Bull VoIcanol(1986) 48:3 15
Vol6i ology
The dimensions and dynamics of volcanic eruption columns
RSJ Sparks
Department of Earth Sciences,Universityof Cambridge,CambridgeCB2 3EQ, England
Abstract. Eruption columns can be divided into three
regimes of physical behaviour. The basal gas thrust
region is characterised by large velocities and de-
celerations and is dominated by momentum. This
region is typically a few hundred metres in height and
passes upwards into a much higher convective region
where buoyancy is dominant. The top of the convective
region is defined by the level of neutral density (height
He) where the column has a bulk density equal to the
surrounding atmosphere. Above this level the column
continues to ascend to a height H r due to its momen-
tum. The column spreads horizontally and radially
outwards between height HT and HB to form an
umbrella cloud. Numerical calculations are presented
on the shape of eruption columns and on the re-
lationships between the height H B and the mass dis-
charge rate of magma, magma temperature and atmo-
spheric temperature gradients. Spreading rate of the
column margins increases with height principally due to
the decrease in the atmospheric pressure. The re-
lationship between column height and mass discharge
rate shows good agreement with observations. The
temperature inversion above the tropopause is found to
only have a small influence on column height and,
eruptions with large discharge rates can inject material
to substantially greater heights than the inversion level.
Approximate calculations on the variation of convective
velocities with height are consistent with field data and
indicate that columns typically ascend at velocities from a
few tens to over 200 m/s. In very large columns (greater
than 30 km) the calculated convective velocities approach
the speed of sound in air, suggesting that compressibility
effects may become important in giant columns. Radial
velocities in the umbrella region where the column is
forced laterally into the atmosphere can be substantial and
exceed 55 m/s in the case of the May 18th Mount St.
Helens eruption. Calculations on motions in this region
imply that it plays a major role in the transport of coarse
pyroclastic fragments.
© Springer-Verlag 1986
Introduction
Explosive volcanic eruptions are characterised by the
formation of convecting columns or plumes which
transport pyroclastics and volatiles high into the at-
mosphere. These ejecta are then distributed by winds
over large areas to form pyroclastic fall deposits. The
last fifteen years have seen considerable progress in
understanding the physics of eruption columns.
However, several fundamental aspects of column be-
haviour are still incompletely understood. The number
of useful observations on eruption columns, document-
ing their dimensions and ascent rate, also remains
remarkably few. The main purpose of this paper is to
develop a general model of eruption columns based on
theoretical and experimental studies of plume dynamics
and on observations of volcanic eruptions. The study
seeks to understand their dynamics in a quantitative
way and to provide a basis for interpreting the dimen-
sions of eruption columns. A subsidiary aim is to relate
this general model to the transport of pyroclasts within
the column as a step towards understanding and
interpreting the geological characteristics of pyroclastic
fall deposits.
General structure of eruption columns
An eruption column can be conveniently divided into
two distinct parts (Sparks and Wilson 1976): the gas
thrust and convective regions (Fig. 1). The gas thrust
region encompasses the basal part of the column which
is dominated by the momentum of the flow and in which
buoyancy effects are negligible. Within the conduit and
vent region expansion of volatiles accelerates a mixture
of pyroclasts and gas to high velocities. The material is
accelerated to some maximum or exit velocity which
can be considered as the initial velocity condition at the
 4 Sparks: The dimensions and dynamics of volcanic eruption columns
HT
~g
bJ _
n-C~
\tQ- ('US ,'-h~ ~ - ..~ ~ . l v ~
H B -- _
LU
'..('.l~rAr '/4o
c~v~a
I--
g ~,\,\m
~g
u~t.u
I ~ V I R T U A L SOURCE
base of the column. Theoretical analysis and obser-
vations suggest that exit velocities vary from somewhat
over 100 m/s in weak strombolian eruptions (Blackburn
et al. 1976) to perhaps as much as 600 m/s in large
plinian and vulcanian eruptions (Wilson 1976, 1980;
Wilson et al. 1980). The exit velocity is known to depend
strongly on the explosion pressure at the level of magma
fragmentation which in turn is closely correlated with
the mass fraction of gas (Wilson 1980; Wilson et al.
1980).
The gas thrust region typically only occupies a small
fraction of the total column height from a few hundred
metres to perhaps a few kilometres in the largest
eruptions. As depicted in Fig. 1, the flow is characterised
by rapid deceleration and reduction in bulk density of
the column. Wilson (1976) analysed the motion of the
gas thrust region for steady flow, assuming that the
column behaved like a momentum jet. The results of
this analysis were applied to understanding the con-
ditions for column instability and collapse to form
pyroclastic flows (Sparks and Wilson 1976; Sparks et al.
1978). Theoretical analyses of the gas thrust region for
unsteady conditions, in which discrete explosions oc-
cur, have been presented by Wilson (1980). Detailed
fluid dynamic models of volcanic jets have also been
presented (Kieffer 1984; Kieffer and Sturtevant 1984).
The work cited above recognised two kinds of
eruption column behaviour in the basal region. In one
kind, mixing and heating of air into the turbulent
column resulted in a smooth transition upwards to a
turbulent plume dominated by buoyancy effects. For
this to occur sufficient air had to be mixed into the
lowermost parts of the column to make the bulk column
density less than the surrounding atmosphere. In the
other kind of behaviour, part of the column decelerated
to zero velocity (effectively running out of kinetic
energy). This occurs when the column fails to mix with
•
\
/,
%
Fig. L Sketch of the main features
of an eruption column. The vari-
ation of velocity and density with
height is schematically depicted
VELOCITY DENSITY
sufficient air to lower the density to less than the density
of the surrounding atmosphere. Such dense material
was postulated to collapse back to form pyroclastic
flows (Sparks et al. 1978; Wilson et al. 1980). The
conditions required to produce a smooth transition to
the convective region without collapse depend prin-
cipally on the vent and conduit geometry, the volatile
content of the magma and the vent exit pressure. Wilson
et al. (1978) found that a steady, non-collapsing column
could not be sustained for magma discharge rates in
excess of approximately 106 m3/s, suggesting an upper
limit for the rate of material transport in high eruption
columns.
Much of the height of a volcanic eruption column is
dominated by buoyancy effects and is considered the
convective region. Wilson et al. (1978) and Settle (1978)
demonstrated that, to a first approximation, the height
of a volcanic column, Hr (in metres), is directly related
to the thermal flux by the following expression
3 1
Hr = 5.773 (1 +rO- g [ a Q s ( O e - Oao)]~g, (1)
where Q is the volume discharge rate of magma in m3/s,
s in the magma specific heat, 0e is the initial temperature
of the erupting material, 0,o is the atmospheric tempera-
ture at sea-level, a is the magma density and n is the
ratio of the vertical gradient of the absolute temperature
to the lapse rate. (Table 1 lists all symbols and their
definitions.) Equation (1) is a modification of an ex-
pression derived by Morton et al. (1956) in their classic
study of thermal plume ascent. The good agreement
between theory and observation (Wilson et al. 1978;
Sparks and Wilson 1982) indicates that thermal plume
theory could be successfully applied to volcanic col-
umns despite complicating effects, such as the presence
of entrained solid materials and the complicated pheno-
mena occurring in the vent region. In this paper the
 Sparks: The dimensions and dynamics of volcanic eruption columns 5

