= 15 × 
− 1 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 0
1 0 −1 0  0  − 70.35
0 0 0 0    
 0   0 
{F }3 = 15 ×   = 
− 1 0 1 0  4.69   70.35 
 
0 0 0 0   
− 1.11  0  
N 3 = 70.35 (tension)

Lecture 15
Stiffness Method (3): Plane Frame

combination of beam and truss

6
4
•Assembly 1 2

Load vector
•Global analysis
e
Elemental internal
Department force
of Civil &
Plane Frame
Difference and similarity between
frames and continuous beams
6
Discretisation 5 6
Nodes and elements 4 5

3
4
3
1 2
1 2

Frame
Degrees of freedom per joint (node) = 3
6
Y 5（13,14,15） 6（16,17,18）
ϕ
X 4 5
3
4（10,11,12）
3（7,8,9）
1 2
1 2
（1,2,3）（4,5,6）

1. Element analysis
e
F
moment
y localy
element
humber 5
δ e
6
F4e
F e e
e 3 F6e
F1 δ 3e local rotation
δ e
5
δ
direction
e localy
2 F2e x local x
1 l , A, EI 2δe
δ 1
e
1
4
joint
localdirectionX Joapion
{δ } = {δe
1
e
δ 2
e
δ 3
e
δ 4
e
δ 5
e
δ} 6
e T
{F } = {F e
1
e
F 2
e
F 3
e
F 4
e
F 5
e
F } 6
e T
moment
{F } = [K ] {δ }
e e e
 F1e   k11 k12 k13 k14 k15 k16  δ 1e 

 F e  k  e 
 2e   21 k 22 k 23 k 24 k 25 k 26  δ 2 
 F3   k31 k32 k33 k34 k35 k36  δ 3e 
 e =   e 
 F4  k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44 k 45 k 46  δ 4 
 F5e   k51 k52 k53 k54 k55 k56  δ 5e 
 e   e 
 F6  k61 k62 k63 k64 k65 k66  δ 6 

Element stiffness matrix: 1st column
δ 1e = 1, δ 2e = δ 3e = δ 4e = δ 5e = δ 6e = 0
1 l , A, EI 2
 F1   k11 
e EAll
 F e  k  0 EA/l e EA/l
 2e   21 
 F3  k31  0 δ 1e = 1
 e =  
 F4  k 41  砼
⼀
k11e = EA / l k = − EA / l
e
 F5e  k51  0
41
 e   k =0
e
k =0
e
 F6  k61  0 21 51
k31e = 0 k =0
e
61
Element stiffness matrix: 2nd column
δ 2e = 1, δ 1e = δ 3e = δ 4e = δ 5e = δ 6e = 0
 F1e   k12  0
6EI/l 2
6EI/l 2
 F e  k  EI /2 δ 2e = 1 l , A, EI
 2e   22  3
 F3  k32 6 EI e
 e =   红
3
12EI/l 12EI/l 3
 F4  k 42  0
 F5e  k52  β-
12 EI
 e    F1
e
  EA / l k12 k13 k14 k15 k16  δ 1e 
 F6  k62  “  F2e   0
6 EI
 e 
 e  k 22 k 23 k 24 k 25 k 26  δ 2 
k12e = 0 k 42e = 0  F3   0 k32 k33 k34 k35 k36  δ 3e 
 e =   e 
12 EI 12 EI  F4  − EA / l k 42 k 43 k 44 k 45 k 46  δ 4 
k 22 = 3
e
k52 = − 3
e
   0 k56  δ 5e 
e
l l F5 k52 k53 k54 k55
 e   e 
6 EI 6 EI  F6   0 k62 k63 k64 k65 k66  δ 6 
k32 = 2
e
k62 = 2
e
l l
θ=1

Q1 = 6EI/L2 Q2 = 6EI/L2
L
∆=1
M1 = 6EI/L2 M2 = 6EI/L2
Q1 = 12EI/L3 Q2 = 12EI/L3
θ=1
M1 = 3EI/L
Q1 = 3EI/L2
Q2 = 3EI/L2
∆=1
M1 = 3EI/L2
Q1 = 3EI/L3 Q2 = 3EI/L3
Environmental Engineering Page 9
Element stiffness matrix: 3rd column
δ = 1, δ = δ = δ = δ = δ = 0
3
e
1
e
2
e
4
e
5
e
6
e
δ 3e = 1
 F1e   k13  2 EI/l
l , A, EI
 F e  k 
 2e   23  4 EI/l e
 F3  k33  6 EI/l 2
6 EI/l 2
 e =  
 F4  k 43 
 F5e  k53  k13e = 0 k 43e = 0
 e  
 F6  k63  6 EI 6 EI
k = 2e
23 k =− 2
e
53
l l
4 EI 2 EI
k33 =
e k63 =
e
l l
 EA / l 0 0 − EA / l 0 0 
 0 2 
 12 EI / l 3
6 EI / l 2
0 − 12 EI / l 3
6 EI / l 
 0 6 EI / l 2
4 EI / l 0 − 6 EI / l 2
2 EI / l 
[K ] e
=
− EA / l 0 0 EA / l 0 0

 
 0 − 12 EI / l 3 − 6 EI / l 2 0 12 EI / l 3 − 6 EI / l 2 
 
 0 6 EI / l 2
2 EI / l 0 − 6 EI / l 2
4 EI / l 
Properties of K [ ] e
1. Symmetricity [K ] = ([K ] )
e e T
2. Singularity ( )
det [K ] = 0
e

Sub-matrix
{F }1  [K ]11 [K ]  {δ }1 

e e e
 =
12
   
{F }2  [K ]21 [K ]
22  {δ }2 
firstjoint
 F1e   EA / l 0 0 − EA / l 0 0  δ1e 
F e   0 2  e 
−  δ 2 
3 2 3
12 EI / l 6 EI / l 0 12 EI / l 6 EI / l
 2e  
 F3   0 6 EI / l 2 4 EI / l 0 − 6 EI / l 2 2 EI / l  δ 3e 
 e =   e 
F
 4  − EA / l 0 0 EA / l 0 0  δ 4 
 F5e   0 − 12 EI / l 3 − 6 EI / l 2 0 12 EI / l 3 − 6 EI / l 2  δ 5e 
 e   e 
 F6   0 6 EI / l 2
2 EI / l 0 − 6 EI / l 2
4 EI / l  δ 6 
secondjoint
2. Coordinate transformation
End forces in the

local coordinate End forces in the
global coordinate
F5e
y F4e x
e F6e
个α
e
F
3
e
F1 e
F 2
e
F
F1 = F cos α + F sin α
e
1
e
2
e
y 5
F 4
e
F = − F sin α + F cos α
e e e F 3
e
e F6e
2 1 2
Fe α
1
F =F
e e
e x
3 3 F 2
e
{F } = [t ]{F }
e
 F1   cos α sin α 0  F1  e e
      1 1
 F2  = − sin α cos α 0  F2 
F   0
  
3 0 1  F 
 3  {F } = [t ]{F }
e
2
e
2
{F }1   [t ] [0] {F }1  {F } = [T ] {F }

e e e
e e e
  =  
{F }2  [0] [t ]  F 2 
 { } ( 6 × 6 ,
( 3× 3 )
 cos α sin α 0 0 0 0 Coordinate

