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Kielhofners Research in Occupational Therapy Methods of Inquiry For Enhancing Practice 2Nd Edition Full Chapter
Kielhofners Research in Occupational Therapy Methods of Inquiry For Enhancing Practice 2Nd Edition Full Chapter
Choosing to become an occupational therapist the chapters emphasize the usefulness of research
involves a commitment from each and every one in terms of building practitioners’ knowledge base
of us to ensure that the profession’s practice and and credibility within and outside of our field.
scholarship stand at the cutting edge of rehabili-
tation science and innovation. This responsibility
carries with it an effortful and disciplined practice Organization and Scope
of applying the theoretical underpinnings, infra-
structural requirements, scientific methods, and This book offers a comprehensive guide to con-
practical means of disseminating research find- ducting applied research in the field of occupa-
ings. Contributions represented within this second tional therapy from quantitative, qualitative, and
edition represent a collective effort on the part of mixed perspectives. It is organized in terms of six
many occupational therapy educators to make the sections. Given the breadth of material covered, the
process of learning and utilizing research in occu- content is targeted toward a student–practitioner
pational therapy one that is relevant to practice, audience, and most topics are covered at a foun-
unintimidating, and, most importantly, motivating. dational level. Each of the six sections and chap-
By definition, research represents a disciplined ters within each section may be read in isolation.
and systematic approach to the development, iden- However, readers will gain the most by reading the
tification, and verification of new knowledge. It sections and chapters in the order in which they
is governed by ethics and rules of conduct and is are presented.
structured and rational in nature. In the field of The first section, Research in Occupational
occupational therapy, research involves testing the- Therapy: Basic Elements for Enhancing Practice,
ories and theoretical concepts as they are reflected emphasizes every therapist’s professional respon-
in practice frameworks and in conceptual practice sibility to conduct practice that is informed by
models. Moreover, research involves using assess- research and stresses the importance of evidence-
ments and other approaches to data collection to based practice to advancing the field of occupa-
generate knowledge and to test innovative devices, tional therapy. Basic content on what to look for
technologies, and approaches to practice. when reading a published research study, including
The focus of this book is the concepts, methods, how to critically appraise research, is included.
and common practices that comprise the act of This section provides an overview of the aims and
conducting research in the field of occupational classifications of research and a discussion of the
therapy. Content in this text is balanced to ensure philosophical foundations of research. The impor-
equal coverage from both quantitative and qualita- tance of theory in the development of research and
tive perspectives. The two original themes binding testing of concepts, assessments, and interventions
the first edition were retained in this volume. First, is also emphasized.
the chapters illustrate how research is fueled by The second section, Laying the Groundwork
creativity, represented in the ongoing development for Evidence-Based Practice: The Steps of the
and discovery of new knowledge. The develop- Research Process, covers six broad components
ment of this knowledge and any associated skills of the research process: conducting a literature
or technologies contributes to the field’s mandate review, generating research questions and defin-
to approach practice using the most humane, ing specific aims and hypotheses, selecting the
inclusive, contemporary, rigorous, and engaging research method, writing the research proposal,
methods possible. Second, specific efforts were ensuring ethical review, and securing samples and
made to demonstrate how research is both essen- performance sites.
tial to and can support and improve occupational The third section, Qualitative Approaches: First
therapy practice. To this end, all of the examples Steps in Communicating With Language, describes
and cases contained in this book emanate directly design considerations, approaches to the collec-
from the field of occupational therapy. Additionally, tion of qualitative data, contemporary methods for
vii
I wish to thank Christa Fratantoro, Senior Acquisi- not have been possible. I also wish to thank three
tions Editor at F. A. Davis, who believed in my work former University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC)
enough to support my assuming the sole editorship occupational therapy students—Baily Zubel, Mary
of the second edition of this text. Additionally, I Pearson, and Phoebe Kinzie-Larson—for their edi-
wish to thank Roxanne Klaas, for her excellence torial contributions, including some of the photog-
and good sense in copy editing. I wish to thank all raphy and figures. Finally, I wish to thank Nancy
of the contributors to this second edition. Without Peterson, Dana Bataglia, and Laura Horowitz for
their experience and excellence, this book would assisting with the editorial production of this text.
