Mass and Gravity

researched and written by

Michael J. Bull A. Dip. App. Sc.
Kenilworth, Qld., 4574, Australia (website https://michaelbull.academia.edu )
Paper 1 (2014 - 18)

Abstract
An exploration of Mass and Gravity from a mathematical and empirical perspective, the
relationship of mass to electricity and magnetism, and corroboration of the mathematical theory by
the experimental alteration of Mass using a simple electromagnetic device designed and constructed
by the author. This Paper also constructs a table of physical energies using Space-Time (S-T) units
of measurement and tests their veracity against the standard SI units of measurement. A
comprehensive explanation of the value of S-T units by D.B. Larson is to be found in Appendix 2.

Contents

1. Inertia and Acceleration

2. Newtonian Equations expressed using Acceleration units as N/kg instead of m/s2

3. Derivation of Space-Time Units and Unity

4. The Relationship between the Electric, Magnetic and Gravity Fields

5. More about Unity

6. Summary of the foregoing Theoretical Analysis of the physics of Unity

7. The Variability of Mass.

8. Experimental Investigation (1) Decreasing of Mass. (Refer also file Mass Exp 1.jpg)

9. Experimental Investigation (2) Increasing of Mass. (Refer also file Mass Exp 2.jpg)

10. Experimental Investigation (3) Permanency of Mass Increase. (Refer also Mass Exp 3.jpg)

Appendix 1 – Table of Space-Time units of measure by M.J. Bull

Appendix 2 – The Dimensions of Motion - derivation of S-T units from SI units written and
published on-line by D.B. Larson.

Summary of Results
'' If a force is applied to an object of invariant mass, that object must accelerate according to
Newton's Second Law of Motion, F = ma. When an applied force does not result in an acceleration
(in the absence of any other counter forces), the mass of that object becomes variable. Energy is
thus conserved.''
Mass is a three-dimensional analogue of the electromagnetic fields and is conclusively shown to
be so by experimental results detailed in this Paper. Mass and Matter are different entities. The
implications of the above extend to the Gravitational Field through its relationship to Mass.
Introduction

Following previous studies on the nature of the forces in physics, a pattern of mathematical unity
between complimentary quantities has become apparent. A simple example is the mathematical
reciprocity between potential and kinetic energies of an object within a gravity field in the physics
of the mechanical system. This unity becomes most apparent when an energy and its motion are
expressed in space-time (S-T) units of measure, which are summarised in Appendix 1 and derived
in Appendix 2. The parallel between the mechanical and electrical systems and their dimensional
equivalence is highlighted in Appendix 2.

An analysis, initially aimed at a more comprehensive understanding of inertia in an earlier

unpublished paper by this author, has carried its logic past those mathematical conclusions to
suggest a wider application of the unity results.

The following is a brief summary of the case of unity between acceleration, a, and inertia, ί.

1. Inertia and Acceleration

“There does not appear to be any meaningful quantification of inertia in the current or past physics
literature, however inertia is quantifiable from Newton's Laws of Motion. The relationship between
acceleration caused by gravity or any acceleration, a, and inertia can be quantified mathematically
from Newton's Second Law of Motion, F = ma, in combination with the Equivalence Principle,
which establishes an invariable mathematical product between the two, given that different masses
accelerate at the same rate in the same gravity field. Let the Greek lower case letter iota, ί, be
assigned to inertia for algebraic purposes and avoid confusion with other quantities using I or i .

From Newton's second law of motion, F = ma, a = F/m from which SI units a evidently has units
Newtons per Kilogram, (N/kg in addition to the more commonly used m/sec2) . From the
Equivalence Principle, a is proportional to ί , and that proportionality is mathematically a simple
reciprocal relationship a = 1/ί and ί = 1/a . ί has the units kg / N. The following examples
demonstrate the above relationship:

1. if a mass of 20 kg has an acceleration of a = 10 N/kg, from F = ma, the force is 200 N. As

a = F/m, the inertia ί = m/F = 20/200 = 0.1 kg/N. axί=1
2. if a mass of 15 kg has an acceleration of a = 10 N/kg, force is 150 N and the inertia ί = m/F
= 15/150 = 0.1 kg/N. axί=1
3. if a mass of 40 kg has an acceleration of a = 0.1 N/kg, the force is 4 N and the inertia,
ί = m/F = 40/4 = 10 kg/N. axί=1

The examples demonstrate that the lower the acceleration the higher the inertia and vice versa.
The force per unit mass determines the acceleration, and the mass per unit force determines
the inertia. In S-T units of measure, acceleration = s/t2 and inertia = t2/s. (Refer Appendix 1)

Regardless of mass, a ί = 1, which is why different masses accelerate at the same rate in the same
gravitational field. Scientific experiment has so far never been able to disprove this and it is called
the Equivalence Principle.”

The general equation for the mathematical relationship of acceleration to inertia is aί=1

The above analysis of the alternative unit of measure for acceleration from a = F/m, newtons per
kilogram, opens the way for the expression of Newtonian physics equations in a different form.
2. Newtonian Equations expressed using Acceleration units as N/kg instead of m/s 2

“An alternative unit of measure for acceleration also offers another set of Newtonian equations.
They represent an alternative approach to calculating quantities seen in Newtonian physics.
For example, given the alternative measures for acceleration N kg -1 = ms-2,
then s-2 = N kg-1 m-1, therefore s2 = kg m N -1 and s = √ (kg m / N) which in English says that time
equals the square root of (mass times length divided by force).

Symbols in Newtonian Physics used are F = force, m = mass, a = acceleration, ί (iota) = inertia, t =
time, v = velocity, r = length, M = momentum, n = dimension number, c = the speed of light, g =
gravitational acceleration, E = energy, k = a constant.
Symbols in SI units are force (N) newtons, mass (kg) kilograms, time (s) seconds, length (m)
metres.
Symbols in S-T units are s = space, t = time.

Quantity Equation SI Unit Space-Time Unit

(derived from these equations)

Time t = √(mr/F) ( kg m / N )½ t

Acceleration a = F/m ( N / kg) s/t2

Velocity v = Ft /m ( N s / kg) s/t

Length r = Ft 2 / m ( N s2 / kg) s

Mass m = Ft2/r ( N s2 / m ) t3/s3

Force F = mr/t2 ( kg m / s2 ) t/s2

Momentum M= F2t3/mr ( N2 s3 / kg m ) t2/s2

Energy E = k m v2 ( kg m2 s-2) t/s

Space-Time Units show complete consistency in these modified Newtonian Equations, indicating
that both the standard and modified Newtonian Equations and the Space-Time Units are correct and
consistent. It also verifies that the space-time unit for mass, t 3/s 3 is correct. This is key evidence
supporting the interpretation of Mass and Gravity in this paper.”

There is further detail on the derivation of Space-Time units in Appendix 2.

3. Derivation of Space-Time Units and Unity
The derivation of S-T units from SI units is self evident with a little thought, for example: Velocity
equals distance divided by time which is expressed as s (space in one dimension) divided by time t,
or s/t ; Pressure is force divided by area, t/s2 x 1/s2 = t/s4. Similarly acceleration (m/s2) is s divided
by (t times t), or s/t2. Acceleration can also be expressed as N/kg which in S-T units is force, t/s2
divided by mass t3/s3 or t/s2 x s3/t3 = s/t2 which is the same S-T result as the S-T units yield for m/s2.
All SI units consistently yield equivalent S-T unit results, indicating that S-T units are both
fundamental and verifiable.