− sin α cos α 0 
 0 0 0  transformation
 0 0 1 0 0 0 matrix
[T ] = 
e

 0 0 0 cos α sin α 0 
 0

0 0 − sin α cos α 0
0 1
 {δ } = [T ] {δ }
e e e
 0 0 0 0
[T]e – orthogonal
([T ] ) [T ] = [I ]
e T e
([T ] ) = ([T ] )
e T e −1
{F }
e
( ) {F }
= [T ]
e T e
{F } = [K ] {δ }
e e e
( ) [K ] {δ } {δ } = [T ] {δ }
= [T ]
e T e e e e e
( ) [K ] [T ] {δ } = [K ] {δ }
= [T ]
e T e e e e e
[K ] = ([T ] ) [K ] [T ]
e e T e e
in
Stiffness matrix
flobal system

0 1 0 0 0 0
− 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 0
α e = 90 [T ] e = 
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 −1 0 0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 1
[K ] e
( ) [K ]
= [T ]
e T e
[T ] e
 [t ] [0] [K11 ] [K12 ]  [t ] [0]

T e
= ×  ×
[ 0] [t ] [K 21 ] [K 22 ] [0] [t ]

[t ]T [K11 ]e [t ] [t ]T [K12 ]e [t ]

= T e 
[t ] [K 21 ] [t ] [t ] [K 22 ] [t ]
e T
 12 EI / l 3 0 − 6 EI / l 2 − 12 EI / l 3 0 − 6 EI / l 2 
 
 0 EA / l 0 0 − EA / l 0 
 − 6 EI / l 2 0 4 EI / l 6 EI / l 2 0 2 EI / l 
= 2 
− 12 EI / l
3 2 3
0 6 EI / l 12 EI / l 0 6 EI / l 
 0 − EA / l 0 0 EA / l 0 
 
 − 6 EI / l
2 2
0 2 EI / l 6 EI / l 0 4 EI / l 

In general ellment
6 × 6
λ x = cos α , λ y = sin α

Example 1
 0.5 0 0 − 0.5 0 0 
2 3  0 1 6 0 − 1 6 
 
1  0 6 48 0 0 24 
2
y [K ] = [K ] = − 0.5 0 0 0.5 0 0 
1 2
l  
x
In local coordinate
 0 −1 − 6 0 1 − 6
1  the sane

system they
are
, .
l Becanbe Same EIAL  0 6 24 0 − 6 48 
.
EI = 144 α1 = 0
[T ] 1
= I 6×6
EA = 6; l = 12
[K ] = ([T ] ) [K ] [T ] = [K ]
1 1 T 1 1 1
 EA / l 0 0 − EA / l 0 0 
 0 2 
 12 EI / l 3
6 EI / l 2
0 − 12 EI / l 3
6 EI / l 
 0 6 EI / l 2 4 EI / l 0 − 6 EI / l 2 2 EI / l 
[K ] e
= 
− EA / l 0 0 EA / l 0 0 
 0 − 12 EI / l 3 − 6 EIDepartment
/ l2 0 12ofEICivil
/ l 3 −&6 EI / l 2 
 
 0 6 EI / l 2 Environmental
2 EI / l 0 −Engineering
6 EI / l 2 4 EI / l 
α 2 = 90 0 1 0 0 0 0
3
2 − 1 0 0 0 0 0
∵

1 0 0 1 0 0 0
2 [T ] 2
= 
l 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 −1 0 0
1  
l  0 0 0 0 0 1
 1 0 −6 −1 0 − 6
—
七
个
0
-
θ< 5
 0 0.5 0 0 − 0.5 0 
七

-
0
[K ]2
= [T ] ( )[ ] 2 T 2 2 − 6
K [T ] = 
 −1
0
0
48
6
6
1
0
0
24 
6 

 0 − 0.5 0 0 0.5 0 
 
− 6 0 24 6 0 48 

3. Assembly 2(4,5,6)
Post-process 1 3
2 (7,8,9)
δ 1   P1  1(1,2,3)
δ  P 
 2  2 
δ 3   P3  P6 P5 P9
    P7
δ
 4   P4  P4
{∆} = δ 5  {P} = P5 
δ 6   P6  P1 P8
   
δ 7   P7  P3
δ  Y direcTion  P
-
 P2
7
 8  displacement ct
 8 
δ 9  joine 3  P9 
Nodal displacement Nodal forces

 0.5 0 0 − 0.5 0 0  (4)
 0 1 6 0 − 1 6  (5)
 
 0 6 48 0 0 24  (6) λ 1
= {4 5 6 7 8 9}T
[K ] 1 =  
− 0.5 0 0 0.5 0 0  (7)
 0 −1 − 6 0 1 − 6 (8)
 
 0 6 24 0 − 6 48  (9)
(4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
 1 0 −6 −1 0 − 6 (1)
 0 0.5 0 0 − 0 .5 0  (2)

− 6 0 48 6 0 24  (3)
[K ] 2 = 
 −1 0 6 1 0 6  (4)
 0 − 0.5 0 0 0.5 0  (5)
 
− 6 (6)
λ 2 = {1 2 3 4 5 6}T
0 24 6 0 48 
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

1 0 − 6 −1 0 −6  (1)
 0 0.5 0 0 − 0.5 0  (2)
 
− 6 0 48 6 0 24  (3)
  (4)
 − 1 0 6 1 + 0. 5 0 + 0 6 + 0 − 0 .5 0 0 
[K ] =  0 − 0.5 0 0 + 0 0.5 + 1 0 + 6 0 − 1 6  (5)
 
− 6 0 24 6 + 0 0 + 6 48 + 48 0 0 24  (6)
 − 0.5 0 0 0.5 0 0  (7)
 
 0 −1 −6 0 1 − 6 (8)
 0 6 24 0 − 6 48  (9)
 
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

boundary
condition 1 0 − 6 −1 0 −6  (1)
 0 0.5 0 0 − 0.5 0  (2)
 
− 6 0 48 6 0 24  (3)
  (4)
 − 1 0 6 1 + 0. 5 0 + 0 6 + 0 − 0 .5 0 0 
[K ] =  0 − 0.5 0 0 + 0 0.5 + 1 0 + 6 0 − 1 6  (5)
 
− 6 0 24 6 + 0 0 + 6 48 + 48 0 0 24  (6)
 − 0.5 0 0 0.5 0 0  (7)
 
 0 −1 −6 0 1 − 6 (8)
 0 6 24 0 − 6 48  (9)
 
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

3. Assembly
2(1,2,3)
Pre-process 1 3
(0,0,0)
2
δ1   P1  1(0,0,0)
 
{∆} = δ 2  {P} = P2 
δ  P 
 3  3 
Nodal displacement Nodal forces P3
P2
P1

 0.5 0 0 − 0.5 0 0  (1)
 0 1 6 0 − 1 6  (2)
 
 0 6 48 0 0 24  (3)
[K ]1full = 
 − 0. 5 0 0 0 . 5 0 0  (0)
 0 −1 − 6 0 1 − 6 (0)
 
 0 6 24 0 − 6 48  (0)
(1) (2) (3) (0) (0) (0)
1  (1) (2) (3)

2 
  0.5 0 0  (1)
3 
=  0 1 6  (2)

1 
λ =   = {1 2 3 0 0 0}
T
[K ] 1
0
0  0 6 48 (3)
 
0
 
 1 0 −6 −1 0 − 6 (0)
 0
 0.5 0 0 − 0.5 0  (0)
− 6 0 48 6 0 24  (0)
[K ] full 2 = 
 −1 0 6 1 0 6  (1)
 0 − 0.5 0 0 0.5 0  (2)
 
− 6 0 24 6 0 48  (3)
(0) (0) (0) (1) (2) (3)
0 (1) (2) (3)

0
  1 0 6  (1)
λ 2 0
 
=   = {0 0 0 1 2 3}
T
[K ] 2 = 0 0.5 0  (2)
1 
2  6 0 48 (3)
 