Table 1. List of symbols, their definitions and units

Symbol Definition Unit

b Characteristic horizontal length scale L

Cp Specific heat of air at constant pressure LZT - 2K - 1
f Fractional parameter defined in Eq. (19)
Fo Buoyancy parameter L4T- 3
G Stratification parameter T- 2
h Height L
h' Height of tropopause L
hi Normalisation parameter for plume height L
ho Focal depth of plume below vent L
H Scale height of atmosphere L
He Height of neutral density where plume density equals atmospheric density L
Hr Height of eruption column L
K Entrainment constant
m Mass flux of air and pyroclasts in umbrella region M T- 1
M Mass flux of solids in plume at height H e M T-
n Ratio of vertical gradient of the absolute temperature to the environmental lapse rate
rt c Solid fraction at plume centreline
P Pressure ML - 1T- z
q Density ratio of plume and surrounding atmosphere
O Volume discharge rate of magma L3T -
Q, Rate of heat production at source ML2T -3
1"0 Vent radius L
R Normalization parameter for plume width L
R' Radial distance from plume axis in umbrella region L
S Specific heat of magma LeT- 2K - 1
T Temperature K
Atmospheric reference temperature (sea-level) K
u Characteristic vertical velocity of plume L T-
Uc Plume vertical velocity at centreline L T-
tAr Radial horizontal inflow velocity L T-
U Normalisation parameter for plume vertical velocity L T-
V Volume of parcel of air La
X Radial horizontal distance from plume centreline L
Density of ambient fluid (air) M L- 3
ga Density of local atmosphere at height h M L 3
9~ao Density of atmosphere at sea-level M L- 3
8 Plume bulk density M L-3
~c Plume bulk density at centreline M L-3
7 Empirical constant of proportionality between plume height and width (Eq. 8)
,/ Empirical constant of proportionality between plume height and width modified to account for
pressure and temperature changes in atmosphere
A Normalisation parameter for plume buoyancy L T-2
F Adiabatic gradient in atmosphere K L-1
O, Temperature of surrounding atmosphere K
Oao Temperature of atmosphere at sea-level K
Oc Temperature of plume at height H e K
Oe Magma temperature K
OHz~ Temperature of all air transported in plume to height He, neglecting all heat added from magma K
O' Stratosphere temperature K
Mean density of atmosphere in height interval ( H r - H B ) M L -3
O' Reference density (air at sea-level) M L-3
o" Magma density M L-3
~5 Ratio of specific heats of air at constant pressure and volume
Z Fractional parameter defined in Eq. (25)
6 Sparks: The dimensions and dynamics of volcanic eruption columns
application of Eq. (1) to volcanic columns is examined
more closely.
Sparks and Wilson (1982) developed a theoretical
treatment of volcanic plume ascent for the analysis of
movie film of the 1979 eruption of Soufriere, St. Vincent.
They modified the results of theoretical and experimen-
tal studies of plume ascent by Morton et al. (1956) and
Turner (1962) to take into account the effects of
entrained solids on the bulk density and temperature of
the plume. They were able to obtain good agreement
between estimates of magma discharge rate based on
the analysis of the film and based on Eq. (1) Sparks and
Wilson (1982) also developed a method of estimating
the particle content and temperature of these plumes by
using the dynamic theory to deduce the bulk density
and finding the unique combination of temperature and
particle content consistent with both the bulk density
and original magma temperature. This study gave a
further indication that convective plume theory can be
usefully adapted to eruption columns. The convective
region of a column should show a steady decrease in
velocity and bulk density as depicted in Fig. 1.
In a stratified atmosphere a plume will eventually
reach a level where it has the same density as the
surroundings (Morton et al. 1956). The plume will
spread out sideways, but will also continue to rise in the
centre, because of its excess momentum, to reach a
maximum height. A plume will thus display a well-
defined top at height Hr and a base at a height He, at
which the bulk density of the plume equals the atmo-
sphere density (see Fig. 1). Continuity demands that the
plume will flow sideways between these two levels to
form a forced intrusion, thereby creating the character-
istic mushroom or umbrella shape observed in many
volcanic columns. It is convenient to treat the be-
haviour of this region separately from the lower con-
vecting region and it is therefore termed here the
umbrella region.
Analysis of plume dynamics
Plume theory
The fundamental analysis of turbulent gravitational
convection by Morton et al. (1956) forms the basis of the
investigation of plume behaviour. Experimental studies
and further theoretical work (Turner, 1979) have con-
firmed their analysis as an accurate description of
thermal plume dynamics. Detailed treatments of plume
theory are given in several publications (Morton et al.
1956; Turner 1962; TurnEr 1979; Sparks and Wilson
1982) so only an outline of the pertinent results of the
theoretical analysis are given here. Table 1 lists all
symbols, their definitions and dimensions.
Conservation of mass, momentum and buoyancy in
a plume with a circular symmetry involving incom-