ix
SECTION 1 SECTION 2
Research in Occupational Therapy: Laying the Groundwork
Basic Elements for Enhancing for Evidence-Based Practice:
Practice The Steps of the Research Process
6 Managing Barriers
to Evidence-Based Practice:
15 Securing Samples
and Performance Sites 162
An International Imperative 59
Anne E. Dickerson
Annie McCluskey, Renée R. Taylor
xi
SECTION 6
18 Contemporary Tools
for Managing and Analyzing Additional Topics for the
Qualitative Data 214 Developing Investigator
Nadine Peacock, Amy Paul-Ward
28 Needs Assessment Research 395
19 Qualitative Approaches Marcia Finlayson
to Interpreting
and Reporting Data 228 29 Program Evaluation Research 410
Heather Dillaway, Cathy Lysack, Brent Braveman, Yolanda Suarez-Balcazar,
Mark R. Luborsky Gary Kielhofner, Renée R. Taylor
SECTION 5
Descriptive, Exploratory,
and Pilot-Study Research
C H A P T E R 1
Occupational Therapy as an
Evidence-Based Practice Profession
Renée R. Taylor ● Gary Kielhofner ● Nancy A. Baker
Explains phenomena
Theory addressed in practice
and provides a rationale
for practice
Generates evidence
Research about the effectiveness
of specific practices
Figure 1.1 The dynamic relationship among theory, research, and practice.
profession must enable its members to offer high- providers are used and reimbursed, those disci-
quality services that will benefit clients. Thus, plines with objective evidence of their effectiveness
when health-care professionals provide services and efficiency will have a competitive advantage”
to clients, the knowledge and skills they use (p. 197). He concludes that research is an eco-
should be “justified in terms of a systematic and nomic imperative for the profession.
shared body of professional knowledge” (Polgar Without the development of a research base to
& Thomas, 2000, p. 3). This knowledge includes refine and provide evidence about the value of its
the underlying theory that informs practice and practice, occupational therapy simply will not
the tools and procedures that are used in practice. survive, much less thrive, as a health profession
Research is the means by which the profession (Christiansen, 1983; Christiansen & Lou, 2001;
generates evidence to test and validate its theories Cusick, 2001).
and to examine and demonstrate the utility of its
practice tools and procedures. Therefore, our pro-
fession has an ongoing obligation to support occu-
pational therapy professionals who choose to
Evidence-Based Practice
undertake systematic and sustained research.
The obligation of the profession to conduct
research that refines and validates its knowledge
Research for Professional base is paralleled by an obligation of individual
therapists to engage in evidence-based practice
Recognition and Support (EBP) (Taylor, 2000). Evidence-based practice is
an approach to practice that assumes the active
The occupational therapy profession depends on application of current, methodologically sound
societal support. This support ranges from sub- research to inform practice decisions and treatment
sidizing educational programs that prepare occu- options in light of a client’s preferences, expecta-
pational therapists to reimbursing occupational tions, and values (Sackett, 2002).
therapists for their services. Societal support for The process of evidence-based practice begins
the health-care professions cannot be assumed; the with a clinical situation that poses a unique ques-
individuals who make public policy and decide tion or challenge for the practitioner (Sackett,
what health-care services are needed increasingly 2002). Using evidence-based practice, the prac-
rely on scientific evidence to determine where titioner engages in a highly deliberate, publicly
limited public and private resources should be transparent, and well-reasoned use of clinical
directed. As a result, research is increasingly nec- research findings to inform decision-making about
essary to ensure that resources will be available to an individual client in an actual practice situa-
support the profession. Christiansen (1983) notes, tion (Sackett, 2002). Those who approach clinical
“It seems clear that as administrators and policy- decision-making from an evidence-based perspec-
makers render decisions about how health care tive consider what clients value, prefer, and expect
CASE EXAMPLE
from the health-care encounter, alongside their clinically relevant research findings in practice
own ever-growing clinical experience, practical (Dysart & Tomlin, 2002). Findings revealed that
skill sets, and educational backgrounds (Sackett, occupational therapy practitioners were using evi-
2002). Evidence may be used to shed light on: dence in practice to a modest degree; more than
one-half (57 percent) relied on one to five evi-
• The anticipated course and outcome of a particu-
dence-based treatment plans per year.
