GENERAL

CHEMISTRY 2
Learning Activity Sheets (LAS) FOR STEM 12
2nd Semester Quarter 2-Week 4-6

Name: Baracol, Jhonriel G. Date: 03/11-15/2024

**SUMMARY**

2nd Semester Module 4: COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

 Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte

Note: Aqueous solution is a water that contains one or more dissolved substances.
o Electrolyte
 a substance that forms ions when dissolved in water, which is then able to
conduct a current
 considered strong if completely ionized or dissociated in water or what-so-called
soluble.
 considered weak if ionic compounds that are not completely dissociated or
ionized in water
o Nonelectrolyte
 does not ionize in solution at all
 a solution will not conduct electricity if a solutions contains it

Note: Most soluble ionic compounds and few molecular compounds are strong electrolytes
and most molecular compounds are weak or nonelectrolytes.

 Colligative Properties
o physical properties of solutions that depend on the concentration of dissolved particles
but not on their identity.
o “colligative” comes from the Latin word “colligatus” which means “bound together,” but
the Greek translation is “related to the number,”
o Include:
 Vapor Pressure Lowering
 It is determined by how easily its molecules overcome the attractive
forces and are able to escape the surface of the liquid then enter the
gaseous phase. Meaning, it tells us how easily a liquid can become a gas,
and it changes with temperature, pressure, and the strength of the
liquid’s molecules sticking together.
 It is dependent on some factors such as:
o Temperature
o Pressure
o Intermolecular Forces
 Boiling Point Elevation
 It is the increase in temperature needed to boil the mixture.
 Boiling Point- a point where a liquid gets hot enough that it can turn
into gas and it will change as changing the external pressure.
 It takes a higher temperature to attain the boiling point of a solution
than that of its solvent.
 ΔTb is equivalent to the difference in the boiling point of the solution and
the boiling point of the pure solvent
 The increase in boiling point (ΔTb) is observed when a nonvolatile solute
is dissolved in a solvent is directly proportional to the molal
concentration of solute paricles and expressed as:
ΔTb = Kb x m
where:
ΔTb - boiling point elevation
Kb - molal boiling point constant
M - molal concentration of solute particles

 Freezing Point Depression

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 GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 2
Learning Activity Sheets (LAS) FOR STEM 12
2nd Semester Quarter 2-Week 4-6

 The drop in the temperature at which a liquid freezes because there’s

something else mixed in it.
 Normal freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which a liquid
becomes a solid at 1 atm.
 Nonvolatile refers to a substance that doesn’t evaporate easily.
 The magnitude of the freezing point depression is directly proportional to
the molality of the solution that is expressed as:
ΔTf = Kf x m
where:
ΔTf -freezing point depression
(Freezing point of pure solvent - Freezing point of solution)

Kf- molal freezing point constant

M- molal concentration of solute particles
 The greater the number of moles of solute, thee more reduced the
freezing point of the solution is from the freezing point of its pure solvent.
 Osmotic Pressure
 It is like the “push” needed to stop water from moving through a filter
that only lets water through but not the stuff dissolved in it.
 Osmosis- movement of solvent molecules from a region (A) of low
concentration (dilute) to a region B) of high concentration (concentrate)
 the difference in pressure between the solution and the pure liquid
solvent when the two are in equilibrium across a semipermeable
membrane.

 Calculating Molar Mass Using Colligative Properties

o From the Boiling Point Elevation (or Freezing Point Depression)
 Determine the change in boiling point from the boiling point of the pure solvent
using the ff. formula:
ΔT = Tsolution – Tpure solvent
 Determine the molal concentration (m) from the change in boiling point and the
boiling point elevation constant using the formula :
ΔT = Kb x m
 Determine the moles of unknown solute from the molality of the solution and
the mass of the solvent (in kilograms) using the ff. formula:
Molality, M = moles of solute / mass of solvent in kilogram
 Determine the molar mass from the mass of the unknown and the number of
moles of unknown using the formula:
Moles of unknown solute = mass of unknown / molar mass

2nd Semester Module 5: THERMOCHEMISTRY

Note: Heat -transfer of thermal energy between two bodies that are at different temperatures
and is not equal to thermal energy.
Work - force used to transfer energy between a system and its surroundings and is
needed to create heat and thermal energy transfer.
Thermodynamics - scientific study of the interaction of heat and other types of
energy.

 The First Law of Thermodynamics

o energy cannot be created nor destroyed
o can be transformed into another form, but the total amount of energy remains the
same
o deals with energy, work, and heat
o also known as “Law of Conservation of Energy”
o ΔEsys = –ΔEsurr

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 GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 2
Learning Activity Sheets (LAS) FOR STEM 12
2nd Semester Quarter 2-Week 4-6

 where:
 energy of the system (ΔEsys)
 energy of its surroundings (ΔEsurr)
 negative sign indicates the flow of energy
 law of conservation
o ΔEsys = q + w
 where:
 ΔEsys - total change in internal energy of a system
 q - heat exchanged between a system and its surroundings
 w - work done by or on the system.
o Net energy flow to or from any system comes in the form of either work or heat.
 when work is done on the system ((+w)), it gains energy.
 when the system does work ((-w)), it loses energy.
 system absorbing heat (endothermic) is denoted as ((+q)).
 system releasing heat (exothermic) is denoted as ((-q)).
o Net energy change in the system is positive or negative based on the direction of
energy transfer as work or heat.

