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 (MR) GEOGRAPHY MD.RIZWAN SIR 5. unique identity =Regional geography= (once own
region and defending its own region called regionism
 SOURCES
6. Tendency of region to retain its identity and
 Class notes
supremacy = geopolitics= Political geography
 Mapping
 Current sites , places in news
 Atlas or black S Map
 Yellow book
 Email of Rizwan Sir:- rizwan.civils@gmail.com

 CHAPTER: GEOMORPHOLOGY
 TOPIC- BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY
 Study of earth’s surface and relationship b/w men
and man and environment
 Study of earth’s surface as a home of man
 Earth’s surface consists of two
1. Natural landscape
2. Manmade landscape
1. NATURAL LANDSCAPE  ANTHROSPHERE
 Come under physical geography  Geography applied to find solution of human
a) Land (geomorphology) problems & balancing relationships of man and
b) Water (oceanography) environment
c) Air (Climatology)  Today this relationship is known as sustainable
development. Geography is the study of earth’s
surface as a home of man i.e. man is aware and
responsible to the environment so here sustainable
concept arose
 According to United Nations Geography is a scientific
subject and sharing of geography (geographical
knowledge will determine and tell our future)
 BIOGEOGRAPHY
a. ECOLOGY:- Abiotic + Biotic= A+ B (More Focus on
Biotic)
b. ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES= Abiotic = Biotic= A
(more focus on Abiotic) + B
st nd
…..1 class done, 2 started…
 Anthrosphere  GEOMORPHOLOGY
 Environment created by man now & it is  Geo= earth
increasing with way man dominating  Morpho= structure
 It remains at the top always then any other  Logy= study
sphere  It is scientific study of landforms (landform is any
 Biosphere feature composed of rocks of natural origin)
 Abiotic + biotic
 Physical environment is Abiotic and supporting
particular type of flora and fauna and this type of
flora and fauna are biotic and so called biosphere
(biosphere geography)
2. MANMADE LANDSCAPE
 Comes under human geography
 Man  need and makes interaction with  surface
of earth
 REASONS FOR INCREASE IN HUMAN NEEDS
1. Population= Demography :- Study of population
2. Binding forces= Cultural & social geography:-
language , religion, beliefs
3. Surviving themselves by utilizing resources=
Economic geography:- primary, secondary, tertiary
sectors
4. Villages/ towns/ cities= Settlement geography= group
of places of dwelling

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 Endogenic forces
 CLASSIFICATION OF LANDFORMS  Responsible for structure (landforms) and phenomenon
1. BASED ON THE SIZE (ORDER) OF (geophysical phenomenon ) (volcano, Tsunami,
earthquakes)
LANDFORM  It is simply the expression of energy i.e. transferred /
st
a. 1 order=largest features on surface like oceans , coming from interior of earth. This energy can be expressed
continents as landforms , phenomenon
nd
b. 2 order= multiple order landform like fold  Sources of energy for these forces
O
mountains  Earth was very irregular & temperature was 6000 C & semi
rd solid earth this is called “Blob”
c. 3 order= valleys , flood plains
 So on  Geoid:-
a. consolidation of earth
2. BASED ON ORIGIN (GENESIS) b. primordial matter made of radioactive elements so
A. Cooling of crust earth has radioactive elements (radio activity) in
 formation of lithosphere interior of earth
 Like proto continent :- ancestors of today’s
continents
B. Endogenic forces :-
 Those structures created by mechanism of
internal earth.
 examples like volcanism cause some structures
on earth , responsible for some structural
irregularities on surface of earth
 like mountains
C. Exogenic forces
 example river creates some structure like valley,
delta, plain, wind creates sand dunes  after getting separated from sun the outer layer started
 Also called leveling forces degrade the existing cooling and formed lithosphere and radioactive matter
features (landforms) (made by Endogenic forces) decay started so all matter started to concentrate in center
by wind , water etc of earth called core. So the source of energy is inside the
 If both forces (Endo= Exo) act simultaneously then core called geothermal energy/ heat due to continuous
these forces create a “uniform” landscape or radioactivity
landform (Endo= Exo)
 Therefore, landform is the function of competition
b/w exogenetic and endogenetic forces means there
is unbalance b/w these forces that is why landforms
irregularities are being created (Endo≠ Exo)
 Endogenic forces are much faster & stronger than
exogenic forces (Endogenic rate >>> rate of operation
of exogenic)  direction of cooling is from surface to center and transfer of
heat is center to surface referred as “Endogenic force”
 Endogenic forces so are outcome of
a. Radioactive /geothermal heat
b. Heat transfer mechanism
 DEGASSING.
 Escape of gases when formation of lithosphere occurring &
gases accumulated around earth at surface & resulted
information atmosphere i.e. why there is uniqueness to
atmosphere because it is internal factor of planet not
external that is why atmosphere of every planet is different
 Atmosphere is Endogenic not exogenic because it is result
 RESULT of release of gases during formation of lithosphere
 Exogenic forces are continuous as compare to Endogenic
 Landform is action of both forces
 Landform is a function of structure , process, time
 Structure = composition (rocks types):- which is very
complex
 Process:- Endogenic, exogenic
 Time :- duration of process (of endo or exo)
 What causes complexity in landforms
 They even two are not identical
 Variation in structure , process, time i.e evolution of  Primary atmosphere: - initial formed. CO2, O2,H2
landform is very complex because of the result of variations  Today (secondary) atmosphere: - CO2, O2,H2,N2 and many
in structures , process, time or any one of these more. Change evolved