pressible fluids can be expressed by three relationships
d(rcbYu) = 2 rcKu, (2)
b2u = nbY g :c '
~, ~ , (4)
where h is the height, b is the characteristic horizontal
dimension of the plume, u is the characteristic vertical
velocity, c~is the density of the surrounding fluid, ~', is a
reference density (usually taken as the atmospheric
density at sea-level), fi is the characteristic plume
density and K is a constant. Experimental studies
indicate that the vertical velocity and density profiles of
a plume with circular symmetry have a Gaussian dis-
tribution (Rouse et al. 1952 Turner 1979) described by
--X 2
u(x,h)=uc(h)expI~l , (5)
r-x ~]
fi(x,h)=[fic(h)-~]exPLb~, (6)
where uc and tic are the vertical velocity and bulk density
of the plume on the plume axis at height h, and x is the
radial distance from the plume axis. Thus, the horizon-
tal length scale b is the distance from the plume axis at
which the bulk density and velocity are 1/e of those
values on the central axis. The parameter b does not
represent the visible radius of the plume but is directly
proportional to it. Sparks and Wilson (1982) observed
that the ascent velocities of the visible edge of the
Soufriere plumes were about 37o of the centreline
velocities, suggesting that the visible radius is about 2b.
The constant K in Eq. (2) is known as the entrain-
ment constant and is based on the assumption that the
radial inflow velocity at some distance x = r from the
plume axis is related to uc by
u,=Ku c. (7)
Laboratory experiments suggest that K = 0.09 for r = b.
Laboratory plumes are observed to spread sideways
at an approximately constant rate and the angle
between the centreline and the plume edge usually
varies little with height. The relationship between h and
b can be expressed by
b =Th. (8)
The theoretical and laboratory studies of Morton et
al. (1956) show that ? is constant for nearly all the height
of a plume rising in a stratified environment. For an
environment with a linear density gradient ? approx-
imately equals 0.125. Morton et al. (1956) presented the
results of numerical integration of Eqs. (2) to (4) for the
case of a thermal plume in a stratified environment. The
useful results are cited here
Sparks: The dimensionsand dynamicsof volcaniceruption columns
1 1 3 can be estimated readily by extrapolation as indicated
h = 0.41 K-2FoEG-gh ~ (9)
1 1 3
b = 0. 819 K-~Fo~ G-ER (10)
1 1 I columns. The principal modifications are summarised
uC= 1" t 58 K - 2 Fo4 GE U, (11)
j= 0 819 K - 2 Fo~- G~-A. (12)
The parameters R, U and A are parameters which
depend on the normalised height hi, defined in Eq. (9). A
table of numbers enabling these parameters to be
calculated for any given value of h 1 is provided in
Morton et al. (1956). An important result of their
analysis was to show that the top of the plume occurs at
a value of hz = 2.8. Subsequent experimental work has
confirmed that this result is in excellent agreement with
data for plumes which range in height from less than 20
cm to several kilometres (Turner 1979). Equations (10)
to (12) describe the change of column radius, velocity
and bulk density with height.
The two governing parameters G and Fo represent
the buoyancy flux at the source and the density
stratification of the surrounding fluid. For a thermal
plume in the atmosphere Morton et al. (1956) took
account of the compressibility of the atmosphere by
substituting potential temperatures and densities for
absolute temperatures and densities. They thus defined
G and F0 in the following way
G = g (r)(1 + n), (13)
r.
gQ'
F° ~o Cp Tn' (14)
where F is the adiabetic decrease in temperature with
height in the atmosphere ( = 9.8 °C/kin), Tn is the source
atmosphere temperature, n is as defined in Eq. (1), cp is
the specific heat of air and Q' is the rate of heat
production at source. For the volcanic case the rate of
heat production is related to the magma discharge rate
by
Q ' ~- Q s G ( O e - - Oa). (15)
Substitution of Eqs. (13), (14) and (15) into Eq. (9) for h 1
= 2.8 yields Eq. (1).
Considerable attention should be given in applying
this theory to the definition of the height h. In plume
theory h is measured from an imaginary point called the
virtual source, where b = 0 and uC= oo (Fig. 1). Such a
point cannot in practice exist and the source of any
plume has a finite width. The depth of the virtual source
in Fig. 1. The correction involved can be significant for
some volcanic plumes.
This basic plume theory requires a number of
modifications for application to high volcanic eruption
below.
1.) The Earth's atmosphere is stratified with a
hydrostatic contribution to the density field. The plume
model requires modification to take account of the
decrease in hydrostatic pressure with height.
2.) The Earth's atmosphere has a steep temperature
gradient beneath the tropopause, but has an approx-
imately constant temperature within the stratosphere.
The adiabatic decrease in temperature with height does
not have a constant gradient and so the linear approx-
imation in Eq. (13) is inexact at great heights.
Consequently, for columns rising high within the stra-
tosphere the definition of G in Eq. (13) requires
modification.
3.) A volcanic plume contains entrained solids with
ranges of temperatures, dimensions and densities. The