3 
 
(1) (2) (3)
1.5 0 6  (1)
[K ] = [K ] 1 + [K ] 2 =  0 1.5 6  (2)
 6 6 96 (3)

Example 2
12 × 12
qlobal
2(4,5,6) 2 4(10,11,12) 2(0,2,3) 2 4(4,5,6)
1 3 1 3
3 3
1(1,2,3) 1(0,0,1)
(7,8,9) (0,0,0)
Post-process Pre-process

Pre-process
2(0,2,3) 2 4(4,5,6)
qlobal 0 0 1 0 2 3
local
1 2 3 4 5 6 1
k16  1 0
<
 k11 k12 k13 k14 k15 1 3

k k 26  2
3
k 22 k 23 k 24 k 25 0 1(0,0,1)
 21 (0,0,0)
 k31 k32 k33 k34 k35 k36  3 1
[K ] full = 
1

k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44 k 45 k 46  4 0
 k51 k52 k53 k54 k55 k56  5 2
 
k61 k62 k63 k64 k65 k66  631 2 3 4 5 6
k33
1 1
k35 1
k36 1
k 1 1 1
k56 2
 53 k 55 
1 1 1
k k
 63 65 k66 3
{λ} 1
= {0 0 1 0 2 3}
T
[K ] =  4
 
 5
 
  6
0 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 2(0,2,3) 2 4(4,5,6)
2
 k11 k12 k13 k14 k15 k16  1 0
k
 21 k 22 k 23 k 24 k 25 k 26  2 2 1 3
3
 k31 k32 k33 k34 k35 k36  3 3 1(0,0,1)
[K ]
2
full =  4 4
(0,0,0)
k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44 k 45 k 46 
 k51 k52 k53 k54 k55 k56  5 5
 
k61 k62 k63 k64 k65 k66  6 6
1 2 3 4 5 6
 k33
1 1
k35 k361
 1
{λ} 2 = {0 2 3 4 5 6}  k53
T 1
k 1
+ k 2
k 1
+ k 2
k 242 k 252 k 262  2
 1 55 22 56 23

k k 1
+ k
 63 65 32 66 33
2
k 1
+ k 2
k342 k352 k362  3
[K ] =  k 422 k 432 k 442 k 452 k 462  4
 
 k522 k532 k542 2
k552 k56  5
 2 2 

 k 62 k 63 k642 k652 k662 
 6
0 0 0 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 3 2(0,2,3) 2 4(4,5,6)
 k11 k12 k13 k14 k15 k16  1 0
k
 21 k 22 k 23 k 24 k 25 k 26  2 0 1 3
 k31 k32 k33 k34 k35 k36  3 0 3
[K ]
3
full =  1(0,0,1)
k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44 k 45 k 46  4 4 (0,0,0)
 k51 k52 k53 k54 k55 k56  5 5
 
 k 61 k 62 k 63 k 64 k 65 k 66  6 6
{λ} 3 = {0 0 0 4 5 6}
T
1 2 3
1
4 5 6
k 1
k 1
k 1
 33 35 36 
 k53
1 1
k55 + k222 k56 + k 23
1 2
k 242 k 252 k 262  2
 1 k 2 
k k 1
+ k 2
 63 65 32 66 33 k 1
+ k 2 2
k34 35
2
k36  3
[K ] =  k 422 k 432 k 442 + k 443 k 452 + k 453 k 462 + k 463  4
 3
k542 + k54 k552 + k55
3
k56+ k56 
3
 k522 k532 2
5
 k642 + k643 k652 + k65 k662 + k66 
2 2 3 3
 k k  6
 62 63

4. Nodal load vector
q Pl P
1 2 3
l l/2 l/2
(1) (2) (3)
{P} = [K ]{∆} ql 2 / 12 q Pl / 8
P
{F } = [K ] {δ }
e e e
ql 2 / 12
+ {FE }
e ql 2 / 12 − 9 Pl / 8 Pl / 8

4. Nodal load vector FE 4 Fixed-end forces
FE 6 e
 FE1 
 
 FE 2 
e FE 5 {F } E
e
= 
FE 3 
 FE 6 
FE 2
FE1
{FE } e
( ) {F }
= [T ]
e T
E
e
{P } = −{F }
Q
e
E
e
( ) {F }
= − [T ]
e T
E
e
FE 4
Equivalent nodal load FE 6
{P } = −{F }
Q
e
E
e
( ) {F }
= − [T ]
e T
E
e
e
FE 5
FE 3
{PQ }e   [t ] [0] {FE }1 
T
 e
FE 2
e  = −

1 FE1
{PQ }2  [0] [t ] {FE }e2 
Fixed-end forces
− [t ]T {FE }e  e
= 1
e
 FE1 
− [t ] {FE }2 
T
 
 FE 2 
{F } E
e
= 

 FE 6 
Example 3: calculate the equivalent nodal load
P
2(4,5,6)
 PQ1 
1 3 P  {PQ }1 
q 2
(7,8,9)
l {PQ }=  Q2  = {PQ }2 
1(1,2,3)   {P } 
 PQ 9   Q 3 
l/2 l/2

{P } 2
{PQ } 
Q 1
 {P
{PQ } =  1  }
 Q 1 
1
{P } 2
= 1
2
{P }= {P } + {P } 
 1  2
2
1
{PQ }2  {PQ }2 
Q Q Q 1 Q 2
 
 {P } 
Q 2
1

Pl / 8 P Pl / 8 1
α =0
1 1 0 0
[t ] 1 =
0 1 0
P/2 P/2 
0
 0 
1
 0   0 
3 local x
-
driection
{FE }11 =  P / 2  {PQ }11 = −[t ]T {FE }11 =  − P / 2 

Pl / 8 − Pl / 8
   
 0   0 

{FE }2 =  P / 2 
1 
{PQ }2 = −[t ] {FE }2 = − P / 2
1 T 1  
− Pl / 8  Pl / 8 
   

ql 2 / 12 ql / 2  0   ql / 2 
q 2
{FE }12 =  ql / 2  {PQ }12 = −[t ]T {FE }12 =  0 
)
ql 2 / 12 equivalent load  2 

localy ql / 2    − ql / 12
<
in
glohal system
ql 2 / 12  0   ql / 2 
   
{FE }2 =  ql / 2 
2
{PQ }2 = −[t ] {FE }2 =  0 
2 T 2
− ql 2 / 12 ql 2 / 12

2
α = 90
o
   
 0 1 0
 ql   ql 
[t ] = 0 − 2  −2 
2
− 1 0 
   

 0 0 1
 {FE }1 =  0 2 
2
{FE }2 =  0 2 
2
 ql   ql 
  − 
 12   12 
P
2(4,5,6)
1 3  ql / 2 
q (7,8,9)  
2 l  0 
1(1,2,3)  − ql / 12 
2
 {P } 
l/2 l/2
2  
Q 1
 0 + ql / 2 
 
{P }= {P } + {P }
Q
1
Q 1
2
Q 2
=  −P/2+0 
  − Pl / 8 + ql 2 / 12
 {P } 
Q 2
1
 
 0 
 
 − P / 2 
 Pl / 8 

P
2(4,5,6)
1 3
(7,8,9)
Physical meaning
q 2 l
1(1,2,3)  ql / 2 
 0 
l/2 l/2  
 − ql / 12 
2
 