From the above table of physical entities and their SI and S-T units, the mathematical reciprocal
of energy (t/s), is, in the mechanical system, speed s/t (sometimes called kinetic energy, or motion).
In the electric system, electric energy (q) is also t/s and its reciprocal is electric current, s/t, also
motion. This indicates that in the mechanical system energy's field is speed and in the electric
system electric energy's field is the electric current (observed as the E-field). One is an energy and
the reciprocal is a motion. From the S-T units it can be seen that the product of energy and its field
(or motion) is unity.
It can also be seen that momentum t2/s2, is a two freedom analogue (or square) of energy, t/s.
Magnetic energy also has the S-T unit t2/s2, and is the two freedom analogue of electric energy, and
its reciprocal is the magnetic current s2/t2 (observed as the B-field). The product of these is also
unity.
Mass, t3/s3, is the three freedom analogue (or cube) of energy and its reciprocal s3/t3 is mass
current (observed as the G-field). The product of these is also unity.
The unity result does explain why it seems impossible to extract additional energy from the
electric, magnetic and gravity fields. The energy and its motion are balanced in a
mathematical sense by their reciprocity.

4. The Relationship between the Electric, Magnetic and Gravity Fields

To clarify what is meant by 'freedom', electric charge acts as a scalar motion attached to a particle
along one axis of 3D space, magnetic charge along two axes, and mass charge along three axes of
3D space. In a mechanical system analogy, they equate to a line, an area and a volume. The axes do
not denote a position in space, but a relative direction with respect to the other axes. It describes
three scalar motions acting at right angles to the others, which accounts for the behaviour of an
electric motor or generator, where the mass current (motion) ┴ magnetic current ┴ electric
current. The dynamo uses motion to produce electric current and the motor uses electric current to
produce motion, always via the link of magnetic current.

The difference in energy between the degrees of freedom were calculated by Einstein as mc, that
is, mass to magnetic = mc, magnetic to electric = mc, and mass to electric = mc2, which, from the
foregoing, equates to energy to mass = mc2, or E = mc2. Conversely, the respective fields are
represented by a difference in field intensity (per unit volume), the electric E-field = 1/mc2 , the
magnetic B-field = 1/mc and the gravity G-field = 1/m, verifiable by their S-T units. These
equations indicate the energy of motion of the E-field exceeds the B-field which exceeds G-field
per unit volume, which is indeed the case in our part of the cosmos. The corresponding volume of
effect of these three fields is highest in the case of the G-field, followed by the B-field, then the E-
field at the same time as their effective energy intensity per unit volume decreases. Again, the
reciprocity between energy and field is apparent in the mathematics and the physics. For example
mass has the highest energy (=mc2) and the weakest field per unit volume with the largest volume
of effect, which is consistent with the mathematics of energy and its field.

The hypothesis that the above mentioned scalar motions which define electric energy, magnetic
energy and mass energy, is supported by the operation of the dynamo and electric motor, the physics
of which have no convincing explanation in physics texts to date. If an electric charge (scalar
motion) in one degree of freedom were aligned to oppose or negate one degree of the three
freedoms of mass charge scalar motion, the result would be a two freedom magnetic charge
perpendicular to the negated degree of freedom. [Electric quantity (capacitance), in S-T units is s, which is
space in one dimension. If s moves through a conductor in a contra direction to one of the axes of mass charge, the
result is magnetic charge through negation of one axis. Space moving through matter is mathematically the same as

matter moving through space, which is what the motion of matter is.] This is the observable case in the dynamo
and motor. The matter which carries (i) electric current is the copper conductor, (ii) magnetic
current is the iron of the stator and rotor and (iii) mass current is carried by most matter and
manifests as the motion of the rotor relative to the stator. The machine correctly aligns all 3 degrees
of freedom to produce the desired result, electric current (dynamo) or mass motion (motor). It is
magnetism which enables the link between electric energy and mass energy while conserving
energy input and output in that machine. The other proven link between mass and energy, nuclear
fission, does not conserve the energy in the same way and releases it to raise the entropy (disorder)
of the system.

The physics of the dynamo/electric motor above imply that motion of electric charge (current) is
the cause of the electric field, which is in fact a potential that can move a point charge within it.
Similarly, the motion of mass charge is the cause of the gravity field which can also move a mass
charge within it. So if mass is moving through space relative to a given reference it creates a gravity
field when observed from that reference point. That same gravity field can cause acceleration of
another mass charge which is within the field, thereby creating a secondary gravity field. If the
given reference were considered the centre of the Milky Way galaxy it can be seen why the Sun's
gravity field and the Earth's gravity field are different yet at the same time contribute to the motion
of other planets of the solar system. They are also a part of the sum gravity field which belongs to
the galaxy. Theoretically, one could start at the galaxy level and using the same logic, drill down to
the particle level if the galaxy gravity field were to be analysed in detail. In the other direction, the
macroscopic view which includes all of the galaxies would suggest that they are all in motion
relative to each other and thus have a gravitational field generated by that relative motion and the
mass charge of the matter within the galaxies.

The summed effect of the gravity field caused by mass charge in relative motion would be simple
compared to its constituent parts. The magnitude of the mass charge at a single mass pole (centre of
gravity) and of the motion would be an analogue of that of the electric field strength and the
magnitude of the point charge within it, that is, the larger the current causing the field and the
higher the point charge within it would determine the acceleration of that point charge, which in
turn creates its own electric field by its motion. Additional complexity is added when a charged
particle exhibits circular motion, thereby creating a magnetic field and further electric induction
effects.
It would appear that most matter is affected and significantly connected by one or more of the
three fields discussed. The gravity field appears to be wider in its distribution because its energy,
mass charge, is carried by most of the known fundamental particles in the universe whereas, as far
as is known, some do not exhibit electric and/or magnetic charge. These observations suggest why,
in S-T units, acceleration is not the same entity as any of the fields. For example, it is not an
electron which is accelerated through a conductor, but it is the scalar motion called 'charge' which is
the motion. That charge can be observed when held on the molecules of synthetic clothing, for
example, where it is called a static charge. Charge needs the matter (usually an electron or proton)
to move through space because space (the charge, s) cannot move through space of itself. That
scalar motion is the cause of the acceleration of matter to which it is attached, within a field.

Common misconceptions are that gravity and acceleration are the same thing, and that mass and
matter are the same thing. It may be appropriate here to establish different symbols for (1) the
acceleration of mass in a gravity field, g (N/kg), as distinct from (2) the gravity field, G (kg-1).
On Earth, the acceleration of mass due to gravity, g, is 9.8 N/kg. The force, F = mearth x a,
where a = k mobject / r2, which is the Newtonian gravitational computation of force.
The gravity field, G, of mobject is of a larger magnitude than that of mearth because G = 1/m. It is the
inertia (kg/N) of mearth which is so much larger than mobject and why the object's motion toward
Earth's mass pole ( 'centre of gravity' ) is so much faster than vice versa. So one can conclude from
the mathematics that small objects have a large motion and small inertia while large objects have a
small motion and a large inertia. That is why particles are attracted into large clusters which have
the same mass pole and eventually form stars and planets. The corollary of this is that dispersed
dust clouds have a large G field (motion) and a small inertia because of the myriad of mass poles
within the dust clouds.

S-T units make some errors easier to detect and correct. As proposed above, matter may not be the
cause of the gravity field, it may be mass charge in motion which creates it. The magnitude of both
mass charge and its motion may contribute to gravity field strength. This view is consistent with
the lower dimension analogues of electricity and magnetism and is supported by analysis of the S-T
units.

For example, S-T units s3/t3 = s/t2 x s2/t is algebraically correct and
which in SI units is G = a x 1/F ,
therefore a = FG , (in S-T units s/t2 = t/s2 x s3/t3 = s/t2 and is correct and consistent.)
It is already known a = F/m (from F=ma, Newton's second law)
so FG = F/m
and therefore G = 1/m
also F = g/G
The SI unit for the gravity field is therefore kg-1 which is not the same as for acceleration, that being
N kg-1, or N/kg as outlined in section 1.
It would appear that when mass energy (along with its carrier - matter) is accelerated, mass energy
(charge) is converted to motion of matter and the mass charge is reduced as the motion increases. In
exactly the same way its analogue, electric energy on a capacitor is converted to motion of charge at
the expense of electric energy (charge) on the capacitor plates when the switch between the plates is
closed.