thermal and mechanical interaction between solids and
entrained air could be complicated, making many of the
underlying assumptions in the simple thermal plume
theory suspect. For example, plume motions can no
longer be interpreted in terms of density changes
associated with temperature effects, but must take into
account the importance of solids content on density
(Sparks and Wilson 1982).
4.) The conditions at the base in the gas thrust
region depart from those appropriate for a plume
(Kieffer 1984). However, the detailed complexities of the
gas thrust region do not appear to have any significant
influence on overall plume behaviour (Wilson et al.
1978; Sparks and Wilson 1982).
Modifications (1) to (3) are considered in detail in
this paper.
Eruption column width
The analysis of Morton et aI. (1956) was concerned with
a buoyant plume rising in a stratified environment of
uniform fluid. They found that the spreading rate of a
plume was almost constant except near the base.
However, a plume ascending high into the atmosphere
experiences a decrease in hydrostatic pressure which
causes an additional expansion which must be added on
to the expansion due to turbulent entrainment. A parcel
of cold air entrained into the plume at height h o and
local pressure Po will experience an isentropic expan-
sion in moving up to a new height h at pressure p
v0
8 Sparks: The dimensions and dynamics of volcanic eruption columns
where Vo is the initial volume, V is the final volume, and
q5 is the ratio of the specific heats at constant pressure
and constant volume (q~= 1.40).
Air is entrained into a turbulent plume over a range
of heights between the ground and height H , (Fig. 1). At
each height interval h the mass flux of air entrained into
the plume will be
6 M =2rib Ku~(h) ~(h) 6h, (17)
where c~(h) is the local air density.
The problem of finding the total volume change
associated with decreasing hydrostatic pressure due to
expansion of all the parcels of air incorporated over the
column's height was approached in the following way.
As a first approximation it was assumed that the total
volume change was the same as if all the air at height HB
had been entrained at some fraction of the column
height,f Thus, the appropriate value of p in eq. (16) is
evaluated at height h
h =fH 8. (18)
For example, the volume change (V/Vo) for a column
height of 20 km and f = 0 . 5 was assumed to be the same
as raising air from 10 to 20 km height. This volume
change must be added on to that caused by spreading to
produce a modification of Eq. (8)
t each other. This cannot be strictly true since the
It is assumed here that the excess volume only changes
the radius of the plume and does not cause any major
departure of the vertical velocity from that predicted by
Eq. (10). This will be justified later since Eq. (11) is in
reasonable agreement with observations (see Sect. 3.4).
Figure 2 shows the variation of the parameter
1 :/oY.7
7' [ 7 ' = 7 (~0)Y] as a function of column height (HB) for
different assumptions of the parameter f.
The dimensions of the plume will be further mod-
ified by the presence of hot solids, and thus Eq. (19) must
be modified further to take account of magma tempera-
ture. All the air entrained into the column from the
surface to height H e is heated by the hot pyroclasts. A
similar argument to that described above can be used to
predict this heating effect. Entrained air cools adiabati-
cally according to
where To and T are the initial and final absolute
temperatures, Po and p the pressure at height
h(h=ZHB). If it is assumed that the temperature at
height HB is the same as if all the air had been
incorporated at a fraction Z of the column height, then
the air temperature 0HB can be estimated. This para-
meter is the temperature of all the entrained air at height
H s, assuming no transfer of heat from the solids. Of
course, entrained air is continuously heated by the
pyroclasts and the plume in fact has a higher tempera-
ture, 0c, at height Hs. The additional expansion due to
heating must therefore be
V~ 0c
- (21)
V 0H~'
where Vis the volume as defined in Eq. (16) and ~ is the
volume at temperature 0c. Assuming that this additional
volume is only involved in lateral expansion the width
of the plume at height h is
1
( V ' ~ ( Oc \½h
The problem in using these ideas is that neither 0~
nor appropriate values of f and Z can be known in
advance. Consequently, the appropriate values off, Z
and 0¢ have to be calculated by a numerical technique
involving an iterative procedure. The problem becomes
more tractable if it is assumed t h a t f a n d Z are equal to
temperature and pressure variations in the atmosphere
are independent. However, this approximation can be
justified a posteriori since it can be shown that com-
puted values o f f and Z are always close to one another.
30 , .- /
-g /,6 / (3~b
b-
$
ILl
112
I0 -
o I I I I
o.~ 0.2 0.3 o-4
Fig. 2. Variation of parameter 7' with height H B for buoyant plumes.
The solid curves show values of 7', as defined in Eq. (19), for three
different values o f f The dashed line shows the variation of 7' estimated
by numerical integration for a temperature of 1000 °C
 Sparks: The dimensions and dynamics of volcanic eruption columns 9