P/2 P Pl / 8  ql / 2 
ql / 2 Pl / 8 0 {PQ }=  − P / 2 
 
− Pl / 8 + ql 2 / 12
ql 2 P/2  
q 12  0 
 
 −P/2 
ql / 2  Pl / 8 
ql 2 / 12
5. Solving equations
{P} = [K ]{∆}
Local {F } = [K ] {δ } + {F }
e e e
E
e
{δ } = [T ] {δ }
e e e
Coordinate
{F } = [K ] [T ] {δ } + {F }
e e e e
E
e
Global {F } = [K ] {δ } + {FE }
e e e e
Coordinate
{F } = [T ] {F }
e e e

with axial deformation without axial deformation
δ1 δ4 δ1 δ1
3(1,2,3) 4(4,5,6) 3(1,0,2) 4(1,0,3)

2 2
6 6 )
1 3 ( ×
1 3
1(0,0,0) 2(0,0,0) 1(0,0,0) 2(0,0,0)
6 6
5（7,8,9） 6（10,11,12）（4,0,5） 6（4,0,6）
5
2 5 2 5
3 3
4（4,5,6） 4（1,0,3）
3（1,2,3） 3（1,0,2）
1 4 1 4
1（0,0,0） 2（0,0,0） 1（0,0,0） 2（0,0,0）

Example 4: neglect the axial deformation 2 1
3
1
L=12m, EI=144 P = 10kN , q = 5kN / m P
q
1. DOFs = 3
2. Elemental stiffness matrix
3(1,0,2) 4(1,0,3)
α = α = 90
1 3 
[K ] full 1
= 2
1 0 − 6 −1 0 − 6 (0) 1 3
0 EA / l 0 0 − EA / l 0  (0)
 
− 6 0 48 6 0 24  (0) 1(0,0,0) 2(0,0,0)
 
 −1 0 6 1 0 6 (1)
 0 − EA / l 0 0 EA / l 0 (0)  12EI / l 0 − 6EI / l
  − 12 EI / l 3 − 6 EI / l 2 
3 2
0
 
− 6 0 24 6 0 48  (2)  − 6EI0 / l EA0/ l 4EI0 / l
2
0
6 EI / l 2
− EA / l
0
0
2 EI / l 

= 
(0) (0) (0) (1) (0) (2) − 12 EI / l
 0
3
0
− EA / l
6 EI / l 2
0
12 EI / l
0
3
0
EA / l
6 EI / l 2 
0 
{λ} 1 = {0 0 0 1 0 2}T
 
 − 6 EI / l
2
0 2 EI / l 6 EI / l 2 0 4 EI / l 
Example 4: neglect the axial deformation 2 1
3
1
L=12m, EI=144 P = 10kN , q = 5kN / m P
q
1. DOFs = 3
2. Elemental stiffness matrix
3(1,0,2) 4(1,0,3)
α = α = 90
1 3 
[K ] full 1
= 2
1 0 − 6 −1 0 − 6 (0) 1 3
0 EA / l 0 0 − EA / l 0  (0)
 
− 6 0 48 6 0 24  (0) 1(0,0,0) 2(0,0,0)
  Contribution of element s
of
 −1 0 6 1 0 6 (1)
global
marrix
(1) (2) (3)
'
o
 0 − EA / l 0 0 EA / l 0 (0)
  1 6 0 (1)
− 6 0 24 6 0 48  (2)
(0) (0) (0) (1) (0) (2) [K ] 1 = 6 48 0 (2)
{λ} 1 = {0 0 0 1 0 2}T 0 0 0 (3)
3(1,0,2) 4(1,0,3)
[K ] full 3
= 2
1 3
1 0 − 6 −1 0 − 6 (0)
0 EA / l 0 0 − EA / l 0  (0)
  1(0,0,0) 2(0,0,0)
− 6 0 48 6 0 24  (0)
 
 − 1 0 6 1 0 6  (1)
 0 − EA / l 0 0 EA / l 0  (0)
 
− 6 0 24 6 0 48  (3)
(0) (0) (0) (1) (0) (3)
(1) (2) (3)
1 0 6  (1)
{λ} 3 = {0 0 0 1 0 3}
T
[K ] 3 = 0 0 0  (2)
6 0 48 (3)
3(1,0,2) 4(1,0,3)
[K ] full = [K ]
2 2
α =02 
2
1 3
 EA / l 0 0 − EA / l 0 0 (1)
 0 1 6 0 − 1 6  (0)
  1(0,0,0) 2(0,0,0)
 0 0 6 48 00 − 6 24  (2)
= 
⼀
− EA / l 0 0 EA / l 0 0 (1)
   EA / l
 0
0 0 − EA / l 0
− EI l
0
2 

 0 1 − 6
3 2 3
12 EI l/ 6 EI l/ 0 12 / 6 /
EI l 
−1 − 6 0 (0) [K ] e

 0
=
6 EI / l 2 4 EI / l 0 − 6 EI / l 2 2 EI / l 

 
0 0
− EA / l 0 0 EA / l 0 0 
 0 0 6 24 0 − 6 48  (3)  0

 0
− 12 EI / l 3 − 6 EI / l 2
6 EI / l 2 2 EI / l
0
0
12 EI / l 3 − 6 EI / l 2 
− 6 EI / l 2 4 EI / l 

(1) (0) (2) (1) (0) (3)

(1) (2) (3)
{λ} 2
= {1 0 2 1 0 3}
T
 EA EA EA EA 
 l − l − l + l 0 + 0 0 + 0 (1)
[K ] 2 =

0+0 48 24  (2)

 0+0 24 48  (3)
 
3(1,0,2) 4(1,0,3)
3. Assembly 2
1 3
[K ] = [K ] 1 + [K ] 2 + [K ] 3 =
1(0,0,0) 2(0,0,0)
1 6 0 0 0 0 1 0 6 
6 48 0   + 0 0 0 
  + 0 48 24  
0 0 0 0 24 48 6 0 48
2 6 6 
= 6 96 24
6 24 96
4. Nodal Load 7
nodamad 10
equivalene
{P} = {PD }+ {PQ } {PD } =  0  P

q
loading joints
actually acting 0
2
on the
ql 2 / 12  
ql / 12
.
ql / 2
ql / 2
q 3(1,0,2) 4(1,0,3)
2
ql / 2 2
ql / 2
1 3
2
ql / 12 ql 2 / 12
− 0.5ql  1(0,0,0) 2(0,0,0)
 0  − 30  30 
   0   0 
 ql  
2
  
 12    60  − 60
 30 40
{FE } 1
= =

{P } 1
=


− 0.5ql  − 30
  
Q full
 30

 {PQ } = 60 {P} = 60
 0   0   0  0 0
 ql 2         
−   
− 60  60 
 
 12 
5. Nodal displacement
2 6 6  δ 1  40  26.43 
6
 96     
24 δ 2  = 60  {∆} = − 0.66
δ  0   − 1.49 

6 24 96 
 3     
3(1,0,2) 4(1,0,3)
6. Member end forces 2
1 3
{F } = [K ] {δ } + {FE } =
1 1 1 1
1(0,0,0) 2(0,0,0)
1 0 − 6 −1 0 − 6  0  − 30 − 52.50
0 EA / l 0 0 − EA / l 0  0   0   0 
      
− 6 0 48 6 0 24   0   60   202.85 
  + = 
 − 1 0 6 1 0 6  26 . 43   − 30   − 7. 50 
 0 − EA / l 0 0 EA / l 0   0 local   0   0 
   joint    
2
− 6 0 24 6 0 48  − 0.66 − 60  67.13 

 EA / l 0 0 − EA / l 0 0   26.43   0 
 0 1 6 0 − 1 6   0   − 12.90 
    
 0 6 48 0 − 6 24  − 0.66 − 67.13
{F }2 =  = 
− EA / l 0 0 EA / l 0 0   26.43   0 
 0 −1 − 6 0 1 − 6  0   12.90 
    