5. More about Unity

Outlined above is the hypothesis that states the mathematical reciprocity of an energy and its field.
It may be more illuminating to consider the two parts which make the whole as 'Source' and 'Sink'.
For example if the electric energy (source) stored by a capacitor on the matter which constitutes its
plates is connected by a closed circuit, the current flow (sink) which results decreases the source in
a short time to zero. There is no more source energy until the circuit is switched open and the plates
recharged. The source has been converted to the sink, or put another way electric energy becomes
electric current. There is no free energy to be had here, as observation confirms. Exactly the same
applies in the mechanical system between potential and kinetic energy.

Similarly, the magnetic energy apparent in the matter which constitutes a magnet becomes zero
when a magnetic current flows. This can be seen in the case of a magnetic current induced in a
toroid ring, where the magnetic current flows entirely within the confines of the ring and there is no
residual magnetic energy to be found outside the ring. This is not the case in a bar magnet where
there is no magnetic current. The source is converted to the sink, magnetic energy becomes
magnetic current. The toroid ring is the basis for an electrical transformer, with magnetic current
flowing perpendicular to the electric coils around it and converting its magnetic current to electric
current by induction.

The same effect can be observed with mass energy (source) and mass current (which is the gravity
field by another name) which is the sink. For example an astronaut in the space station orbiting the
earth is seen from within the space station to be weightless in a zero gravity environment. This may
not be strictly correct. The mass charge attached to the matter which constitutes his body has been
converted to mass current, analogous to the above examples. His mass charge (source) has become
zero because it has been converted to its sink which is motion (mass current or gravity), and is
observable as motion of matter by an outside observer. The Earth's gravity field thus has no effect
upon him.
There is further observable evidence that the reality is the reduction of his mass charge to zero
rather than Earth's gravity to zero. Earlier in this paper( Section 1.), it was mathematically proposed
that inertia can be measured as kilograms per newton (kg/N). If mass charge is reduced to zero, the
astronaut will have zero inertia (0 kg/N). This is the case within the space station, with the smallest
push propelling the astronaut across the room. The difference between the concepts of zero mass
and zero gravity in the case of the astronaut is significant, and depends upon the position of the
observer.
One of the mathematical implications of matter with zero mass charge is that the force required to
accelerate that matter to light speed is finite, not infinite as the Theory of Special Relativity
proposes. Matter with no mass, perhaps might acquire a velocity in excess of light speed.
 Special Relativity Theory indicates that the energy goes into increasing the mass of the object. If
force is applied to an object at light speed and light speed is the upper limit of velocity, then the
energy behind that force must go into another place if energy is to be conserved.
Experimental evidence outlined below supports that theoretical conclusion.

6. Summary of the foregoing Theoretical Analysis of the Physics of Unity

1. Energy can be transformed to an alternative state, which is Motion.
2. Motion is an alternative state of Energy and there is conservation of energy between the two
states which can be expressed as mathematical reciprocity. ( Potential to Kinetic energy, for
example. )
3. Magnetic energy is a two dimensional analogue of Electric energy and is orthogonal to
Electric energy.
4. Mass energy is a three dimensional analogue of Electric energy and is orthogonal to both
Electric and Magnetic energies. ( The electric motor and dynamo are examples of energy
orthogonality and which in both cases mass energy is displayed in its alternate state, motion
of the mass charge of the shaft and rotor. There is therefore no change of weight [mass] in
the shaft and rotor.)
5. The alternative state of Electric energy is the motion of electric charge, and is observed as
the E-field.
6. The alternative state of Magnetic energy is the motion of magnetic charge, and is observed
as the B-field.
7. The alternative state of Mass energy is the motion of mass charge, and is observed as the
G- field.
8. Mass is not the same entity as matter. Mass energy can be altered, which in a constant
gravitational field will alter weight.
9. If the mass of an object is altered then so is its gravitational field strength because G = 1/m.

7.Variability of Mass

The results of a series of experiments conducted by this author in 2014 using a third dimension
electric – magnetic – mass coil apparatus of the author's design and construction, showed clearly
that the weight of an object within that coil system could be increased or decreased and that the
weight variation became permanent for that object after it was removed from the coil. The
experiments were conceived to support (or otherwise) the mathematics of the above hypothesis
linking electromagnetism directly to mass (at the macro level), proposed by the author.

The original hypothetical mathematics, summarised in 6. above, when added to the following
experimental results, leave little room for doubt that:
 1. There is direct connection between the energies of electricity, magnetism and mass.
2. Mass is not the same entity as matter.

In summary,
'' If a force is applied to an object of invariant mass, that object must accelerate according to
Newton's Second Law of Motion, F = ma. When an applied force does not result in an
acceleration (in the absence of any other counter forces), the mass of that object becomes
variable. Energy is thus conserved.'' (Bull's Law)

From the deduced mathematical connection between mass and the G-field, G = 1/m or m = 1/G,
similarly the G-field is also altered electromagnetically.
It may therefore be possible to electromagnetically alter the G-field and its related acceleration, g,
where F = g/G deduced in Section 4.

Further research needs to be done to determine the feasibility of an 'anti-

gravity' effect and its practical application to every day use.

Record of Experiments

8. Experimental Investigation (1) Decreasing of Mass

Aim
This laboratory experiment is to investigate the theoretical link between electric, magnetic and
mass energy, apart from that demonstrated by the electric motor and dynamo.
Concept
The electric motion (current) through a copper conductor which has been wound into a coil
produces (at a right angle to the electric current) magnetic energy which replicates a bar magnet
within the windings. This is a simple solenoid. The iron is a good conductor for magnetic energy
and this is readily observable. When that iron is formed into a continuous circuit, or ring, the
magnetic energy of the bar is converted to its other form, being magnetic motion or current.
Magnetic current can be converted back to electric current, as is the case with an electrical
transformer using exactly this principle.
If the magnetic current carrying iron conductor were itself wound into a solenoid configuration,
with the copper electric conductor still in place around it and electrically insulated from the iron
windings, the magnetic windings should have an effect upon the volume within that solenoid and
the mass within it. All three energies are at right angles to each other in this design, as is the case in
the electric motor. If the application of electric current to the copper windings creates a magnetic
current in the iron windings, then a measure of an alteration of the mass within the second
dimension solenoid would prove a connection between the three phenomena, going beyond the
already known connection between the first two, electricity and magnetism.
Apparatus
0.4 mm laquer insulated copper winding was wound around 1 mm plastic coated ferrous wire,
copper winding in single layer covering 2.0 metre length of ferrous wire and 2200 turns of copper
wire of total electrical resistance 1.4 ohms.
The iron wire with its copper windings was then wound in solenoid fashion around 3 mm ID
transparent plastic tube, making a total length of 2 dimensional winding of 255 mm in length. There
are 97 turns of ferrous wire which are copper wound, and at each end an additional 21 and 19 turns
respectively of ferrous wire without copper winding, total 137 turns containing 350 mm of plastic
'mass' tube.
Fittings for connection were made on the ends of the copper windings for electric current; end to
end connection of the iron wire to form a ring for magnetic current; and a joiner tap for joining the
transparent plastic tube to itself to allow a current of mass (in liquid form) to flow and be observed.
Laboratory equipment used is a Powertech 0-30V, 0-3 A variable DC power supply and Digitech
electronic scales measuring in grams to an accuracy of 2 decimal places (1/100 of a gram).
Method
(I)The transparent tube is filled with liquid water containing small amounts of oil, approximately
the same density as the water, so that any movement within the tube can be readily observed. The
tube tap is closed and the whole apparatus is placed on an acrylic dish on the electronic scales and
an accurate weight taken after warming up the scales for 15 minutes to prevent any fluctuations (as
recommended by the manufacturer). The power supply is switched on to the copper conductor coil
and a reading of voltage and current flow noted against the weight reading on the scales over a
period of time. Time, current, voltage and weight of the apparatus are noted photographically so that
nothing is touched or changed between readings. All air movement from outside is eliminated
within the experimental area. Volume of mass within the tube within the magnetic coil is
approximately 4 ml of liquid water plus 260mm of plastic tube, weighing in total approximately 5
grams.
(II) The tube tap is opened and observation for induced motion of the liquid mass is made. Further
data on change in weight vs current and voltage with tap open allowing mass current to flow.