The first step in the procedure was to take the case of additional expansion due to heating can be estimated to
f = z = 0.5, estimate a column shape from Eqs. (16) and give the column shape for a given magma temperature.
(19) and then calculate the volume change of all parcels Figure 3 shows the visible edge of the plume at 1000 °C
of entrained air by numerical integration. Equation (17) magma temperature for columns up to 30 km high. The
was used to calculate the fractional contribution of each estimated shape is not strongly dependent on magma
height interval to the total mass flux at height H B. The temperature and is not greatly different to that shown
total volume change caused by entrainment over the for temperatures in the range 600°C to 1000°C. It
whole height of the column could then be compared should be stressed that the calculations shown in Fig. 3
with the volume change based on the original assump- apply to the level of neutral density (height HB), and thus
tion o f f The numerical integration was then repeated they strictly represent a plot of width against height H B.
with the new values of 7' until the results reached However, the actual width of columns a,t heights other
convergence, with the chosen value o f f producing the than H 8 are likely to be similar since measured buoyan-
same volume change as calculated by the numerical cies of convecting plumes are never large.
integration. The analysis predicts that the spreading rate of
Figure 2 shows the results of this procedure showing volcanic plumes should be greater than that predicted
the best estimate of the variation of ?' with height. The by simple plume theory (7 =0.125). Although the data
simpler assumption o f f = 0 . 5 gives a reasonable ap- are meagre, Sparks and Wilson (1982) estimated
proximation to heights of about 16 km, beyond which ?'=0.17 for a plume from the Soufriere volcano at
the numerical result increasingly departs from this approx- h = 8 km, and a value of?' = 0.16 was estimated from the
imation, giving lower values o f f at greater heights. An photographs of the May 18, 1980, plinian column of
appropriate value off can be interpolated from Fig. 2 for Mount St. Helens. These values are similar to the
any height H B. Physically, the decrease infwith height present calculations (Fig. 3): for example, for a magma
reflects the fact that very high columns consist of a large temperature of 1000 °C ?' =0.19 at 5 km. It is noted that
proportion of air entrained from the lower atmo- ?' cannot be determined with great accuracy as its value
sphere. The curves in Fig. 2 are modified when the will depend on how the visible edge of the plume is
transfer of heat from the pyroclasts is taken into interpreted. The visible edge of the plume was assumed
account. However, the variation of the parameterfas a to have a radius of 2b in these calculations.
function of height H B is effected negligibly by magma
temperature so that Fig. 2 can be used to interpolate a
Column height
value o f f for a given column height HB. As described in
the next section, the temperature 0Ccan be estimated Previous studies (Settle 1978; Wilson et al. 1978; Sparks
from heat balance considerations and 0 ~ from in- and Wilson 1982) used Eq. (1) to predict the heights of
terpolation of f on Fig. 2 and use of Eq. (20). The columns assuming that the atmosphere has a constant

