Research Methods

Sri Noegrohati, F.Farmasi USD

 Types of research data
• type of data collected associated with research methods  specific procedures for collecting and
analyzing data.
Type of
What’s the difference? What to consider
research
Primary -Primary data is collected directly by the  collect original data (e.g by interviews
research vs researcher or experiments)
secondary -secondary data has already been  analyze existing data(e.g., government
research collected by someone else surveys or scientific publications).
-Qualitative research methods focus on
Qualitative concerned with interpreting something
words and meanings,
vs concerned with measuring something
-quantitative research methods focus on
quantitative (or mixed methods has both elements).
numbers and statistics.
-Descriptive research gathers data
Descriptive identify characteristics, patterns and
without controlling any variables,
research vs correlations
-experimental research manipulates and
experimental test causal relationships between
controls variables to determine cause
research variables
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 Types of sampling, timescale, and location
Type of research What’s the difference? What to consider
-Probability sampling allows you to generalize your produce generalizable knowledge
Probability vs findings to a broader population, while that applies to many contexts or
non -probability -non-probability sampling allows you to draw detailed knowledge about a
sampling conclusions only about the specific subjects of the specific context (e.g. in a case
research. study)?
Cross-sectional -Cross-sectional studies gather data at a single  focused on understanding the
study vs point in time, current situation or
longitudinal -longitudinal studies gather data at several points in  tracking changes over time?
study time.
-Field research takes place in a natural or real-world find out how something occurs in
Field research vs setting, while the real world or
laboratory -laboratory research takes place in a controlled and draw firm conclusions about cause
research constructed setting. Laboratory experiments have and effect?
higher internal validity but lower external validity.
-fixed research design the subjects, timescale and to test hypotheses and establish
location are set before data collection begins, has generalizable facts,
Fixed design vs
higher validity and reliability
flexible design
-flexible
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Data collection for quantitative research

Sampling methods: two main sampling methods : Probability and Non-probability sampling.
• Probability sampling:
• A theory of probability is used to filter individuals from a population and create samples 
sample are chosen by random selection processes  Each target has an equal opportunity
to be selected in the sample.
• There are four main types of probability sampling:
1. Simple random sampling: random selection of elements for a sample  implemented where
the target population is considerably large.
2. Stratified random sampling: a large population is divided into groups (strata)  sample are
chosen randomly from these strata. The various segregated strata should ideally not overlap
one another.
3. Cluster sampling: the main segment is divided into clusters, usually using geographic
segmentation and demographic segmentation parameters.
4. Systematic sampling: the starting point of the sample is chosen randomly, and all the other
elements are chosen using a fixed interval. This interval is calculated by dividing the
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 Data collection cont’d

Non-probability sampling:
• Depend to the researcher’s knowledge and experience  not all the target population
members have an equal probability of being selected to be a part of a sample.
• There are five non-probability sampling models:
1. Convenience sampling: sample are chosen only due to one prime reason: their proximity to
the researcher.
2. Consecutive sampling: similar to convenience sampling, except that researchers choose a
single element or a group of samples and conduct research consecutively over a significant
period and then perform the same process with other samples.
3. Quota sampling: researchers select elements using their knowledge of target traits and
personalities to form strata  sample are chosen from members of various strata
4. Snowball sampling: conducted with target audiences who are difficult to contact and get
information
5. Judgmental sampling: samples are created only based on the researcher’s experience and
skill.
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 Data collection cont’d

• Using surveys to collect the data for quantitative research.