Data (I)
Date: 7 April 2014
Time (AEST) Current (amps) Voltage (volts) Weight of Apparatus (N)
1244:07 0 0 79.70
1245:30 3.21 1.8 79.67
1246:30 3.20 1.8 79.64
 1247:30 3.20 1.8 79.63
1248:30 3.20 1.8 79.60
1249:30 3.19 1.9 79.56
1250:30 3.19 1.9 79.54
1251:30 3.19 1.9 79.52
1252:30 3.19 1.9 79.50
1253:30 3.19 1.9 79.47
1254:30 3.19 1.9 79.46
1255:30 3.19 1.9 79.45
1256:30 3.19 1.9 79.42
1257:30 3.19 2.0 79.41
1258:30 3.19 1.9 79.40
1259:30 3.18 1.9 79.41
1300:30 3.18 1.9 79.40
1301:30 3.18 1.9 79.39
1302:30 3.17 1.9 79.38
1303:30 3.17 1.9 79.37
1304:30 3.17 1.9 79.37
1305:30 3.17 1.9 79.37
1306:30 3.17 1.9 79.39
1307:30 3.17 1.9 79.38
Graph of Data (I)

Time ↑ (mins)

24 - +
21 - +
18 - +
15 - +
12 - +
9 - +
6 - +
3 - +
0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79.70 .65 .60 .55 .50 .45 .40 .37
Weight → Decrease (Newtons)
Data (II)
There was no observed movement of the liquid mass with the tube tap open and no weight change
was therefore measurable to compare with weight change when tap was closed.

Results Analysis
The foregoing experimental data (summarised in the above graph) indicate a
decrease of the weight of the matter within the magnetic coil over a period of approximately 18
minutes. The change in weight indicates a change in the mass charge of the liquid water (and plastic
tube) within the coil. It is estimated that the initial weight within the coil was approximately 5
grams, and the variation maximum was measured at 0.33 grams, representing a change in weight of
6.67%. The majority of the weight loss occurred in the first 12 minutes. Voltage and current through
the apparatus remained very close to constant. Weight decrease levelled off at about 18 minutes.
The wire diameter of the copper windings limited the electric current which could be forced through
the wire without undue heating.
The entire experiment was photographed as it progressed with a picture of the clock followed by a
picture of the digital readings for weight, current and voltage, and nothing was touched or altered
during the entire 24 minute period while readings were being recorded by the camera. The data for
this experiment can be viewed in the file Mass Exp 1, not included in this paper due to file size.

Note: Weight is correctly measured as a force (W=mg) with the SI unit 'Newtons'. Mass is
measured in 'Kilograms'. A body with a weight of 100 Newtons would, on Earth, have a mass
of 100/9.8 or 10.2 kg. This error is rarely highlighted in physics texts, which often erroneously
use the SI unit kilogram as a measure of weight. S-T units make this error easy to detect,
W= mg becomes t/s2 = t3/s3 x s/t2 = t/s2 .

Provisional Conclusions
The results support the underlying hypothesis in this paper which
proposes the view that mass is a charge carried by most particles of matter and that it has both a
mathematical and physical connection with the energies of electricity and magnetism. The
experiment was conducted within the constant gravity field associated with the Earth, from which it
can be concluded that the experimental apparatus altered the mass of the matter within the apparatus
and not the gravitational acceleration. The reduced weight in the same gravity field means that it is
mass which is reduced, from the mathematics which indicate that Weight = mass x gravity, W = mg.
 It is not clear why the alteration of the mass within the apparatus was also a function of time.
Further research using higher energies may reveal a clearer mathematical relationship relating time
to the change in mass from its electrical origin. It is already known that there is a build and decay
time for an induced magnetic field. In the experimental apparatus it is a case of electric current (E-
field motion) inducing magnetic current (B-field motion) reducing mass energy with no apparent
conversion of mass to motion (G-field motion). Mass motion is apparent in the parallel case of an
electric motor, which has the a similar orthogonal relationship between the different fields. Further
investigation may be warranted.

9. Experimental Investigation (2) Increasing of Mass

This experiment is aimed at a replication of Experimental Investigation (1) with a reversal of the
direct current polarity in the electrical windings, that is, reversing the electric current direction
within the apparatus. The data so obtained may provide some further understanding of the
relationship between electric current, magnetic current and mass charge and /or mass current.

Data (A)
Date: 13 April 2014

Time (AEST) Current (amps) Voltage (volts) Weight of Apparatus (N)

09:15:00 0 0.00 81.64
09:16:00 3.21 1.90 81.81
09:17:00 3.21 1.90 81.87
09:18:00 3.20 2.00 81.91
09:19:00 3.20 2.00 81.95
09:20:00 3.20 2.00 81.99
09:21:00 3.20 2.00 82.02
09:22:00 3.20 2.10 82.05
09:23:00 3.20 2.10 82.08
09:24:00 3.19 2.10 82.11
09:25:00 3.19 2.10 82.13
09:26:00 3.19 2.10 82.16
09:27:00 3.19 2.00 82.18
09:28:00 3.19 2.10 82.21
09:29:00 3.19 2.10 82.22
 09:30:00 3.19 2.10 82.24
09:31:00 3.19 2.10 82.26
09:32:00 3.19 2.10 82.29
09:33:00 3.19 2.10 82.28
09:34:00 3.19 2.10 82.28
09:35:00 3.19 2.10 82.28
09:36:00 3.19 2.20 82.28
09:37:00 3.19 2.10 82.27
09:38:00 3.19 2.10 82.27

Data (B)
Mass flow tap was opened at the conclusion of the collection of Data (A) and there was no
observable motion of the liquid mass.

Graph of Data (A)

Time ↑ (mins)

24 - +
21 - +
18 - +
15 - +
12 - +
09 - +
06 - +
03 - +
00 -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81.64 .70 .80 .90 82.00 .10 .20 .30

Weight → Increase (Newtons)

Results Analysis
The results of Experimental Investigation (2) summarised in the graph above show
an increase in the weight of the matter within the apparatus coil of 0.64 grams, an increase of 13%
of the approximate initial weight within the coil, about 5 grams. The weight gain occurred within
the first 18 minutes and thereafter levelled off to a constant total weight of 82.28 grams from 81.64
grams for the total apparatus. There was no observable motion of the liquid in the mass tube. The
data for this experiment has been photographed and can be seen in the file Mass Exp 2, not included
in this paper due to file size.
Preliminary Conclusions
The reversing of the direction of the DC current through the electric
windings has, increased the mass of the matter within the coil. The increase of mass in
Experimental Investigation (2) is approximately double that of the decrease in mass in Experimental
Investigation (1). The reason for that is not yet clear. ¹
The reversed results of these two experiments eliminate the possibility that the result in
either case arises from faulty measuring equipment, operator error or other outside
influences.

¹ Post Script: From the result of Experiment 3, it was then known that the reduced mass of
Experiment 1 was carried over into Experiment 2, and the increase in mass of Experiment 2
included the reversal of Experiment 1, thus approximately doubling the observable change.

Experimental Investigation connected with Mass Alteration

After experimentally verifying the theoretical connection between the energies of mass,
magnetism and electricity (as described in this paper, Mass and Gravity), the apparatus used in
those experiments is further used to examine other aspects of these phenomena.

10. Experimental Investigation (3) Permanence of Mass Alteration

Aim: This experiment is intended to examine and quantify the process of elevating a mass and if it
returns to its original natural value, and whether there is a return of that energy through the coil
system to manifest as electric current or potential in the copper wiring coil.