30
I I I J I

25

d
20 f
f

v
\ /
m

~5 \ /
\ /
I
~D
/
\ /
W \ /
I IO /
x. /
\ /
\ I
\ I
i
.!
I
2O IO o IO 20 o
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE ( k i n )

Fig. 3. Width of eruption columns as a function of the height H e for a magma temperature of 1000 °C
10
lapse rate and temperature gradient. They found good
agreement between observed and predicted heights for
columns extending to heights greater than the tropo-
pause. This result is somewhat surprising since the
temperature gradient changes at the tropopause and
the adiabatic temperature gradient is not a constant
when integrated over large heights.
This paper takes a different approach to estimate
column height so that the effects of entrained solids can
be considered. The bulk density of a volcanic plume is a
function of the solids content (no)and temperature of the
plume, 0c. The centreline density, tic, can be related to
these parameters and the atmosphere density, %, at
height h by the following expression
~o _ Oc(1-nc)q nc~a
Pc Oo a height H~.
where a is the density of the solids. Equation (23)
neglects the volcanic gas component, but the contri-
bution of this gas to the total mass is negligible in a
plume. At the level of neutral density (height HB) %~fie
= 1 and the second term on the right-hand side is
negligible, leading to a simple relationship between
local air temperature, solids content and plume
temperature
Unique values of nc and 0c can be determined for a
given initial eruption temperature, 0e, by developing an
argument first presented by Sparks and Wilson (1982).
The cloud at height h consists of entrained air which has
been absorbed over a range of heights between the
surface and h. Each elementary mass of air cools
adiabatically. Air entrained at the ground cools most,
whereas that entrained at level h will not cool at all. The
average cooling (A 0) is some fraction (Z) of the ma-
ximum given by
where H is the scale height of the atmosphere (~ 8 km).
Heat conservation yields
~[0.o~-0
. , ~h, O' (h-h')~_(i
) _ n ~ )F/4~>_- l /] ,
L _
where h' is the height of the tropopause, and O' is the
stratosphere temperature which can be approximately
considered a constant up to 40 km altitude (Lutgens
Sparks: The dimensions and dynamics of volcanic eruption columns
and Tarbuck 1979). Sparks and Wilson (1982) assumed
that X= 0.5, which is a reasonable approximation for
small columns. A further approximation can be made
by equating Z with f i n Eq. (18). Table 2 compares values
ofz andffor 30- and 15-km-high columns calculated by
numerical integration. The values are sufficiently sim-
ilar so that only small errors in estimating the tempera-
ture are introduced by assuming that f=7.. The para-
meter fbecomes smaller for large columns (Fig. 2) and
thus the approximation f = 0 . 5 would yield inaccurate
results for columns much greater than 15 km high. A
value of f can be interpolated from the curves in Fig. 2
for each height H B. With a suitable value o f f chosen Eq.
(24) and (26) represent simultaneous equations which
can be solved for plume solids content nc and plume
(23) temperature 0c for the condition corresponding to
Figures 4 and 5 show the variations of solids content
and plume temperature as a function of height H~. Two
sets of calculations were made for different atmospheric
conditions. The tropical atmosphere model assumed a
tropopause height of 17 km, a surface temperature of
293 K and a lower atmosphere temperature gradient of
-5.3 K/km. The temperature atmosphere model as-
sumed a tropopause height of 10 km, a surface tempera-
ture of 273 K and a lower atmosphere temperature
gradient of 6.5 K/kin. Each curve in the diagrams is for a
different initial magma temperature, 0~. The effect of the
124, tropopause is evident on the solids content curves (Fig.
5) by inflexions in the curves, which are particularly
prominent in the temperature atmosphere model. The
reversal of the gradient in the plume temperature lines is
a direct consequence of the temperature inversion in the
tropopause. It is important to emphasise that the curves
in Fig. 4 and 5 only apply to the level of neutral density
(height HB).
The important effect of eruption temperature is
evident in both diagrams. At any given value of H B the
solids content of the plume has to increase as the
magma temperature decreases. In order for the plume
to maintain the neutral density condition the plume
temperature has to increase as the solids content
(25) increases and magma temperature decreases.
The total mass flux of entrained solids can be related
to the height and centreline velocity by the following
Table 2. Estimates of the parameters of f and Z by numerical
integration of Eqs. (16), (17), and (20). Calculations were for a sub-
- - J
tropical climate
(26)
f Z H B (km)
0.303 0.357 30
0.484 0.467 15
Sparks: The dimensions and dynamics of volcanic eruption columns 11

o/1% o o
ROPICAL ~ 0 TEMPERATE
800 8O0
}

bJ
Fig. 4a, b. Variation of centreline solids
content in plume with height He, where
the plume has a density equal to the
surrounding atmosphere. Each curve is for
a different magma temperature in °C.
Calculations are shown for a tropical (a)
a I I I and temperate (b) atmosphere
0"01 0.1 0.5 0-01 0-1 0"5

SOLIDS CONTENT

expression modified from Sparks and Wilson (1982)
M =(7') 2 uc ~h 2 n c %.
The relationship between height and particle con-
tent for a given eruption temperature can be used,
together with an estimate of velocity, at height H B to
estimate the mass eruption rate. At the level of neutral
density (h=HB) Eqs. (9) and (11) can be combined to
give
1
uc = 0.775 G~-. (28)
(27)
G will clearly vary from place to place in the
atmosphere (see Eq. 13). However, the square root
dependence in Eq. (28) suggests that an average value of
1.156 × 10 .4 is an adequate approximation for present
purposes.
Figure 6 shows the basal column height H e as a
function of mass eruption rate for a temperate climate

3o[ll o/ o /J I / , , i
o7T7 J-

-- 20

io

oL a b
220 240 260 280 220 240 260

PLUME TEMPERATURE {K)

Fig. 5 a, b. Variation of centreline plume temperature with height HB, where the plume has a density equal to the surrounding atmosphere. Each
curve is for a different magma temperature in °C. Calculations are shown for a tropical (a) and temperate (b) atmosphere
12 Sparks: The dimensions and dynamics of volcanic eruption columns

VOLUME DISCHARGE RATE (m3/s)

I0 2 I0 ~' 104 I0 5

,o , ' ,ooo_#/// - ,o

30
20

20

IO

IO

-t"
m
-g 0 a I I I I 0 $
IO6 io7 io 8 io 9 -r"
-t
:f MASS DISCHARGE RATE {kg/s)