 0 6 24 0 − 6 48   − 1.49  − 87.14
1 0 − 6 −1 0 − 6  0  − 17.50
0 EA / l 0 0 − EA / l 0   0   0 

− 6 0 48 6 0 24   0  122.72 
{F } = 
3
 = 
 −1 0 6 1 0 6   26.43   17.50 
 0 − EA / l 0 0 EA / l 0  0   0 
    
− 6 0 24 6 0 48  − 1.49  87.14 
− 52.50  0  − 17.50
 0   − 12.90   0 
     
 202.85  − 67.13 122.72 
{F } = 
1
 {F }2 =  {F } = 
3

 − 7.50   0   17 .50 
 0   12.90   0 
     
 67.13  − 87.14  87.14 
87.14
67.13 7.50
12.90
202.85 122.72 17.5

52.50
BMD SFD
Lecture 16
Stiffness Method (4): 3D Structures

Structural Engineering
1. Coordinate System
Z
Y
X
2. Degrees of freedom
3. Elemental Stiffness Matrix
sym
Flexural moment of inertia
Y
hb3 bh 3
Iy = IZ =
12 12
h
Z Polar moment of inertia
b J = Iy + Iz
Shear modulus
E
G=
2(1 + µ )

2D frame
 EA / l 0 0 − EA / l 0 0 
 0 2 
 12 EI / l 3
6 EI / l 2
0 − 12 EI / l 3
6 EI / l 
 0 6 EI / l 2 4 EI / l 0 − 6 EI / l 2 2 EI / l 
[K ] e
=
− EA / l 0 0 EA / l 0 0

 
 0 − 12 EI / l 3 − 6 EI / l 2 0 12 EI / l 3 − 6 EI / l 2 
 
 0 6 EI / l 2
2 EI / l 0 − 6 EI / l 2
4 EI / l 

3D Truss
sym
4. Coordinate Transformation
 [t ] [0] [0] [0]

e e
l xx l xy l xz 
[0] [t ] [0] [0]
 
[T ] = 
e
[0] [0] [t ] [0]

 [t ] = l yx l yy lzz 
e
  l zx l zy l zz 
[0] [0] [0] [t ]  
l xx : Directional cosine between x and x axes

Lectures 17 & 18
Finite Element Method (FEM)
for Structural Analysis

• What is finite element method (FEM)?
• Formulation of bar elements in truss
structures
• Formulation of beam elements in beam
and frame structures

What is finite element method (FEM)?
Finite element method (FEM) is generalization of the stiffness

method primed for ease of implementation in computer (commercial
programs).
Step 1: Discretization of the structure
The first step in the finite element method is to divide the structure
or solution region into subdivisions or elements. Hence the
structure is to be modeled with suitable finite elements. The
number, type, size and arrangement of the elements are to be
decided.

Step 2: Selection of a proper displacement model
Since the displacement solution of a complex structure under any

specified load conditions cannot be presented exactly, we assume
some suitable solution within an element to approximate the
unknown solution. In general, the solution or interpolation model is
taken in the form of a polynomial.
Step 3: Derivation of element stiffness matrices
From the assumed displacement model, the stiffness matrix [ K (e) ] of

element “e” is derived by using either equilibrium conditions or a
suitable variational principle.

Step 4: Assemblage to obtain structure stiffness
matrix and structure stiffness equation
The individual element stiffness matrices are assembled in a suitable

manner and the overall structure stiffness equation is formulated as
{F } = [ K ]{d }
Step 5: Solution for unknown nodal displacements
The overall stiffness equation is modified to account for the

boundary conditions of the problem. After the incorporation of the
boundary conditions, the solution to the overall stiffness equation is
obtained.

Step 6: Computation of element forces
With the obtained nodal displacements, the element internal forces,

if required, can be computed by analysis in the element level.
In certain problems, the structure concerned cannot be

represented as an assemblage of only one type of finite
elements. In such cases, we may have to use two or more
types of elements (spring elements, bar/truss elements,
beam elements, plate elements, plane stress elements, plane
strain elements, 3D solid elements, etc.) for idealization.

Formulation of bar elements in truss structures
Derivation of stiffness matrix

The element is subjected to tensile forces T directed along the local
axis of the bar and applied at nodes 1 and 2. Here we have
introduced two coordinate systems: a local one (xˆ , yˆ) and a global one
(x, y).
Ddisplaenanthodel
Ldijinnnisplnehiaaemnomint
篮
s foue

The bar element is assumed to have cross-sectional area A,
modulus of elasticity E, and initial length L. The nodal degrees of
freedom are local axial displacements (longitudinal
displacements directed along the length of the bar) represented
by dˆ1x and dˆ2 x at the ends of the element.
The strain-stress relationship, the strain-displacement relationship,

and the force equilibrium equation are (where û is the axial
displacement function along the element in the x̂ direction)
Material
property σ x = Eε x relationship
Stvess train
-
duˆ
geomeeric
condition
εx = Stress
-
displacement relationship
dxˆ
force equilibrium Aσ x = T
The steps outlined in the previous section are used to derive the
stiffness matrix for the bar element and then to illustrate a complete
solution for a bar assemblage.
Step 1: Select the element type

Represent the bar by labeling nodes at each end and in general by
labeling the element number.
Step 2: Select a displacement function

Assume a linear displacement variation along the x̂ axis of the bar:
uˆ = a1 + a2 xˆ
with the total number of coefficients ai always equal to the total number of
degrees of freedom associated with the element.

Here the total number of degrees of freedom is two − axial
displacements at each of the two nodes of the element. According to
uˆ (0) = a1 = dˆ1x
uˆ ( L) = a1 + a2 L = dˆ2 x
we have
dˆ2 x − dˆ1x
uˆ = ( ) xˆ + dˆ1x n
L az
In matrix form,
 dˆ1x 
uˆ = {N1 N 2 } 
ˆ
d 2 x 
shape function
with shape functions given by
xˆ xˆ
N1 = 1 − N2 =
L L

The above linear displacement function û , plotted over the length
of the bar element, is shown below.
Step 3: Define the stress-strain relationships
The strain-displacement relationship is

i = fdx ↓ * tdy
-
duˆ dˆ2 x − dˆ1x

εx = =
dxˆ L
and the stress-strain relationship is
dˆ2 x − dˆ1x
σ x = E( )
L
EEx
Step 4: Derive the element stiffness matrix
From the elementary mechanics, we have.

dˆ2 x − dˆ1x
T = Aσ x = AE ( )
L
Making use of the same sign convention taken in the stiffness
method, we have
fˆ1x = −T and fˆ2 x = T

so

ˆ − dˆ
d AE ˆ
fˆ1x = −T = − AE ( 2 x 1x ) = (d1x − dˆ2 x )
L L
ˆ ˆ
ˆf = T = AE ( d 2 x − d1x ) = AE (−dˆ + dˆ )
2x 1x 2x
L L
Rewriting the above equations in matrix form, we obtain
 fˆ1x  AE  1 − 1  dˆ1x 
ˆ =  − 1 1  ˆ 
 f2x  L   d 2 x 
From the basic definition fˆ = kˆdˆ , we obtain the stiffness matrix of a
bar element as
ˆ AE  1 − 1
k=
L − 1 1 
Spring element as a special bar (truss) element: Consider the linear
spring element subjected to resulting nodal tensile forces T directed
along the spring axial direction x̂ as shown below, so as to be in
equilibrium. The local x̂ is directed from node 1 to node 2. The
original distance between nodes before deformation is L. The spring
constant is k. The nodal forces of a spring element are
fˆ1 x = −T
fˆ2 x = T