Method: The original liquid mass in the mass tube is replaced and added to by a larger (heavier)
mass in the form of a solid which can be inserted and replaces some of the liquid. The material is
plastic coated 1 mm iron fence wire. Its net weight is 3.53 grams. Add 1.00 gram for the plastic tube
and 3 grams for 3 ml of water replaced in the tube within the coil, total 7.53 grams weight (N), in
addition to the weight of the coils, giving an initial total weight of 82.39 grams weight (N).

Data:

Date: 14 April 2014

Time (AEST) Current (amps) Voltage (volts) Weight (Newtons)

1242 .00 .00 82.39

1243 3.21 1.90 82.44
1244 3.20 2.00 82.50
1245 3.20 2.00 82.55
1246 3.20 1.90 82.59
1247 3.19 1.90 82.63
1248 3.19 1.90 82.66
1249 3.19 1.90 82.69
1250 3.19 1.90 82.72
1251 3.19 1.90 82.75
1252 3.19 1.90 82.77
1253 3.19 1.90 82.79
1254 3.19 2.00 82.81
1255 3.19 2.00 82.84
1256 3.19 2.00 82.85
1257 3.19 2.00 82.87
1258 3.19 2.00 82.89
1259 3.19 2.00 82.90
1300 3.19 2.10 82.92
1301 3.19 2.00 82.93
1302 3.19 2.00 82.94
1303 3.19 2.00 82.97
1304 3.19 2.00 82.98
1305 3.18 2.00 82.99
1306 3.18 2.00 83.00
1307 3.18 2.00 83.01
1308 3.18 2.00 83.03
1309 3.18 2.00 83.04
1310 3.18 2.00 83.05
1311 3.18 2.00 83.06
1312 3.18 2.00 83.08
1313 3.18 2.00 83.09
1314 3.18 2.00 83.10
1315 3.18 2.00 83.11
 1316 3.18 2.00 83.11
1317 .00 .00 83.13
1318 .00 .00 83.13
1319 .00 .00 83.13
Weight increase 0.74N % increase in weight Time to increase Decrease of weight after
within coils 9.82% weight 34 mins current shut-off - Zero
Residual potential in
coil with elevated
weight - Zero

Results:
The percentage increase in the weight is of the same order as the previous experiments.
The time taken to achieve that increase was approximately double that of the previous experiments,
possibly because of the increase in mass within the coils from the addition of the wire. There was
no decrease in weight after the electric current was shut off, and no measurable residual
potential within the electric coil. The apparatus was left on the scales for 40 minutes after the
conclusion of the experiment without any reduction in weight (mass). Photographic records of
this experiment are available in the file Mass Exp 3, not included with this paper because of the file
size.

Conclusion:

The electrical energy converted to mass charge by this experiment remained as mass
charge and did not revert to electrical energy after disconnection. The apparatus creates additional
mass charge on the matter within its coils which remains there and is manifested as increased
weight within the Earth's gravitational field. The results of Experiment 3 eliminate the possibility
that the fields from the experimental apparatus caused a faulty reading by the electronic
scales.
 Photograph of the recording of data during Experiment 3 at 1316 on 14 April 2014 showing
experimental coil apparatus as described above under 'Apparatus', clock, scales and power supply.
 Appendix 1
Table of Motions Contraction of Space
4 4 4 3 4 2 4
S /T S /T S /T S /T S4 ↑
m4/s4 m4/s3 m4/s2 m4/s ? S4
c4 = sc3 s2c2 s 3c
8.077596x 1034 4.354684x 10-9 2.347635x 10-53 1.265625x 10-96 6.823062x 10-140 m4

S3/T4 S3/T3 S3/T2 S3/T S3

m3/s4 mass current G gravity m3/s2 3
m /s (cumecs) volume S3
c3/t 3 3
c = m /sec = 3 sc2 s 2c
4.997898x 1069 2.694398x 1025 1.452565x 10-18 7.830923x 10-62 4.221672x 10-105 m3

S2/T4 S2/T3 S2/T2 S2/T S2

m2/s4 m2/s3 magnetic current B 2
m /s area S2
c2/t2 c2/t c2 = m2/sec2 = sc (= Gί = 1/F )
3.092377x 10104 1.667120x 1061 8.957548x 1016 4.845242x 10-27 2.612099x 10-70 m2
S/T4 S/T3 S/T2 S/T S
? change of acceleration acceleration, Δv kinetic motion length, S1
Δa KE, velocity v, electric quantity Q as
c/t3 = c/t2 = c/t = electric current I capacitance C (coulomb)
1.914383x 10138 1.031505x 1095 5.560912 x 1051 c = m/sec = Sq = 1.616199x 10-35 m
m/s4 m/s 3 2
m/s 2.997924x10 8
Quantum of length
speed of light c
1/T4 1/T3 1/T2 1/T Maximum quantum Values
? ? ? frequency (Hz) MOTION S0
1.183866x 10174 6.385696x 10129 3.440734x 1087 1.854921x 1043 Minimum quantum Values
← Expansion of Time
← T -4 T -3 T -2 T -1 T0 O
Table of Energies
O T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 →
Maximum quantum Values T T2 T3 T4
S 0 ENERGY time (sec) Contraction of Time →
Minimum quantum Values Tq = 5.391063x 10-44 2.906356x 10-87 1.566833x 10-131 8.446895x 10-175
Quantum of time
1/S T/S T2/S T3/S T4/S
S-1 power =VI (t/s2 x s/t) potential energy E inertia ί moment of inertia ?
6.187356x 1034 electric charge Q t/c = s2/m t2/c = s3/m t3/c
sec/m 1.798266 x 10-52 9.694554x 10-97 5.226395x 10-140
1/c =3.335643x 10-9 Planck constant h
1/S2 T/S2 T2/S2 T3/S2 T4/S2
S-2 ? force, momentum ? ?
3.828338x 1071 electric potential V magnetic energy
1/cs = sec/m2 sec2/m2 t/c2 t2/c2
2.063880x 1026 electric resistivity σ 5.998367x 10-62 3.233758x 10-105
1/c2 = 1.12265x 10-17
1/S3 T/S3 T2/S3 T3/S3 T4/S3
S-3 ? elect field intensity E electric resistance R mass energy ?
2.368729x 10106 1/cs2 = sec/m3 magnetic potential quantum = 1/c3
1.276998x 1061 1/c2s sec3/m3 t/c3
17
6.884371x 10 3.711404x 10-26 2.000841x 10-70
1/S4 T/S4 T2/S4 T3/S4 T4/S4
S-4 ? pressure (sec/m4) magnetic intensity H mag resistance μ ?
↓ 1.465617x 10141 (1/cs3 = force/m2, 1/c2s2 1/c3s 1/c4
energy/ m3) 4.253995x 1052 2.296378x 108 1.237992x 10-35
7.890828x 1095
Expansion of Space
 For approximate conversion of Energies quanta (minimum values) to SI units multiply S-T
quantum values by 1018 and for quantum maxima divide by 1018. It can be seen from the above
Energies Table that the form tx/sy , or secondsx / metrey , is a form of measure which does not exist
in SI units. It is therefore necessary to convert this to SI units. This is done at quantum values
because they refer to the same quantum, regardless of which system of measure is used. The
following is an example of a conversion calculation:
An SI equivalent unit for the quantum of inertia, h, is, from the Table of Energies, therefore
sec2/metre and its value is 1.798 x 10-52. The Planck value of h in joule.sec is 6.629 x 10-34 . The
conversion factor from s2/m to J.sec is 3.687 x 1018. Multiplying 1.798 x 10-52 by the conversion
factor 3.687 x 1018 , the answer is 6.629 x 10 -34, the value of the Planck Constant in joule.seconds.
This conversion is valid because both measures refer to the same quantum.
From general observation, many of the conversion factors of the Energies from secx / metrey to SI
units are of the order of 1018 .
Space-Time units of measure are the fundamental units of measure, and unlike SI units of measure,
they make the relationship between quantum minima and maxima clear and define and quantify all
quantities including those which are still unknown in physics.