I--
"1- I02 I0 3 104 IO5 3
(.9
30
LU I I ~ / 1 _ 40
-r- IO00
TEM
PERATE
800----~

3O
20

20

I0
Fig. 6a, h. Variation of basal column height (Hs) with
I0 mass discharge rate of magma. Each curve shows
calculations for a different m a g m a eruption tempera-
ture. The equivalent volume discharge rate for a
m a g m a density of 2500 kg/m 3 and the column height
(Hr) is also indicated. Calculations are shown for a
b I I I I tropical (a) and temperate (b) atmosphere
I0 6 107 I0 8 I0 9
MASS DISCHARGE RATE (kg/s)

and tropical climate. Each curve is for a particular
initial eruption temperature. As would be anticipated
from qualitative arguments the height HB at which a
column spreads out increases with mass eruption rate
and increases with the initial temperature. The height
Hris also indicated since this is the parameter which is
usually recorded. The height H r is related to HB by the
following relationship
Hr = 1.32 (h o + HB),
where h o is the focal depth which is estimated to be function
of discharge rate of magma. This relationship is derived
from the numerical results of Morton et al. (1956), who
calculated the variation of velocity with height in the
region above height H Bwhere momentum is dominant.
For the purpose of estimating h o it was assumed the
magma volatile content was 3~o, the exit velocity 400 m/s
and the exit pressure was 1 arm. For these values and a
given magma discharge rate the vent radius r o can be
calculated and h o estimated by ~o=0.125 ho.
(29)
Figure 7 shows a comparison of the theoretical
predictions with observations of the height H r and mass
 Sparks: The dimensions and dynamics of volcanic eruption columns 13

discharge rate. All the data fall close to or within the
stippled field defined by the 1000 °C and 600 °C calcu-
lations. The dashed curves for 1000 °C and 600 °C using
Eq. (1) are shown for comparison. Somewhat surpris-
ingly, use of Eq. (1) gives results which are not greatly
different to this treatment, although the assumptions
encompassed in this equation cannot be correct above
the tropopause.
Column velocities
The variation of centreline velocity with height can be
approximated by use of Eq. (11) and the table of values
given in Morton et al. (1956). Figure 8 shows the
variation of centreline velocity with height calculated in
this way for several column heights, showing the
increase of velocity at a given height with increasing
total column height.
These calculations are undoubtedly very approx-
imate since they take no account of the detailed
interaction of solids and entrained air. The calculations
must almost be completely incorrect at the base of the
column where the column is not buoyant and momen-
tum is dominant. The height below which the column
has a greater density than the atmosphere is indicated in
Fig. 8. Behaviour should only depart from that of a
buoyant plume in the lowermost few hundred metres to
perhaps a few kilometres in very high columns, as
already documented by Wilson (1976).
Two eruption plumes have detailed data on the
variation of ascent velocity with height: Soufriere in
1979 (Sparks and Wilson 1982) and the first plume of
the Mount St. Helens eruption of May 18, 1980 (Sparks
et al. in press). These data compare quite favourably
with the calculations, It should be noted in comparing
the theory and observations that the velocity obser-
vations have been systematically modified by a mul-
tiplicative factor of 1.666. The modification is made
because experimental studies show the ascent velocity
of a starting plume is less (by a factor of 0.6) than the
internal centreline velocity (see Turner 1962; Sparks
and Wilson 1982). It is also emphasized that the natural
eruption columns do not necessarily have a steady mass
discharge rate. Indeed, the data on Mount St. Helens
can be interpreted as evidence of a discharge rate which
increased as the plume ascended (see Sparks et al. in
press).
The umbrella region
This region is of great interest since it is now apparent
that the transport of pyroclasts is strongly controlled by
this region (Carey and Sparks in press)• For a given HB
the mass flow of air and solids, m, is known and
therefore the average radial velocity in the region
between Hr and He can be calculated by continuity
m
vR-2 rc R'(HT--HB) ~' (30)

VOLUME DISCHARGE RATE (m 3/s )

lo 2 io 3 io 4 io 5 . - f -

i i i '~iii~i'Jl~-----I
40

i
i II _'
50
v

/
I • , , , J

2o t-
z I

J
Fig. 7. The relationship between column height H T and
io mass discharge rate of magma. The stippled area is
enclosed by the curves for 1000°C and 600°C for
tropical and temperate atmospheres. The d a s h e d c u r v e s

°I o I
I0 6
I
10 7
I
I0 8 10 9
I
show curves calculated by Eq. (1). The observed data
points are from Wilson et al. (1978), Settle (1978) and
Sparks and Wilson (1982)

MASS DISCHARGE RATE (kg/s)

14 Sparks: The dimensions and dynamics of volcanic eruption columns

indicated in the diagram. Unique satellite data from

Mount St. Helens (Sparks et al. in press) have recorded
25I\\\ \
% (b the radial expansion of the initial May 18th eruption
\
\
,,/ column. The data plot along a trend parallel to the
\ theoretical lines just beneath the line for a 26.8 km high
\ column. Mount St. Helens' plumes reached an altitude
2o - '\.~ of between 24 and 25 km suggesting that the simple
treatment given here is reasonable.
An interesting aspect of Fig. 9 concerns the be-
haviour of very large eruptions column. The theoretical
curves for columns greater than 30 km extend back to
-~'1 ",'X radial velocities greater than the sound speed of air
15--
~"~.. . ',/\ (270-300 m/s at this height). It is certain that com-
pressibility effects must become important and that the
simple treatment becomes inappropriate. If the radial
F-
I
~D \ / \\ velocities are less than predicted then continuity re-
bJ \'\ \e quires that either the pressure and therefore density of
"I-
IO-- the plume increase in this region or the height H r is
greater. These differences must themselves influence
behaviour in the convective part of the column.