lar impairment, symptom, or diagnosis
In sum, evidence-based practice requires an
• The relevance and accuracy of a selected assess-
ongoing commitment from researchers to investi-
ment tool
gate problems and answer questions that emerge
• The nature, conduct, and expected outcome of a
out of practice. Equally, it requires an enduring
chosen intervention
commitment from practitioners to access, evaluate,
Accordingly, whenever possible, practitioners and use this research to inform their decision-
should select intervention strategies and tools that making in everyday practice. It also requires the
have been empirically demonstrated to be effective client’s perspective and involvement (Bennett &
(Eakin, 1997). This process requires practitioners Bennett, 2000). Evidence-based practitioners inte-
to remain up to date with new developments in grate their own expertise with the best available
their practice areas. It also requires practitioners to research evidence. The next section briefly exam-
develop the ability to conduct thoughtful and effi- ines some of the ways in which research provides
cient literature reviews and possess knowledge evidence for practice.
about how to evaluate published research in terms
of its quality and level of methodological rigor
(Sackett, 2002). Clinical Expertise
The Canadian Association of Occupational
Therapists’ position statement on evidence-based
and Evidence-Based Practice:
occupational therapy is available online (Canadian A Collaborative Approach
Association of Occupational Therapists, Associa-
tion of Canadian Occupational Therapy University Evidence-based practice integrates individual
Programs, Association of Canadian Occupational clinical expertise with the best available external
Therapy Regulatory Organizations, & the Pre- clinical evidence from systematic research
sidents’ Advisory Committee, 2009). It defines (Sackett, Rosenberg, Grey, Haynes, & Richardson,
evidence-based occupational therapy as the client- 1996). Clinical expertise refers to the proficiency
centered enablement of occupation, based on client and judgment that individual practitioners acquire
information and a critical review of relevant through experience. Best available external clini-
research, expert consensus, and experience. cal evidence refers to findings from highest avail-
Bennett and Bennett (2000) describe the process able quality, clinically applied, research studies
of how evidence-based practice informs clinical within the field’s scientific literature.
decision-making within occupational therapy. It is clear from this definition that evidence-
According to this approach, the clinical questions based practice relies on practitioners’ clinical
being considered must address the nature of spe- expertise when applying research evidence to prac-
cific clients and client groups, as well as their treat- tice. Sackett et al. (1996) state that neither clinical
ment contexts. This definition stresses that the expertise nor the best available external evidence
relationship between clinician and patient is cen- alone are enough for evidence-based practice;
trally important in clinical decision-making. external clinical evidence can inform but can never
After a clinical question is defined, the next step replace individual clinical expertise. Clinical
in the process involves conducting a literature expertise is what determines whether the external
review. During this review, practitioners must be evidence applies to the individual patient (i.e.,
cognizant of the quality and standards by which whether and how it matches the client’s clinical
the research has been conducted. Then, match the state, predicaments, and preferences).
evidence to each feature of the client’s context, Sackett, Straus, Richardson, Rosenberg, and
including the client as an individual, the client’s Haynes (2000) later described evidence-based
desired occupation, and the client’s environment. practice as the integration of best research evi-
Within this process, the client acts as an active and dence with clinical expertise and patient values.
engaged partner with the practitioner. With this updated definition, the patient’s values
In 2002, Dysart and Tomlin surveyed 209 are acknowledged as an equally important and nec-
practicing occupational therapists to determine essary ingredient in the practice of EBP as research
the extent to which they access, use, and apply evidence and clinical expertise (Fig. 1.3).
additional time and effort required to attend the Needs assessment is particularly important in
more intensive program will be worth it. identifying the nature and consequences of new
types of disabilities and new circumstances that
affect persons with disabilities, and in identifying
How Research problems not previously recognized or understood.
Supports Practice For example, studies have indicated that HIV/
AIDS increasingly affects individuals from under-
Research supports practice in many different ways, served minority populations and individuals with
including: histories of mental illness, substance abuse,
poverty, limited education, and limited work expe-
• Generating foundational knowledge used by rience (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
therapists [CDC], 2001; Karon, Fleming, Steketee, & De
• Proving the need for occupational therapy Cock, 2001; Kates, Sorian, Crowley, & Summers,
services 2002). Research has also shown that although
• Developing and testing the theories that underlie newer drug therapies have lowered AIDS mortal-
practice ity, the chronic and disabling aspects of the disease
• Generating findings about the process and out- and its numerous associated conditions continue to
comes of therapy pose challenges for those affected (CDC, 2001).
The following section examines each of these Many people with HIV/AIDS struggle to over-
ways in which research supports and advances come personal, financial, and social challenges that
practice. affect their desire to live independently and return
to the workforce (McReynolds & Garske, 2001).