The relationship between the nodal forces of a spring element and its
nodal displacements in the axial direction is
 fˆ1 x   k − k   dˆ1 x 
ˆ =  
 f 2 x  − k k  dˆ2 x 
So the element stiffness matrix for a spring element with respect to the
local coordinate is
 k − k  1 − 1
k̂ =   = k 
 − k k   − 1 1 
By comparing the above expression with the element stiffness matrix for
a bar element provided before, it is found that a spring element is
equivalent to a bar element by taking k = AE/L (When a spring is
perpendicularly attached to a horizontal beam. It is not necessary to
transform the spring element stiffness matrix in the local coordinate to
that in the global coordinate, if using appropriate vertical displacement
components in formulating the spring element).
The above expression represents the stiffness matrix for a bar or
spring element in local coordinates. It is exactly the same as the
element stiffness matrix we derived from the stiffness method. Before
assembling all element stiffness matrices to the structure stiffness
matrix, it is necessary to transform each element stiffness matrix in a
local coordinate to that in the global coordinate (unless the local
coordinate coincides with the global coordinate). This transform
process and the following steps are exactly the same as those in
implementing the stiffness method.
Step 5: Assemblage to obtain structure stiffness equation
Step 6: Solve for nodal displacements

Step 7: Solve for element internal forces

Calculation of equivalent nodal forces
In the stiffness method and in the above derivation, all applied forces
(including applied moments) are assumed to act at the nodes. When
there are intermediate forces (including moments), it is necessary to
calculate the equivalent nodal forces for either the stiffness method
or the finite element method. The equivalent nodal forces obtained
for the stiffness method and for the finite element method are the
same.
The displacement function and the shape functions defined in the

previous section provide a standard and convenient way to calculate
the equivalent nodal forces.

When a distributed axial force p(xˆ ) is applied between x̂ =
x1 and x̂ = x2 , the virtual work done by the applied force is
x2 x2  dˆ1x 
Wa = ∫ p ( xˆ )u ( xˆ )dxˆ = ∫ p ( xˆ ){N1 N 2 } dxˆ
x1
dinplacement
x1 dˆ2 x 
x2 function x2
= [ ∫ N1 p ( xˆ )dxˆ ]dˆ1x + [ ∫ N 2 p ( xˆ )dxˆ ]dˆ2 x
x1 x1
xˆ xˆ
where N1 = 1 − and 2
N = .
L L
The virtual work done by the equivalent nodal forces is
We = fˆ1ex dˆ1x + fˆ2ex dˆ2 x

By equating the virtual work done by the original (real) force
with the virtual work done by the equivalent nodal forces, the
equivalent nodal forces are obtained as
x2 x2
ˆf e = ∫ N p( xˆ )dxˆ = ∫ (1 − xˆ ) p( xˆ )dxˆ
1x 1
x1 x1 L
x2 x2
xˆ
fˆ2ex = ∫ N 2 p( xˆ )dxˆ = ∫ ( ) p( xˆ )dxˆ
x1 x1 L
When a concentrated (point) axial force P is applied at

x̂ = xi , the corresponding equivalent nodal forces should be
obtained by x
fˆ1ex = PN1 ( xi ) = P (1 − i )
L
x
fˆ2ex = PN 2 ( xi ) = P ( i )
L
Example 1: As shown below, a bar (a truss element rather than a beam
element) of length L is subjected to a linearly distributed axial loading
that varies from zero at node 1 to a maximum at node 2. Determine the
equivalent nodal loads.
Solution:
x2 L 2
ˆ
x CL
fˆ1ex = ∫ N1 p( xˆ )dxˆ = ∫ (1 − )Cxˆdxˆ =
x1 0 L 6
x2 L xˆ CL2
fˆ2ex = ∫ N 2 p( xˆ )dxˆ = ∫ ( )Cxˆdxˆ =
x1 0 L 3

Example 2: For the rod (bar) loaded axially as shown below, determine
the axial displacement. Let A = 2 m2, L = 60 m, E = 30×106 kN/m2. Use
(i) one element in the finite element analysis, and (ii) two elements
(equal-length) in the finite element analysis.
kN/m
Solution:
(i) One-element solution
When using one element as shown below, we have

 x
1− 
L  N1  L
{F0 } = ∫0  q x dx = ∫0  L {−10 x}dx
N2  x
 
 L 
or
 − 10 L2 10 L2   − 10 L2   − 10 × 602 
 F1x   2 + 3   6   6
  − 6000 
 = 2 = =
2  2 
= 
F
 2x   − 10 L   − 10 L   − 10 × 60   − 12000 
 3   3   3 

The stiffness matrix is
AE  1 − 1 6 1 − 1
[k ](1) =   = 10  
L − 1 1   − 1 1 
The stiffness equation is
6
− 1 d1x   − 6000 
1
10    =  
− 1 1   0   R2 x − 12000
The axial displacement at the free end is solved as
d1x = −0.006

(ii) two-element solution
When using two elements as shown below, we should obtain the

nodal forces element by element. For element 1, the nodal forces are
obtained by
 x
 f1(x1)  1 −  − 1500 
L / 2  N1  30  30 
 (1)  = ∫0  q x dx = ∫0  {−10 x}dx =  
 f 2 x  N
 2 x  − 3000 
 
 30 

For element 2, the modal forces are obtained by
 x
 f 2(x2 )  L / 2  N1  1− 
= =
30  30 {−300 − 10 x}dx = − 6000
 ( 2 )  ∫0   x q dx ∫0  x   
 f 3 x  N
 2    − 7500 
 30 
The final nodal force matrix is then
 F1x   − 1500 
  
 F2 x  = − 6000 − 3000
 F3 x   R3 x − 7500 
For element 1, the element stiffness matrix is

AE  1 − 1
ˆ
[k ](1) = = 2 × 106  1 − 1
L / 2 − 1 1  − 1 1 
For element 2, the element stiffness matrix is

AE  1 − 1
[kˆ ]( 2) = = 2 × 106  1 − 1
L / 2 − 1 1  − 1 1 
After expanding the dimension of the element stiffness matrices,
the structure stiffness matrix is assembled as
 1 −1 0 
[ K ] = 2 × 106  − 1 2 − 1
 
 0 − 1 1 
The structure stiffness equation is
 1 − 1 0   d1x   − 1500 
6
2 × 10 − 1 2 − 1  d 2 x  = − 6000 − 3000
 0 − 1 1  d 3 x = 0  R3 x − 7500 
The solution is
d1x = −0.006 d 2 x = −0.00525

Formulation of beam elements in beam and
frame structures
Derivation of stiffness matrix
The beam is of length L with axial local coordinate x̂ and transverse
local coordinate ŷ . The local transverse nodal displacements are
given by d̂ iy’s and the rotations byφˆi ’s. The local nodal forces are given
by fˆiy’s and the bending moments by m̂i’s as shown. Here we neglect
axial effects.
morment
⼀
Fotation
force displacement y direction

joint l local system

The steps outlined in the first section are used to derive the stiffness
matrix for the beam element and then to illustrate a complete
solution for a beam assemblage.
Step 1: Select the element type

Represent the beam by labeling nodes at each end and in general by
labeling the element number.
Step 2: Select a displacement function