 Enthalpy of a Chemical Reaction

o Work done by an expanding gas is called pressure-volume work or PV work.
o When a reaction in a closed container makes gas and pushes the lid up, it’s using its
own energy to do work. If the lid goes down, the system gets energy from outside.
Enthalpy is a way to measure these energy changes, including heat.
 H
 from the Greek enthalpein, meaning “to warm”
 =ΔE + PV
 internal energy ΔE
 pressure P
 volume V
 ΔH = Hfinal −Hinitial (change in enthalpy)
 ΔH = ΔE + PΔV (chemical change occurs at constant pressure)
 ΔH = qp [substituting q +w for ΔE (1st Law of Thermodynamics) and −w for PΔV]
 qp = heat at constant pressure
 ΔH = Hfinal – Hinitial = qp
 If heat flows from the surroundings to a system, it increases, so ΔHrxn is positive
 ΔHrxn <0 -exothermic reaction
 ΔHrxn >0 -endothermic reaction
 In chemical reaction:
 Bond breaking requires an input of energy and is, an endothermic
process
 Bond making releases energy, which is an exothermic process.

 Enthalpy of Formation and Reaction

Note: Standard enthalpy of formation - enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is
formed from its elements
Allotrope – different structural forms of the same chemical element that are stable in
the same physical state.
o Standard state
 a reference point used to calculate its properties under different conditions
 for atomic elements are given in terms of the most stable allotrope for each
element
o Standard Molar Enthalpy of Formation
 ΔHf
 or standard heat of formation
 the change in enthalpy that accompanies the formation of one mole of the
compound from its elements in their standard states.
 units of kJ/mol
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 GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 2
Learning Activity Sheets (LAS) FOR STEM 12
2nd Semester Quarter 2-Week 4-6

o Standard Molar Enthalpy of Reaction

 ΔHrxn
 can be calculated by subtracting the sum (∑) of the enthalpy of formation of the
product and the sum of the enthalpies of formation of the reactants and
expressed as:
 ∑ ΔHf (rxn) = ΔHf (products) – ΔHf (reactants)
o Calculating the Standard Enthalpy of Reaction
1. look up the standard enthalpies of formation for each of the reactants and
products involved in the reaction
2. sum up our standard enthalpies of formation
3. because the units are in kJ/mol, we need to multiply the stoichiometric
coefficients in the balanced reaction equation
4. use the standard molar enthalpy of reaction to simplify
o Hess’s Law
 all about heat summation
 named after the Swiss chemist, Germain Henri Hess
 sums the changes in enthalpy for a series of intermediate reaction steps to find
the overall change in enthalpy for a reaction.
 If a reaction takes place in several steps, then the standard reaction enthalpy
for the overall reaction is equal to the sum of the standard enthalpies of the
intermediate reaction steps, assuming each step takes place at the same
temperature.
 In simpler terms, no matter what steps a chemical reaction goes through, the
total energy change will be the same as if it happened in one step
o Calculating Standard Enthalpies of Reaction Using Hess’s Law
1. Manipulate given equations to most closely resemble the equation of interest.
2. Add new reactions together.
3. Cancel out any compounds that are the same on both sides of the reaction
arrow. Anything that is the same on both of the reaction arrows can be canceled
out
4. Write the new equation and double-check to make sure it matches the equation
of interest.

2nd Semester Module 6: CHEMICAL KINETICS (Rate and Order of Reaction)

Note: Reactants - substances that go away over a period of time in a chemical reaction.
Products - substances that are newly formed with a different set of properties from
their original material.
Chemical kinetics - area of chemistry concerned with the speed or rate at which
chemical reactions occur.

o Factors determine the rate of a given chemical reaction:

 Surface Area of Reactants
 The reactants must be in a state where their surfaces can come into
contact with each other.
 Concentration of Reactants
 The increase in the concentration of the reactants means that there will
be more particles colliding with each other in a given amount of time,
thus increasing the possibilities that a reaction takes place (Collision
Theory)
 Nature or Reactivity of Reactants
 Generally, fast reactions include acid reactions, the formation of salts,
and ion exchange.
 Reactions are slow when covalent bond formation takes place between
the molecules and when large molecules are formed.
 Temperature

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 GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 2
Learning Activity Sheets (LAS) FOR STEM 12
2nd Semester Quarter 2-Week 4-6

 directly proportional to kinetic energy

 At higher temperatures, molecules are more in motion which result in
greater chance for colliding molecules to result in a faster reaction.
 Presence of a Catalyst
 a substance that, when added to reacting mixture, increases the rate of
the reaction without being consumed in the process and can be
recovered after the reaction is completed.
 opposite of inhibitors

o Reaction rate
 the change in the concentration of any of the reactants or products in a specific
span of time
 expressed as
 - 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠/ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 / 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 concentration of all substances is expressed in molar units and generally given
as mol/(L • sec)
o Rate Law
 used to show the relationship between reactant concentrations and the rate of
reaction
 expressed as
 Rate = k [A]m [B] n
o where
 k - rate constant that is determined experimentally and
changes with temperature
 A and B – reactants
 m and n - reaction order
 Over-all order of reaction is determined as the sum of the powers of the
concentration factors in the rate equation