• Once the sample is determined  surveys or polls can be distributed
1. For primary quantitative research
• A survey is collecting data from a pre-defined group of respondents to gain information
and insights on various topics of interest. The ease of survey distribution and the wide
number of people can be reached depend on the research time and objective
• Fundamental levels of measurement –to create multiple-choice question in a survey
Four measurement scales:
1. Nominal: categorize data into mutually exclusive categories or groups.
2. Ordinal: measure variables in a natural order, such as rating or ranking of responses
 provide meaningful insights into attitudes, preferences, and behaviors
3. Interval measure variables with equal intervals between values for precise
comparisons and calculations (time, temperature)
4. Ratio: Allows for comparisons and computations where you need to use ratios,
percentages, and averages to understand the data.
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 Cont’d

• For primary cont’d

• Use of different question types
• To conduct quantitative research, close-ended questions must be used. They can be a
mix of multiple question types,
• Survey Distribution and Survey Data Collection
• Some of the most commonly used methods are Email, website, social distribution, SMS
• Data analysis techniques
• After collecting raw data, there must be an analysis of this data to derive statistical
inferences from this research such as confidence interval, the margin of error, etc., can
then be used to provide results.
• It is then required to select precise statistical analysis methods, such as SWOT(Strengths,
Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threat analysis to evaluate performances and develop
strategies for improvement; Cross-tabulation establishes relationships, patterns, and trends
within the various parameters of the research study.

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 Data Analysis Strategies
Raw data can’t answer your research question  plan how you’ll analyze the data.
• to present data in a meaningful manner  this data should be arranged in proper order, i.e.
entered into an excel sheet to organize it in a specific format and analyzed to find evidential data
 extracting insights from data to make informed decisions
• Quantitative data analysis: use some form of statistical analysis to summarize sample data,
make estimates, and test hypotheses. Two main statistical method:.
1. Descriptive statistics  summarize sample data in terms of:
• The distribution of the data (e.g. the frequency of each score on a test)
• The central tendency of the data (e.g. the mean to describe the average score)
• The variability of the data (e.g. the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores
are)
2. Inferential statistics, for
• Making estimates about the population based on your sample data.
• Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.
• Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables,
• comparison tests (t-tests and ANOVAs) look for differences in the outcomes of different
groups.
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 Steps to conduct Quantitative Data Analysis

Quantitative data analysis in survey

1. Connect descriptive statistics with data: Some widely used descriptive statistics are:
• Mean- An average of values for a specific variable
• Median- A midpoint of the value scale for a variable
• Mode- For a variable, the most common value
• Frequency- Number of times a particular value is observed in the scale
• Minimum and Maximum Values- Lowest and highest values for a scale
• Percentages- Format to express scores and set of values for variables
2. Decide a measurement scale: It is important to decide the measurement scale to conclude
descriptive statistics for the variable. For instance, a nominal data variable score (see survey
data) will never have a mean or median
3. Select appropriate tables to represent data and analyze collected data: After deciding on
a suitable measurement scale, researchers can use a tabular format to represent data. This
data can be analyzed using various techniques such as Cross-tabulation.

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 Cont’d

2. For Secondary quantitative research

• a research method that involves collecting quantitative data from existing data or
secondary data sources like the internet, government resources, libraries,
research reports, etc.  helps to validate the data collected from primary
quantitative research and aid in strengthening or proving, or disproving previously
collected data
• The following are popularly used secondary quantitative research source:
1.Data available on the internet: easy to conduct  boosting the validity of
primary quantitative data as well as proving the relevance of previously collected
data.
2.Government and non-government sources that deal with market research
reports.
3.Educational institutions: Educational institutions conduct in-depth research on
multiple topics, and hence, the reports that they publish are an important source
of validation
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 Secondary data

• Secondary data can be used if there is no time or resources to collect

primary data from the population you’re interested, for example, datasets
from government surveys or previous studies on your topic . do your own
analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the
original study
• Using secondary data
• Possibility to access much larger and more varied samples. can
expand the scope of the research
• Can not control over which variables to measure or how to measure them
 limited the conclusions.

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Plan data collection procedures

• Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research 

precisely define the variables  ensure your measurements are reliable and valid.
• Some variables are not easily measured, as satisfaction or competence  abstract
concepts  turn into measurable indicators  Operationalization
Example: If you’re using
1. Survey method to measure the concept you’re interested, using questionnaires,
use existing materials whose reliability and validity has already been
established.
• Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while
• Validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested
in.
• run a pilot study to check its validity and reliability for a new questionnaire or
other instrument to measure a specific concept
2. Observation method, to measure student participation in an online course 
record the number of times students ask and answer questions.
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 Reliability
• Reliability tells you how consistently a method measures something. When you apply
the same method to the same sample under the same conditions, you should get the
same results. If not, the method of measurement may be unreliable, or bias may have
crept into your research.
• There are four main types of reliability.