Because the total number of degrees of freedom for each beam
element is four, the displacement function for the transverse
displacement is taken as a cubic polynomial:
vˆ( xˆ ) = a1xˆ 3 + a2 xˆ 2 + a3 xˆ + a4

vˆ(0) = dˆ1 y = a4
dvˆ(0) ˆ
= φ1 = a3
dxˆ
vˆ( L) = dˆ2 y = a1L3 + a2 L2 + a3 L + a4
∂vˆ( L) ˆ
= φ2 = 3a1L2 + 2a2 L + a3
∂xˆ
Solving the above equations for a1 to a4 in terms of the nodal

degrees of freedom, we obtain
2 ˆ ˆ 1 ˆ ˆ
vˆ = [ 3 ( d1 y − d 2 y ) + 2 (φ1 + φ2 )] xˆ 3
L L
3 1
+ [ − 2 ( dˆ1 y − dˆ2 y ) − ( 2φˆ1 + φˆ2 )] xˆ 2 + φˆ1 xˆ + dˆ1 y
L L

or in matrix form, reorganize
vˆ = [ N ]{dˆ}
 dˆ1 y 
 ˆ 
φ 
√
where [ N ] = [N1 N 2 N 3 N 4 ] {dˆ} =  1 

ˆ
d 2 y 
 φˆ 
 2 
1 1 3 2 2 3
and N1 = 3 2
(2 xˆ − 3 xˆ L + L ) 3 N2 = 3
( ˆ
x L − 2 ˆ
x L + ˆ
x L )
3 L
L
1 3 2 1 3 2 2
N3 = 3
( −2 ˆ
x + 3 ˆ
x L) N4 = ( ˆ
x L − ˆ
x L )
L 3
L
N1 , N 2 , N 3 , and N 4 are shape functions for a beam element.
Step 3: Define the stress-strain relationships
The strain-displacement relationship is

d 2vˆ
ε x ( xˆ, yˆ ) = − yˆ 2
dxˆ
and bending moment and shear force are represented by the

transverse displacement function as
d 2vˆ d 3
vˆ
mˆ ( xˆ ) = EI 2 Vˆ ( xˆ ) = EI 3
dxˆ dxˆ

Step 4: Derive the element stiffness matrix
We derive the element stiffness matrix and equations using a direct
equilibrium approach. At the nodes,
3
d vˆ(0) EI
fˆ1 y = Vˆ (0) = EI 3
= 3 (12dˆ1 y + 6 Lφˆ1 − 12dˆ2 y + 6 Lφˆ2 )
dxˆ L
d 2vˆ(0) EI ˆ + 4 L2φˆ − 6 Ldˆ + 2 L2φˆ )

mˆ 1 = −mˆ (0) = − EI = ( 6 L d1y 1 2y 2
dxˆ 2 L3
3
d vˆ( L) EI
fˆ2 y = −Vˆ ( L) = − EI 3
= 3 (−12dˆ1 y − 6 Lφˆ1 + 12dˆ2 y − 6 Lφˆ2 )
dxˆ L
d 2vˆ( L) EI ˆ + 2 L2φˆ − 6 Ldˆ + 4 L2φˆ )

mˆ 2 = mˆ ( L) = EI 2
= 3
( 6 L d1y 1 2y 2
dxˆ L

The above equations relate the nodal forces to the nodal
displacements. In matrix form, they become
 fˆ1 y   12 6 L − 12 6 L   dˆ1 y 
    
 mˆ 1  EI  6 L 2 2  ˆ 
4 L − 6 L 2 L   φ1 
 = 3   
 fˆ2 y  L − 12 − 6 L 12 − 6 L  dˆ2 y 
    
 6 L 2 2 ˆ
 mˆ 2  2 L − 6 L 4 L   φ2 
where the stiffness matrix of beam element is

 12 6L − 12 6 L 
 6L 4 L2 − 6 L 2 L2 
EI
kˆ = 3  
L − 12 − 6L 12 − 6 L 
 2
 6L 2 L2 − 6L 4L 

The above expression represents the stiffness matrix for a
beam element in local coordinates. It is exactly the same as
the element stiffness matrix derived from the stiffness
method. Before assembling all element stiffness matrices to
the structure stiffness matrix, it is necessary to transform
each element stiffness matrix in a local coordinate to that in
the global coordinate (unless the local coordinate coincides
with the global coordinate). This transform process and the
following steps are exactly the same as those in implementing
the stiffness method.
Step 5: Assemblage to obtain structure stiffness equation

Step 6: Solve for nodal displacements
Step 7: Solve for element internal forces

Calculation of equivalent nodal forces
Beams can support distributed transverse loading. Hence, we

must be able to account for distributed loading. When there are
intermediate distributed and/or concentrated forces (including
moments) applied on a beam element, it is necessary to calculate
the equivalent nodal forces for either the stiffness method or the
finite element method. The equivalent nodal forces obtained for
the stiffness method and for the finite element method are the
same.
The work-equivalence method can be used to replace

distributed and/or intermediate loads by equivalent nodal
forces.

When a distributed transverse force w(xˆ ) is applied between
x̂ = x1 and x̂ = x2 , the virtual work done by the applied force is
x2 x2
Wa = ∫ w( xˆ )v( xˆ )dxˆ = ∫ w( xˆ )[ N ]{d }dxˆ
x1 x1
x2 x2
= [ ∫ N1w( xˆ )dxˆ ]dˆ1 y + [ ∫ N 2 w( xˆ )dxˆ ]φˆ1
x1 x1
x2 x2
+ [ ∫ N 3 w( xˆ )dxˆ ]dˆ2 y + [ ∫ N 4 w( xˆ )dxˆ ]φˆ2
x1 x1

The virtual work done by the equivalent nodal forces is
We = fˆ1ey dˆ1 y + mˆ 1eφˆ1 + fˆ2ey dˆ2 y + mˆ 2eφˆ2
By equating the virtual work done by the original (real) force
with the virtual work done by the equivalent nodal forces, the
equivalent nodal forces are obtained as
x2
fˆ1ey = ∫ N1w( xˆ )dxˆ
x1
x2
mˆ 1e = ∫ N 2 w( xˆ )dxˆ
x1
x2
fˆ2ey = ∫ N 3 w( xˆ )dxˆ
x1
x2
mˆ 2e = ∫ N 4 w( xˆ )dxˆ
x1
When a concentrated (point) transverse force P is applied at x̂ =
xi, the corresponding equivalent nodal forces should be obtained
by
fˆ1ey = PN1 ( xi )
mˆ 1e = PN 2 ( xi )
fˆ2ey = PN 3 ( xi )
mˆ 2e = PN 4 ( xi )
When a distributed moment m(xˆ ) is applied between x̂ = x1

and x̂ = x2 , the (virtual) work done by the applied force
involves the rotation (slope) of the beam element:
dv
φ= = [ N ′]{d } = N1′dˆ1 y + N 2′φˆ1 + N 3′ dˆ2 y + N 4′φˆ2
dxˆ
The virtual work done by the applied moment is
x2 x2 x2
Wa = ∫ m( xˆ )φ ( xˆ )dxˆ = ∫ m( xˆ )v′( xˆ )dxˆ = ∫ m( xˆ )[ N ′]{d }dxˆ
x1 x1 x1
x2 x2
= [ ∫ N1′m( xˆ )dxˆ ]dˆ1 y + [ ∫ N 2′ m( xˆ )dxˆ ]φˆ1
x1 x1
x2 x2
+ [ ∫ N 3′ m( xˆ )dxˆ ]dˆ2 y + [ ∫ N 4′ m( xˆ )dxˆ ]φˆ2
x1 x1
The virtual work done by the equivalent nodal forces is still in

the standard expression of
We = fˆ1ey dˆ1 y + mˆ 1eφˆ1 + fˆ2ey dˆ2 y + mˆ 2eφˆ2

So the equivalent nodal forces are obtained as
x2
fˆ1ey = ∫ N1′m( xˆ )dxˆ
x1
x2
mˆ 1e = ∫ N 2′ m( xˆ )dxˆ
x1
x2
fˆ2ey = ∫ N 3′ m( xˆ )dxˆ
x1
x2
mˆ 2e = ∫ N 4′ m( xˆ )dxˆ
x1