The Tables above represent ongoing development of Space-Time units of measure and cannot be
considered as yet to be complete. The quanta of length and time can be used to calculate all other
quanta represented in the Tables.

Appendix 2

The Dimensions of Motion

Dewey B. Larson

Now that the existence of scalar motion has been demonstrated (in a prior article), it will be
appropriate to examine the consequences of this existence. Some of the most significant
consequences are related to the dimensions of this hitherto unrecognised type of motion. The word
“dimension” is used in several different senses, but in the sense in which it is applied to space it
signifies the number of independent magnitudes that are required for a complete definition of a
spatial quantity. It is generally conceded that space is three-dimensional. Thus three independent
magnitudes are required for a complete definition of a quantity of space. Throughout the early years
of science this was taken as an indication that the universe is three-dimensional. Currently, the
favoured hypothesis is that of a four-dimensional universe, in which the three dimensions of space
are joined to one dimension of time. Strangely enough, there does not appear to have been any
critical examination of the question as to the number of dimensions of motion that are possible. The
scientific community has simply taken it for granted that the limits applicable to motion coincide
with those of the spatial reference system. On reviewing this situation it can be seen that this
assumption is incorrect. The relation of any one of the three space magnitudes to a quantity of time
constitutes a scalar motion. Thus three dimensions of scalar motion are possible. But only one
dimension of motion can be accommodated within the conventional spatial reference system. The
result of any motion within this reference system can be represented by a vector (a one-dimensional
expression), and the resultant of any number of such motions can be represented by the vector sum
(likewise one-dimensional). Any motions that exist in the other two dimensions cannot be
represented.
Here again we encounter a shortcoming of the reference system. In our examination of the nature of
scalar motion we saw that this type of motion cannot be represented in the reference system in its
true character. The magnitude and direction attributed to such a motion in the context of the
reference system are not specifically defined, but are wholly dependent on the size and position of
the object whose location constitutes the reference point. Now we find that there are motions which
cannot be represented in the reference system in any manner. It is therefore evident that the system
of spatial coordinates that we use in conjunction with a clock as a system of reference for physical
activity gives us a severely limited, and in some respects inaccurate, view of physical reality. In
order to get the true picture we need to examine the whole range of physical activity, not merely
that portion of the whole that the reference system is capable of representing.
For instance, gravitation has been identified as a scalar motion, and there is no evidence that it is
subject to any kind of a dimensional limitation other than that applying to scalar motion, in general.
We must therefore conclude that gravitation can act three-dimensionally. Furthermore, it can be
seen that gravitation must act in all of the dimensions in which it can act. This is a necessary
consequence of the relation between gravitation and mass. The magnitude of the gravitational force
exerted by a material particle or aggregate (a measure of its gravitational motion) is determined by
its mass. Thus mass is a measure of the inherent negative scalar motion content of the matter. It
follows that motion of any mass m is a motion of a negative scalar motion. To produce such a
compound motion, a positive scalar motion v (measured as speed or velocity) must be applied to the
mass. The resultant is “mv,” now called momentum, but known earlier as “quantity of motion,” a
term that more clearly expresses the nature of the quantity. In the context of a spatial reference
system, the applied motion v has a direction,
and is thus a vector quantity, but the direction is imparted by the coupling to the reference system
and is not an inherent property of the motion itself. This motion therefore retains its positive scalar
status irrespective of the vectorial direction.
In the compound motion mv, the negative gravitational motion acts as a resistance to the positive
motion v. The gravitational motion must therefore take place in all three of the available
dimensions, as any one of the three may be parallel to the dimension of the reference system, and
there would be no effective resistance in any vacant dimension. We may therefore identify the
gravitational motion as three-dimensional speed, which we can express as s3/t3, where s and t
are space and time respectively.
The mass (the resistance that this negative gravitational motion offers to the applied positive
motion) is then the inverse of this quantity, or t3/s3. Since only one dimension of motion can be
represented in three-dimensional spatial coordinate system, the gravitational motion in the other two
dimensions has no directional effect, but its magnitude applies as a modifier of the magnitude of the
motion in the dimension of the reference system.
We now turn to a different kind of “dimension.” When physical quantities are resolved into
component quantities of a fundamental nature, these component quantities are called dimensions.
The currently accepted systems of measurement express the dimensions of mechanical quantities in
terms of mass, length, and time, together with the dimensions (in the first sense) of these quantities.
But now that mass has been identified as a motion, a relation between space and time, all of
the quantities of the mechanical system can be expressed in terms of space and time only. For
purposes of the present discussion the word “space” will be used instead of “length,” to avoid
implying that there is a some dimensional difference between space and time. On this basis the
“dimensions,” or “space-time dimensions” of one-dimensional speed are space divided by time,
or s/t. As indicated above, mass has the dimensions t3/s3.
The product of mass and speed (or velocity) is t3/s3 × s/t = t2/s2. This is “quantity of motion,” or
momentum. The product of mass and the second power of speed is t3/s3× s2/t2 = t/s, which is
energy. Acceleration, the time rate of change of speed, is s/t × 1/t = s/t2. Multiplying acceleration
by mass, we obtain t3/s3 × s/t2 = t/s2, which is force, the “quantity of acceleration,” we might call it.
The dimensions of the other mechanical quantities are simply combinations of these basic
dimensions. Pressure, for instance, is force divided by area, t/s2 × 1/s2 = t/s4.
When reduced to space-time terms in accordance with the foregoing identifications, all of the well-
established mechanical relations are dimensionally consistent. To illustrate this agreement, we may
consider the relations applicable to angular motion, which take a different form from those applying
to translational motion, and utilize some different physical quantities. The angular system
introduces a purely numerical quantity, the angle of rotation ς. The time rate of change of this angle
is the angular velocity ω, which has the dimensions ω = ς/t = 1/t. Force is applied in the form of
torque, L, which is the product of force and the radius, r. L = Fr = t/s2 × s = t/s. One other quantity
entering into the angular relations is the moment of inertia, symbol I, the product of the mass and
the second power of the radius. I = mr2 = t3/s3 × s2 = t3/s. The following equations demonstrate the
dimensional consistency achieved by this identification of the space-time dimensions:
energy (t/s) = L
ς = t/s × 1 = t/s
energy (t/s) = ½Iω2 = t3/s × 1/t2= t/s
power (1/s) = Lω = t/s × 1/t = 1/s
torque (t/s) = ½Iω2 = t3/s × 1/t2= t/s
The only dimensional discrepancy in the basic equations of the mechanical system is in the
gravitational force equation, which is expressed as F = G mm’/d2 , where G is the gravitational
constant and d is the distance between the interacting masses. Although this equation is correct
mathematically, it cannot qualify as a theoretically established relation. As one physics textbook
puts it, this equation “is not a defining equation... and cannot be derived from defining equations. It
represents an observed relationship.” The reason for this inability to arrive at a theoretical
explanation of the equation becomes apparent when we examine it from a dimensional standpoint.
The dimensions of force in general are those of the product of mass and acceleration. It follows that
these must also be the dimensions of any specific force. For instance, the gravitational force acting
on an object in the earth’s gravitational field is the product of the mass and the “acceleration due to
gravity.” These same dimensions must likewise apply to the gravitational force in general. When we
look at the gravitational equation in this light, it becomes evident that the gravitational constant
represents the magnitude of the acceleration at unit values of m’ and d, and that these quantities are
dimensionless ratios. The dimensionally correct expression of the gravitational equation is then
F = ma, where the numerical value of “a” is Gm’/d2 .