Type of reliability Measures the consistency of…

Test-retest The same test over time. resists these factors over time
The same test conducted by different people. different people will rate the
Interrater
same variable consistently with minimal bias
Different versions of a test which are designed to be equivalent. should get
Parallel forms
similar results in both tests

Internal the correlation between multiple items in a test  reflect the same thing. that
consistency are intended to measure the same construct.The individual items of a test.
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 Validity

• If a method measures what it claims to measure, and the results closely correspond to
real-world values, then it can be considered valid.  how accurately a method
measures something
• four main types of test validity, which determine the accuracy of the actual
components of a measure.
• Construct validity: A construct refers to a concept or characteristic that can’t be
directly observed but can be measured by observing other indicators that are
associated with it (intelligence, obesity). Does the test measure the concept that it’s
intended to measure?.
• Content validity: Is the test survey or measurement method fully representative of
all relevant parts of the subject to measure? If some aspects are missing from the
measurement, ), the validity is threatened
• Face validity: Does the content of the test appear to be suitable to its aims?
• Criterion validity: how well the results of your test approximate the results of
another test.
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 Reliability and Validity

• In quantitative research, you have to consider the reliability and validity of your
research methods and measurements
• In experimental research,  testing cause-and-effect relationships . consider internal and
external validity, which deal with the experimental design and the generalizability of
results.
• Internal Validity refers to the degree of confidence that the causal relationship being
tested is trustworthy and not influenced by other factors or variables.
• External validity refers to the extent to which results from a study can be applied
(generalized) to other situations, groups, or events.
• The validity of a study is largely determined by the experimental design. To ensure the
validity of the tools or tests you use, you also have to consider measurement validity.

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 Qualitative Research

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 When to use qualitative research

• Researchers make use of qualitative research techniques used when they need to
capture accurate, in-depth insights. It is very useful to capture “factual data”.
• Here are some examples of when to use qualitative research.
• Developing a new product or generating an idea.
• Studying your product/brand or service to strengthen your marketing strategy.
• To understand your strengths and weaknesses.
• Understanding purchase behavior.
• To study the reactions of your audience to marketing campaigns and other
communications.
• Exploring market demographics, segments, and customer care groups.
• Gathering perception data of a brand, company, or product.

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Type of Research Design within Qualitative research

Some common type of qualitative research designs

1. One-on-one interview: a personal interview that is carried out with one respondent
at a time, purely a conversational method and invites opportunities to get details in
depth from the respondent  great opportunity to gather precise and meaningful data
2. Focus groups : usually includes a limited number of respondents (6-10) from
within your target to find answers to the “why” “what” and “how” questions. Can be
done online and typically they are used to explain complex processes
3. Ethnographic research: aims to understand the cultures, challenges, motivations,
and settings that occur. Instead of relying on interviews and discussions, it is the
most in-depth observational research method that studies people in their naturally
occurring environment, geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting
data. can last from a few days to a few years.

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 Cont’d

4. Case study research: used for explaining an organization or an entity within

a number of areas like education, social sciences and similar, it is one of the
simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough
understanding of the data collection methods and inferring the data.
5. Qualitative Observation is a research process of using subjective
methodologies to gather information or data. Qualitative observation is
primarily used to equate quality with the 5 major sensory organs sight, smell,
touch, taste, and hearing

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 Qualitative data

• Qualitative data collection

• collecting data that is non-numeric provide us with detailed insight to explore
how decisions are made  the data that is collected should be holistic, rich,
and nuanced and findings to emerge through careful analysis.

• Qualitative data analysis

• Qualitative data analysis such as notes, videos, audio recordings images, and
text documents. One of the most used methods is text analysis where
researchers analyze the social life of the participants in the research study
and decode the words, actions, etc.

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