When a concentrated (point) moment (couple) M is applied at
x̂ = xi , the corresponding equivalent nodal forces should be
obtained by
fˆ1ey = MN1′ ( xi )
mˆ 1e = MN 2′ ( xi )
fˆ2ey = MN 3′ ( xi )
mˆ 2e = MN 4′ ( xi )

Example 3: For the cantilever beam subjected to a uniform load w and a
concentrated free-end load P as shown below, determine the free-end
displacements by considering one beam element.
Solution:
The element stiffness matrix (it is also structure stiffness matrix because of
considering only one element) is
 12 6 L − 12 6 L 
 2 2 
EI  6 L 4 L − 6 L 2 L 
K= 3
L − 12 − 6 L 12 − 6 L 
 2 2 
 6 L 2 L − 6 L 4 L 

The equivalent nodal forces are obtained using the above
formulae as  wL 
 − 2 
 fˆ1 y   2 
   − wL 
 mˆ 1   12 
=
 ˆ   wL 
f
 2 y  − − P
 mˆ   2 
 2   wL2 
 
 12 
 wL 
F −
 1y 2 
 2  12 6 L − 12 6 L  d1 y = 0
M 1 − wL   6 L 4 L2 − 6 L 2 L2   φ = 0 
 
12 = EI    1 
 wL  3   
− L − 12 − 6 L 12 − 6 L  d
 2y 
−P  
 2   6 L 2 L − 6 L 4 L   φ2 
2 2
 wL 2

 
 12 

By applying the partitioning technique, we have
 wL 
−
 2 − P  EI  12 − 6 L  d 2 y 
 2 = 3   
 wL 2
 L − 6 L 4 L   φ2 
 12 
The solution is
 wL4 PL3 
d 2 y  − − 
8EI 3EI
 = 3 2
 φ2   wL PL 
− 6 EI − 2 EI 

The displacement at midspan 1 3 2
N3 = 3
( −2 ˆ
x + 3 ˆ
x L)
L
vˆ = [ N ]{dˆ} 1 3 2 2
N4 = ( ˆ
x L − ˆ
x L )
=N 3 dˆ2 y + N 4ϕˆ2 L3
1  L
3
 L    wL PL 
2 4 3
= 3  −2   + 3   L   − − +
L   2   2    8 EI 3EI 
1  L 3  L  2   wL PL 
2 3 2
  L −   L   − − 
L3 2
  2
    6 EI 2 EI 
 wL4 PL3   wL4 PL3 
= − − + + 
 16 EI 6 EI   48 EI 16 EI 
wL4 5 PL3
=− −
24 EI 48 EI

Using two elements, stiffness matrix of each is,
 12 3L −12 3L 
 2 
 3L L 
L2 −3L
8 EI  2 
K= 3 
L −12 −3L 12 −3L 
 
 L 2
2 
 3L −3L L 
 2 
For element 1,
 wL 
− 4 
 fˆ1 y   wL2 
  − 
 mˆ 1   48 
 = 
ˆ
 f2 y   − wL 
 mˆ   4 
 2  2 
 wL 
 48 
 wL 
− 4   12 3L −12 3L 
   2  d
1 y = 0
2
− wL   3L L 
 48  8 EI L2
−3L  
 2   ϕ1 = 0 
 = 3  −12 −3L 12 −3L   d 
 − wL  L    2y 
 4   L2 2 
 ϕ 2 
 2   3L −3L L 
 wL   2 
 48 
By applying the partitioning technique, we have

 wL 
− 4  8 EI  12 −3L  d 2 y 
 2 = 3  −3L L2   ϕ 
 wL  L   2 
 48 

For element 2,
 wL 
 −
4 
 fˆ2 y   wL2 
   − 
 mˆ 2   48 
 = 
ˆ
 f3 y  − wL
− P
 mˆ   4 
 3  2 
 wL 
 48 
 wL 
 −
4   12 3L −12 3L 
 2
  2  d 
 − wL   3L 2
−3L
L  2y
 L  
48  8 EI  2   ϕ2 
 = 3  −12 −3L 12 −3L   d 
− wL L
− P    3y 
 4   L2 ϕ 
2  3 
 2   3L −3L L 
 wL   2 
 48 
Assembly to obtain global stiffness matrix and load vector
 24 0 −12 3L   wL 
 −
 2   fˆ2 y   2 
L 
 0 2 L2 −3L     0 
8 EI  2   mˆ 2   
K= 3    =  wL 
L −12 −3L 12 −3L  ˆ
 f3 y   4− − P 
   mˆ   
 L2
2   3   wL2 
 3 L −3 L L 
 2   48 
The solution is
 17 wL4 5 PL3 
− 384 EI − 48 EI 
 
d 2 y   7 wL3 3PL2 
ϕ   − −
 2   48 EI 8 EI 
 = 
d 4
 3 y   − wL − PL 
3
 ϕ3   8 EI 3EI 
 3 2 
 − wL PL 
−
 6 EI 2 EI 

The displacement at midspan is
17 wL4 5 PL3
d2 y = − −
384 EI 48 EI
It shows no difference in concentrated load term, but discrepancies
in distributed load term, with
1
= 0.0417
24
17
= 0.0443
384
Because distributed load is fourth order polynomial with
d 4 vˆ
wˆ ( xˆ ) = EI 4
dxˆ
The element shape function only includes third order polynomial, so
higher order term is satisfied in integration only, and can only be
approximated.


CSE30301

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

CSE30301

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

CSE30301

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CSE30301

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 1

Teaching Assistant: Ms. Yushi Shan

Professor Tao YU will teach Weeks 7-13.

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 2

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 8

+: TUT005 on Oct. 4 is a public holiday. No make-up. Please attend other

• Principle of virtual work

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 11

• Hibbeler, R. C., Structural Analysis, 10th Edition

or any others titled “Structural Analysis”

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 12

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 13

Anji Bridge (or Great Stone

Numerical model (finite element model)

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 17

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 19

Hung Hom, deterioration (2010, killed 5)

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 22

Humen Bridge (Guangdong, 2020)

Millennium Bridge (London, 2000)

INTELLIGENT HIGH PERFORMANCE STRUCTURES

Third-generation structures should be Intelligent, Durable,

Department of Civil &

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 25

1.To analyse a simple structure (truss, beam, frame

2. To deal with simple stress and strain.

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 26

It deals with analysing a particular structural

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 27

In particular, 2D beams, trusses

Note: In structural engineering including SA,

In structural mechanics and analysis, all the

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 31

Fx=0, Fy=0, Mz=0

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 32

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 33

Reactions are closely associated with the type of

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 34

A fixed support provides two components of reaction force

A roller support provides one component of reaction force.

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 37

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 38

|a|: Determinant Cofactor

You can also use Gaussian Elimination to solve the equations.

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Y. Xia Page 41

Statically determinate structures

Department of Civil & Y. Xia Page 1

Bending moments are always plotted in the tension side of

Following simple examples should be

Change in = area under Change in = area under

Department of Civil & 22/08/2022 Page 4

Bending Moment Diagram (BMD)

UDL q Concentrated load Concentrated

nd Sharp change at C Abrupt change

Department of Civil & Y. Xia Page 7

A simple beam as shown is subjected to a UDL q, draw shear

3. Segment CD is a 2nd order parabola