The space-time dimensions of the quantities involved in current electricity can easily be identified
in the same manner as those of the mechanical system. Most of the measurement systems currently
in use add an electric quantity to the mass, length and time applicable to the mechanical system,
bringing the total number of independent base quantities to four. However, the new information
developed in the foregoing paragraphs enables expressing the electrical quantities of this class in
terms of space and time only, in the same manner as the mechanical quantities.
Electrical energy (watt-hours) is merely one form of energy in general, and therefore has the
energy dimensions, t/s. Power (watts) is energy divided by time, t/s × 1/t = 1/s. Electrical force, or
voltage (volts) is equivalent to mechanical force, with the dimensions t/s2 . Electric current
(amperes) is power divided by voltage. I = 1/s × s2/t = s/t. Thus current is dimensionally equal to
speed. Electrical quantity(coulombs) is current multiplied by time, and has the dimensions
Q = I t = s/t × t = s. Resistance (ohms) is voltage divided by current, R = t/s2 × t/s = t2/s3. This is
the only one of the basic quantities involved in the electric current phenomenon that has no
counterpart in the mechanical system. Its significance can be appreciated when it is noted that the
dimensions t2/s3 are those of mass per unit time.(1)
The dimensions of other electrical quantities can be obtained by combination, as noted in
connection with the mechanical quantities. As can be seen from the foregoing, the quantities
involved in the current electricity are dimensionally equivalent to those of the mechanical system.
We could, in fact, describe the current phenomena as the mechanical aspects of electricity. The only
important difference is that mechanics is largely concerned with the motions of individual units or
aggregates, while current electricity deals with continuous phenomena in which the individual units
are not separately identified. The validity of the dimensional assignments in electricity, and the
identity of the electrical and mechanical relations, can be verified by reducing the respective
equations to the space-time basis. For example, in mechanics the expression for kinetic energy (or
work) is W = ½mv2, the dimensions of which are t3/s3 × s2/t2= t/s. The corresponding equation for
the energy of the electric current is W =I2Rt. As mentioned above, the product Rt is equivalent to
mass, while I, the current, has the dimensions of speed, s/t. Thus, like the kinetic energy, the
electrical energy is the product of mass and the second power of speed, W = I2Rt = s2/t2 × t2/s3× t =
t/s. Another expression for mechanical energy is force times distance, W = Fd = t/s2 × s = t/s.
Similarly, relations of current electricity are likewise dimensionally consistent, and equivalent to the
corresponding mechanical relations, when reduced to (1) t3/s3 × 1/t = t2/s3 space-time terms.
Identification of the space-time dimensions of electrostatic quantities, those involving
electric charge, is complicated by the fact that in present-day physical thought electric charge is not
distinguished from electrical quantity. As we have seen, electric quantity is dimensionally
equivalent to space. On the other hand, we can deduce from the points brought out in the preceding
article that electric charge is a one-dimensional analogue of mass, and is therefore dimensionally
equivalent to energy. This can be verified by consideration of the relations involving electric field
intensity, symbol E. In terms of charge, the electric field intensity is given by the expression
E = Q/s2 . But the field intensity is defined as force per unit distance, and its space-time dimensions
are therefore t/s2 × 1/s = t/s3. Applying these dimensions to the equation E = Q/s2 , we obtain
Q = Es2 = t/s3 × s2 = t/s.
As long as the two different quantities that are called by the same name are used separately, their
practical application is not affected, but confusion is introduced into the theoretical treatment of the
phenomena that are involved. For instance in the relations involving capacitance (symbol C),
Q = t/s in the basic equation C = Q/V = t/s × s2/t = s. The conclusion that capacitance is
dimensionally equivalent to space is confirmed observationally, as the capacitance can be calculated
from geometrical measurements. However, the usual form of the corresponding energy equation is
W = QV, reflecting the definition of the volt as one joule per coulomb. In this equation, Q = W/V =
t/s × s2/t = s. Because of the lack of distinction between the two usages of Q the quantity CV, which
is equal to Q in the equation C = Q/V is freely substituted for Q in equations of the W = Q/V type,
leading to results such as W =C/V2, which are dimensionally incorrect.
Such findings emphasize the point that the ability to reduce all physical relations to their space-time
dimensions provides us with a powerful and effective tool for analysing physical phenomena. Its
usefulness is clearly demonstrated when it is applied to an examination of magnetism, which has
been the least understood of the major areas of physics. The currently accepted formulations of the
various magnetic relations are a mixture of correct and incorrect expressions, but by using those that
are most firmly based it is possible to identify the space-time dimensions of the primary magnetic
quantities.
This information then enables correcting existing errors in the statements of other relations, and
establishing dimensional consistency over the full range of magnetic phenomena.
In carrying out such a program we find that magnetism is a two-dimensional analogue of electricity.
The effect of the added dimension is to introduce a factor t/s into the expressions of the relations
applicable to the one-dimensional electric system. Thus the magnetic analogue of an electric charge,
t/s, is a magnetic charge, t2/s2. The existence of such a charge is not recognised in present-day
magnetic theory, probably because there is no independent magnetically-charged particle, but one of
the methods of dealing with permanent magnets makes use of the concept of the “magnetic pole,”
which is essentially the same thing. The unit pole strength in the SI system, the measurement
system now most commonly applied to magnetism, is the weber, which is equivalent to a volt-
second, and therefore has the dimensions t/s2 × t = t2/s2. The same units and dimensions apply to
magnetic flux, a quantity that is currently used in most relations that involve magnetic charge, as
well as in other applications where flux is the more appropriate term. Current ideas concerning
magnetic potential, or magnetic force, are in a state of confusion. Questions as to the relation
between electric potential and magnetic potential, the difference, if any, between potential and
force, and the meaning of the distinctions that are drawn between various magnetic quantities such
as magnetic potential, magnetic vector potential, magnetic scalar potential, and magneto-motive
force, have never received definitive answers. Now, however, by analysing these quantities into
their space-time dimensions we are able to provide the answers that have been lacking.
We find that force and potential have the same dimensions, and are therefore equivalent quantities.
The term “potential” is generally applied to a distributed force, a force field, and the use of a special
name in this context is probably justified, but is should be kept in mind that a potential is a force.
On the other hand, a magnetic potential (force) is not dimensionally equivalent to an electrical
potential (force), as it is subject to the additional t/s factor that relates the two-dimensional magnetic
quantities to the one-dimensional electric quantities. From the dimensions t/s2 of the electric
potential, it follows that the correct dimensions of the magnetic potential are t/s × t/s2 = t2/s3 . This
agrees with the dimensions of magnetic vector potential. In the SI system, the unit of this quantity is
the weber per meter, or t2/s2 × 1/s = t2/s3 . (The corresponding cgs unit is the gilbert, which also
reduces to t2/s3 ).
The same dimensions should apply to magneto motive force (MMF), and to magnetic potential
where this quantity is distinguished from vector potential. But an error has been introduced into the
dimensions attributed to these quantities because the accepted defining relation is an empirical
expression that is dimensionally incomplete. Experiments show that the magneto motive force can
be calculated by means of the expression MMF = n I, where n is the number of turns in a coil. Since
n is dimensionless, this equation indicates that MMF has the dimensions of electric current. The
unit has therefore been taken as the ampere, dimensions s/t. From the discrepancy between these
and the correct dimensions we can deduce that the equation MMF = n I, from which the ampere unit
is derived, is lacking a quantity with the dimensions t2/s3 × t/s = t3/s4 .
There is enough information available to make it evident that the missing factor with these
dimensions is the permeability, the magnetic analogue of electrical resistance. The permeability of
most substances is unity, and omitting has no effect on the numerical results of most experimental
measurements. This has led to overlooking it in such relations as the one used in deriving the
ampere unit for MMF. When we put the permeability (symbol μ) into the empirical equation it
becomes MMF = μnI, with the correct dimensions, t3/s4 × s/t = t2/s3.
The error in the dimensions attributed to MMF carries over into the potential gradient, the
magnetic field intensity. By definition, this is the magnetic field potential divided by distance,
t2/s3 × 1/s = t2/s4 .
But the unit in the SI system is the ampere per meter, the dimensions of which are s/t × 1/s = 1/t is
incorrect. In this case, the cgs unit, the oersted, is derived from the dimensionally correct unit of
magnetic potential, and therefore has the correct dimensions, t2/s4 .
The discrepancies in the dimensions of MMF and magnetic field intensity are typical of the
confusion that exists in a number of magnetic areas. Much progress has been made toward
clarifying these situations in the past few decades, both active, and sometimes acrimonious,
controversies still persist with respect to such quantities as magnetic moment and the two vectors
usually designated by the letters B and H. In most of these cases, including those specifically
mentioned, introduction of the permeability where it is appropriate, or removing it where it is
inappropriate, is all that is necessary to clear up the confusion and attain dimensional validity.
Correction of the errors in electric and magnetic theory that have been discussed in the foregoing
paragraphs, together with clarification of physical relations in other areas of confusion, enables
expressing all electric and magnetic quantities and relations in terms of space and time, thus
completing the consolidation of all of the various systems of measurement into one comprehensive
and consistent system. An achievement of this kind is, of course, self-verifying, as the possibility
that there might be more than one consistent system of dimensional assignments that agree with
observations over the entire field of physical activity is negligible.