5 '\'~ Conclusions

This study presents an analysis of the dimensions and

dynamics of eruption columns. The properties of the
q=l.O plume have been estimated at the level of neutral
density by an approximate numerical technique. At the
I00 200 300
CENTRAL VELOCITY(m/s)
Fig. 8. Variation of velocity with height in an eruption column I \ I
300 %
calculated by methods given in Morton et al. (1956). q is the density
ratio ~a/~c in Eq. (23). The solid line (q = 1.0) represents the height H B
\ /'
of neutral density. The dashed line (q = 1.0) represents the approximate
\ /
height at which the column has a neutral density, although the "~ I o o
calculations are not valid at or beneath this height. This lower line is "E
approximately the height where there is a transition from the gas v 30 \i{ ®~ • "g,
thrust to the convective region. The solid data points are observations ,
of plume ascent velocities for the April 22, 1979, eruption of Soufriere,
St. Vincent (after Sparks and Wilson 1982) and the giant cloud of
Mount St. Helens formed on May 18, 1980, after Sparks et al. 1986). > Io \ // ~ (
Note that the velocities plotted are 1.666 times the observed values _j
<

where R' is the radial distance and 0 is the mean density

of the plume in the height interval H r - H B. This
expression cannot be true for small values of R', but for
the motion when R' is greater than the plume radius at
height He, the treatment should be adequate. However,
it should be noted that Eq. (30) does not take into
n.- 3

I --
-

I
I
W Io
I

DISTANCE (km)
Ioo

account further entrainment of air as the plume expands
radially.
Figure 9 shows the theoretical relationships be-
tween distance and radial velocity for different column
heights. The calculations are only given for the situation
beyond the radius of the column at height HB, which is
Fig. 9. Variation of radial expansion velocity with radial distance in
umbrella region for columns of different height H r . Data for the May
18, 1980, giant cloud of Mt. St. Helens are plotted (after Sparks et al.
1986). The dashed curve plots the locus of points where the radius of
the plume at height H B is equal to the radial distance. The calculations
using Eq. (30) are unlikely to be valid at smaller radial distances from
the plume axis
 Sparks: The dimensions and dynamics of volcanic eruption columns
given height HB the amounts of air entrained from all
levels between the source and that height have been
calculated. The temperature of the plume and the solids
content are estimated by a heat balance between all the
entrained air and the pyroclasts and consideration of
the bulk density. The column height can be estimated
from these calculations as a function of magma dis-
charge rate, magma temperature and the atmospheric
conditions.
Major conclusions of the study are itemised as
follows:
1.) An ascending eruption column expands at a
faster rate than a simple thermal plume rising in an
incompressible fluid because of the decrease in hydro-
static pressure with height in the Earth's atmosphere
and the heating effect of the entrained pyroclasts. The
enhanced spreading rates agree with the meagre field
data.
2.) The relationship between column height and
mass discharge rate shows good agreement with obser-
vations. Previous calculations (Wilson et al. 1978);
Sparks and Wilson 1982) on column heights using a
modification of the results of Morton et al. (1956)
cannot be correct for columns substantially greater in
height than the tropopause. However, the more elab-
orate model here does not differ greatly from the use of
Eq. (1) despite its shortcomings.
3.) The temperature inversion above the tropopause
does have an inhibiting role on column height, but the
effect is not great given the very large ranges of mass
discharge rates evident in nature. The differences in
results for a tropical and temperate atmosphere are also
minor.
4.) Approximate calculations on the variation of
convection velocity with height in columns with dif-
ferent total heights are consistent with data from the
1979 Soufriere eruption and the 1980 Mount St. Helens
eruption. Columns typically ascend at velocities from a
few tens to over 200 m/s with the velocities increasing
with discharge rate.
5.) The umbrella region of rapid horizontal growth
is identified where the plume spreads out above the level
of neutral density. Calculations of radial velocities
within this region show good agreement with obser-
vations of the 1980 Mount St. Helens column.
6.) For columns greater than 30 km both the vertical
velocities in the plume and radial velocities in the
umbrella region are calculated to exceed 300 m/s, close
~o the sound speed of air. Since compressibility effects
become significant when velocities are greater than 60%
of the speed of sound, the simple model may become
invalid for very high columns.
7.) The model presented in the paper forms the basis
of an analysis of fallout from explosive eruptions which
is presented by Carey and Sparks (in press).
15
Acknowledgments. This work was supported by a grant from the BP
Venture Research Unit. Many of the calculations were carried out at
the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution as a summer guest. The
use of Henry Dick's computer and office is gratefully acknowledged.
Discussions with Steve Carey, Herbert Huppert and Lionel Wilson
helped the development of the models. Careful reviews by Steve Carey
and Sue Kieffer are acknowledged.
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Received May 1, I985/Accepted August 1, 1985