Generating Foundational In addition to these general characteristics of the
AIDS population, a needs assessment study dem-
Knowledge onstrated that individuals’ perceptions of needs
Much of the background information that occupa- differed by race, ethnicity, and gender (Sankar &
tional therapists use on a daily basis stems from Luborsky, 2003).
research. Often, a long history of investigation is Together, these studies indicated that individu-
behind what has become common knowledge. als with HIV/AIDS would potentially benefit from
Knowledge of musculoskeletal anatomy, neuronal an individualized intervention designed to help
transmission, the milestones of child development, them achieve independent living and employment
the nature of personality, and the etiology and as they envisioned it. These studies provided a
prognoses of diseases has resulted from thousands foundation on which to propose a study of that type
of studies. of occupational therapy intervention (Paul-Ward,
Over decades, investigators examined these Braveman, Kielhofner, & Levin, 2005).
phenomena, providing analyses that were subse-
quently verified or corrected by others. In time, this
knowledge was accumulated and refined until it Developing and Testing
became part of the repository of knowledge that Occupational Therapy Theory
informs occupational therapy practice. This knowl-
edge is ordinarily generated by individuals who are Every profession makes use of theories that under-
not occupational therapists; however, their research lie and explain its practice. By definition, the
is important to occupational therapy practice. explanations offered by a theory are always tenta-
tive. By testing these explanations, research allows
Proving the Need theory to be corrected and refined so that it pro-
vides increasingly useful explanations for practice.
for Occupational Therapy Services
Ideas about how research refines and tests theory
Without clear identification of need, one can have evolved over the centuries, but research
neither decide what services to provide nor accu- remains the primary tool by which a theory can be
rately evaluate the value of any service. Needs improved.
assessment research determines what clients Practice theory research explains problems
require to achieve some basic standard of health or that therapists address and justifies approaches to
to improve their situation (Witkin & Altschuld, solving them that are used in therapy. Conse-
1995). It focuses on identifying gaps between quently, the testing and refinement of such theories
clients’ desires and their situations (Altschuld & through research contributes to advancing practice.
Witkin, 2000). Therapists should always judge and place their
confidence in the explanations provided by any tional therapy typically seek to explain problems
theory in relation to the extent to which that theory that therapists encounter in practice and how thera-
has been tested and developed by research. pists attempt to solve those problems, these types
The motor control model provides one example of studies directly inform practice.
of how research tests theory with implications for
practice. Occupational therapy practice for indi-
viduals with central nervous system damage has Providing Evidence
been guided by the motor control model, which About the Nature
is a theory of how people control movement. and Outcomes of Therapy
Toward the end of the 20th century, this model,
which previously saw the control of movement as Many types of studies examine the various aspects
being directed exclusively by the brain, began to of occupational therapy practice and its outcomes.
change. A new conceptualization (Mathiowetz & These are typically studies that:
Bass-Haugen, 1994, 2002) argued that movement • Are undertaken to develop and test assessments
is a result of the interaction of the human nervous used in practice
system, the musculoskeletal system, and the envi- • Examine the clinical reasoning of therapists
ronment. This theory emphasized the importance when they are making decisions about therapy
of the task being performed and the environment • Determine the outcomes that result from therapy
(e.g., the objects used) in influencing how a person • Examine the process of therapy (i.e., asking
moves. The implication of this theory was that what goes on in therapy)
the tasks chosen and the objects used in therapy • Use participatory methods to investigate and
would have an impact on recovery of coordinated improve services in a specific context
movement.