But straightening out the system of measurement is only a small part of what has been
accomplished in this development. More importantly, the positive identification of the space-time
dimensions of any physical quantity defines the basic physical nature of that quantity.
Consequently, any hypothesis with respect to a physical process in which this quantity participates
must agree with the dimensional definition. The effect of this constraint on theory construction is
illustrated by the findings with respect to the nature of current electricity that were mentioned
earlier. Present-day theory views the electric current as a flow of electric charges. But the
dimensional analysis shows that charge has the dimensions t/s, whereas the moving entity in
the current flow has the dimensions of space, s. It follows that the current is not a flow of
electric charges. Furthermore, the identification of the space-time dimensions of the moving entity
not only tells us what the current is not, but goes on to reveal just what it is. According to present-
day theory, the carriers of the charges, which are identified as electrons, move through the spaces
between the atoms. The finding that the moving entities have the dimensions of space makes this
kind of a flow pattern impossible. An entity with the dimensions of space cannot move through
space, as the relation of space to space is not motion. Such an entity must move through the
matter itself, not through the vacant spaces. This explains why the current is confined within the
conductor, even if the conductor is bare. If the carriers of the current were able to move forward
through vacant spaces between atoms, they should likewise be able to move laterally through
similar spaces, and escape from the conductor. But since the current moves through the matter, the
confinement is a necessary consequence. The electric current is a movement of space through
matter, a motion that is equivalent, in all but direction, to movement of matter through space. This is
a concept that many individuals will find hard to accept. But is should be realised that the moving
entities are not quantities of the space with which we are familiar, extension space, we may call it.
There are physical quantities that are dimensionally equivalent to this space of our ordinary
experience, and play the same role in physical activity. One of them, capacitance, has already been
mentioned in the preceding discussion. The moving entities are quantities of this kind, not quantities
of extension space.
Here, then, is the explanation of the fact that the basic quantities and relations of the electric current
phenomena are identical with those of the mechanical system. The movement of space through
matter is essentially equivalent to the movement of matter through space, and is described by the
same mathematical expressions. Additionally, the identification of the electric charge as a motion
explains the association between charges and certain current phenomena that has been accepted as
evidence in favor of the “moving charge” theory of the electric current. One observation that has
had considerable influence on scientific thought is that an electron moving in open space has
the same magnetic properties as an electric current. But we can now see that the observed
electron is not merely a charge. It is a particle with an added motion that constitutes the
charge. The carrier of the electric current is the same particle without the charge. A charge
that is stationary in the reference system has electrostatic properties. An uncharged electron
in motion within a conductor has magnetic properties. A charged electron moving in a
conductor or in a gravitational field has both magnetic and electrostatic properties.
It is the motion of physical entities with the dimensions of space that produces the magnetic effect.
Whether or not these entities—electrons or their equivalent—are charged is irrelevant from this
standpoint. Another observed phenomenon that has contributed to the acceptance of the “moving
charge” theory is the emission of charged electrons from current-carrying conductors under certain
conditions. The argument in this instance is that if charged electrons come out of
a conductor there must have been charged electrons in the conductor. The answer to this is that the
kind of motion which constitutes the charge is easily imparted to a particle or atom
(as anyone who handles one of the modern synthetic fabrics can testify), and this motion is imparted
to the electrons in the process of ejection from the conductor. Since the uncharged particle cannot
move through space, the acquisition of a charge is one of the requirements for escape.
In addition to providing these alternative explanations for aspects of the electric current phenomena
that are consistent with the “moving charge” theory, the new theory of the current that emerges from
the scalar motion study also accounts for a number of features of the current flow that are difficult
to reconcile with the conventional theory. But the validity of the new theory does not rest on a
summation of its accomplishments. The conclusive point is that the identification of the electric
current as a motion of space through matter is confirmed by agreement with the dimensions of the
participating entities, dimensions that are verified by every physical relation in which the electric
current is involved. The proof of validity can be carried even farther. It is possible to put the whole
development of thought in this and the preceding article to a conclusive test. We have found that
mass is a three-dimensional scalar motion, and that electric current is a one-dimensional scalar
motion through a mass by entities that have the dimensions of space. We have further found that
magnetism is a two-dimensional analog of electricity. If these findings are valid, certain
consequences necessarily follow that are extremely difficult, perhaps impossible, to explain in
any other way. The one-dimensional, oppositely directed flow of the current through the
three-dimensional scalar motion of matter neutralises a portion of the motion in one of the
three dimensions, and should leave an observable two-dimensional (magnetic) residue.
Similarly, movement of a two-dimensional (magnetic) entity through a mass, or the equivalent
of such a motion, should leave a one-dimensional (electric) residue. In as much as these are
direct and specific requirements of the theory outlined in the foregoing paragraphs, and are not
called for by any other physical theory, their presence or absence is a definitive test of the validity
of the theory. The observations give us an unequivocal answer. The current flow produces a
magnetic effect, and this effect is perpendicular to the direction of the current, just as it must
be if it is the residue of a three-dimensional motion that remains after motion in the one
dimension of the current flow is neutralised.
This perpendicular direction of the magnetic effect of the current is a total mystery to present-day
physical science, which has no explanation for either the origin of the effect or its direction. But
both the origin and the direction are obvious and necessary consequences of our findings with
respect to the nature of mass and the electric current. There is no independent magnetic particle
similar to the carrier of the electric current, and no two-dimensional motion of space through matter
analogous to the one-dimensional motion of the current is possible, but the same effect can be
produced by mechanical movement of mass through a magnetic field, or an equivalent process. As
the theory requires, the one-dimensional residue of such motion is observed to be an electric
current. This process is electromagnetic induction. The magnetic effect of the current is
electromagnetism.
On first consideration it might seem that the magnitude of the electromagnetic effect is far out of
proportion to the amount of gravitational motion that is neutralised by the current. However, this is
a result of the large numerical constant, 3 × 1010 in cgs units (represented by the symbol c), that
applies to the space-time ratio s/t where conversion from an n-dimensional quantity to an m-
dimensional quantity takes place. An example that, by this time is familiar to all, E=mc2, is the
conversion of mass (t3/s3) to energy (t/s). In that process, where the relation is between a three-
dimensional quantity and a one-dimensional quantity, the numerical factor is c2. In the relation
between the three-dimensional mass and the two-dimensional magnetic residue the numerical factor
is c, less than c2 but still a very large number.

Thus, the theory of the electric current developed in the foregoing discussion passes the test of
validity in a definite and positive manner. The results that it requires are in full agreement with two
observed physical phenomena of a significant nature that are wholly unexplained in present-day
physical thought. Together with the positively established validity of the corresponding system of
space-time dimensions, this test provides a verification of the entire theoretical development
described in this article, a proof that meets the most rigid scientific standard.