Occupational therapists conducted research Studies That Test Assessments
that illustrated clearly that the nature of the task Used in Therapy
being done and the environment do affect the
quality of movement (Lin, Wu, & Trombly, 1998; A number of interrelated forms of inquiry are used
Mathiowetz & Bass-Haugen, 1994; Wu, Trombly, to develop and test assessments used in the field;
& Lin, 1994). These and other studies (Ma & the aim of assessment research, sometimes
Trombly, 2002; Trombly & Ma, 2002) now provide referred to as psychometric research, is to ensure
evidence that tasks involving meaningful objects the dependability of those methods (Benson &
and goal-oriented activities positively influence Schell, 1997). Dependable assessments are reli-
performance and motor learning. able; that is, they yield consistent information in
A wide range of research can be used to test and different circumstances, at different times, with
develop theory. In fact, no single study can ever different clients, and when different therapists
test all aspects of a theory. The types of studies that administer them. A dependable information–
are typically used to examine and develop theory gathering method must also be valid, providing the
include: information it is intended to provide. Studies that
examine whether an assessment is valid are typi-
• Studies that aim to verify the accuracy of the cally those that:
concepts by asking whether there is evidence to
support the way a concept describes and/or • Ask experts whether the content of an assess-
explains certain phenomena ment is coherent and representative of what is
• Studies that ask whether there are relationships intended to be gathered
between phenomena as specified by the theory • Analyze the items that make up an assessment to
• Studies that compare different groups of partici- determine whether they coalesce to capture the
pants on concepts that the theory offers to trait they aim to measure
explain the differences between those groups • Ask whether the assessment correlates with mea-
• Studies that examine the potential of the theory sures of concepts that are expected to concur and
to predict what will happen whether it diverges from those with which no
relationship is expected
Over time, as the evidence accumulates from such
• Determine whether they can differentiate be-
studies, informed judgments can be made about the
tween different groups of people
accuracy and completeness of a theory. Findings
from such research typically lead to alterations in In addition to studies that examine the reliabil-
the theory that allow it to offer more accurate ity and validity of assessments, there are studies
explanations. Because the theories used in occupa- that examine their clinical utility. Such studies may
ask therapists and/or clients whether they find the enhanced school performance. A well-known
assessments informative and useful for identifying example of this type of research is a study by Clark
problems and making decisions about theory. The and colleagues (1997), which documented the
development of any assessment ordinarily involves positive outcomes of an occupational therapy
a series of studies that contribute to the ongoing program for well elderly individuals. Finally,
improvement of the assessment over time. studies that examine the effect of interdisciplinary
services can also document the impact of the occu-
Studies of Clinical Reasoning pational therapy component of such services.
Occupational therapists work with clients to iden-
tify their problems and choose a course of action Inquiry Into the Processes
so clients may manage their problems and improve of Therapy: Mechanisms of Change
their functioning through engaging in occupations.
Research that examines how occupational thera- It is important not only to understand whether
pists identify problems and make treatment deci- interventions work but also why they work or do
sions is referred to as clinical reasoning research not work. This approach is often referred to as
(Christiansen & Lou, 2001; Rogers, 1983; Schon, process research or formative research. This
1983). Investigations that examine clinical rea- approach involves understanding the mechanisms
soning constitute an important area of research in of change, that is, the processes by which an inter-
occupational therapy. vention creates change in a client. Studies that
One of the most influential studies of clinical examine the effect of interventions are increas-
reasoning, by Mattingly and Flemming (1994), ingly focusing on identifying the underlying mech-
identified different types of reasoning that charac- anisms of change (Gitlin et al., 2000). Often,
terized occupational therapy practice. Their an important prelude to designing intervention
research has served as a framework for under- outcome studies is to examine what goes into
standing how occupational therapists make sense therapy in order to improve upon services before
of and take action with reference to their clients’ they are more formally tested.
problems and challenges in therapy. An example is a study by Helfrich and
Kielhofner (1994) that examined how clients’
Outcomes Research occupational narratives influenced the meaning
they assigned to occupational therapy. This study
Outcomes research is concerned with the results showed how the meanings of therapy intended by
of occupational therapy. Investigations that therapists were often not received by or in concert
examine the outcomes of occupational therapy ser- with clients’ meanings. The study findings under-
vices include: scored the importance of therapists having knowl-
• Investigations of specific intervention strategies edge of their clients’ narratives and organizing
or techniques therapy as a series of events that enter into those
• Studies of comprehensive occupational therapy narratives. Such studies of the process of therapy
programs provide important information about how therapy
• Inquiries that examine the occupational therapy can be improved to better meet clients’ needs.
contribution to an interdisciplinary program
of services (Kielhofner, Hammel, Helfrich, Participatory Research
Finlayson, & Taylor, 2004)
A new and rapidly growing approach to investiga-
The study of occupational therapy techniques and tion is participatory research. This approach
approaches helps refine the understanding of these involves researchers, therapists, and clients doing
discrete elements of practice. This type of research research together to develop and test occupational
examines outcomes specific to an intended inter- therapy services. Participatory research reverses
vention. Such studies may also seek to determine the traditional role in which the occupational thera-
the relative impact of different techniques or pist decides on what research questions to answer
approaches, such as comparisons between indi- and what procedures to use. Instead, it relies on the
vidual versus group interventions. client to drive, or heavily influence, these deci-
Studies of comprehensive occupational therapy sions. Participatory research embraces the idea of
programs ask whether an entire package of ser- partnership in which all the constituents work
vices produces a desired outcome. Such studies together and share power and responsibility to
typically examine the impact of services on such investigate, improve, and determine the outcomes
outcomes as independent living, employment, and of service. It also involves innovation in which
new services are created to respond to problems 2. What are some likely consequences if research is
that are mutually identified by researchers, thera- not conducted or used to enhance occupational
pists, and clients. therapy practice?
3. How did evidence-based practice origninate?
This type of research is especially useful for
What is the difference between evidence-based
contributing knowledge that practitioners can medicine and evidence-based practice in
readily use and that consumers will find relevant occupational therapy?
to their needs. An example of this kind of study 4. Compare and contrast participatory research and
involved developing and evaluating a consumer- outcomes research in occupational therapy,
driven self-management program for individuals describing the utility of each in context.
with fatigue and other impairments associated with 5. How does needs assessment research differ from
chronic fatigue syndrome. This program provided practice theory research? Describe two different
clients an opportunity to learn self-advocacy skills, practice situations in which each of these
energy conservation, and other ways to improve approches would be appropriate, and explain
why they would be appropriate.
their quality of life, functional capacity, coping
skills, and resource acquisition (Taylor, 2004).
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11
CASE EXAMPLE
Helen nosti kiikarinsa: »Nyt emme voi mennä, Kitty. Sinun täytyy
odottaa siksi, kunnes autot ovat lähteneet. Sitten tulen kanssasi.»
»Miksi ei?»
»Patches.»
Helenin silmät olivat kosteat, mutta hän hymyili. »Ei», hän virkkoi
hiljaa Kitylle ja Stanfordille, »se ei ollut Lawrence Knight. Larry
raukka ei olisi pystynyt sellaiseen.»
Hän oli jo aivan Patchesin vieressä, ennen kuin tämä näki hänet.
Mies hypähti viipymättä seisaalleen, työnsi kirjeen taskuunsa ja
seisoi hänen edessään hattu kädessä valmiina tervehtimään Kittyä.
Katsoessaan mieheen Kitty tunsi selvemmin kuin ennen, että tämä
mies olisi hienoimmassakin seurassa kuin kotonaan.
»Minua vain halutti sanoa teille —», hän empi miten jatkaa, »herra
Patches —»
»Phil!»
»Hyvä, Phil», vastasi tyttö kylmästi. »Jos sinusta tuntuu siltä, niin
en tosiaan halua esitellä sinua ystävilleni. He ovat aivan yhtä
hyväntahtoisia ja sydämellisiä kuin sinäkin. En tahdo vaivata heitä
kenelläkään, joka ei heistä pidä.»
Kitty oli vihainen, ja täydellä syyllä. Mutta niin vihainen kuin olikin,
hän tunsi syvää myötätuntoa miestä kohtaan, jonka katkeruus kuten
hän hyvin tiesi — aiheutui vain hänen rakkaudestaan. Ja Phil tiesi,
että hän nyt oli menettänyt Kittyn — että Kittyn ystävät olivat
riistäneet hänen unelmansa.
»Luulen», virkkoi hän hetkisen vaiettuaan, »että minun on parasta
lähteä takaisin karjakartanoon, mihin kuulun. Tänne en sovi.»
Patches näki, että toiselle oli sattunut jotakin erikoista. Philin ääni
ja käyttäytyminen olivat kuin juopuneen. Mutta hän tiesi, ettei Phil
milloinkaan käyttänyt väkijuomia.
Graniittiylängöllä.
Mutta eniten Stanford puhui niistä päivistä, jolloin hän ensi kertaa
oli nähnyt Helenin, ja kuinka nopeasti ja varmasti tämä tuttavuus oli
muuttunut ystävyydeksi ja sitten rakkaudeksi, jonka kiihkeyttä hän
tuskin vieläkään uskalsi tunnustaa. Hän kertoi, kuinka hän oli luullut
Helenin rakastavan hänen ystäväänsä, rikasta Lawrence Knightiä, ja
kuinka hän oli lähtenyt kauaksi länteen tehdäkseen työtä ja
unohtaakseen.