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 So climate change also in result of evolution of atmosphere  Thermal convections are reason of endogenetic
and change in composition of atmosphere forces
 Humans are only responsible to accelerate rate of climate  Density adjustment is main mechanism for operation
change not the climate change
of thermal convective cell , which causes
endogenetic forces
 High density material is moved towards the center of
earth , this has resulted in concentration of Ni + Fe at
the core (NiFe)
 Low density material presents in the interior has to
move towards the surface , this causes the
mechanism of plume (simply a hot material rising
from interior to surface of earth)

 STUDY OF EARTH’s INTERIOR
Now 3.8bn before present O2+H2 made cloud and rain
occurred & after (closing) cooling down of surface of earth
O
(less than 100 C 1bn year), this rainfall continued for many  Study of earth’s interior is important because the
long years & water gets accumulated & formed configuration of earth’s surface and geophysical
Hydrosphere phenomenon’s have their origin in it
 Now earth’s ready to form life:- took 3bn years from
 How two study
lithosphere  Atmosphere  Hydrosphere
a. Direct evidences
 THREE MECHANISM FOR HEAT b. Indirect evidences
TRANSFER
1. Radiation
2. Conduction
3. Convection

 DIRECT EVIDENCES :-
 Mining , volcanism, drilling
 Have limitations as these can be supported by
Indirect evidences
 Kola super deep bore hole in Kola peninsula (SW
Russia ):- deepest continental drilling upto 15Km
 CONVECTION
a. is most effective mechanism of heat transfer , by which
heat is transferred by material to another material in
moving state & material in molten state
b. the thermal convective mechanism is result to movement
of material from interior of earth
 CONDUCTION
 Rapid transfer of heat i.e. rapid heating & cooling
 It is not effective mechanism of heat transfer because earth
is made up of poor conductor of heat (major proportion of
earth = Silica)
 EARTH IS HETEROGENEOUS (DIFFERENT MATERIALS)
 Density adjustment

 INDIRECT EVIDENCE
 Behavior of earthquake waves
 Geomagnetic data (magnetism of earth)
 Meteoroids
 MODELS OF EARTH’s INTERIOR
a) BASED ON COMPOSITION
 Low density material in interior of earth starts moving
 According to earth made of three layers (SiAL, SiMa,
upward because of low density & more density (heavy
material) moves down words. NiFe)
 All layers are equal but Rejected model

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 Crust is a part of lithosphere
 Lower part of lithosphere is dominated by SIMA thus
the density increases
 Asthenosphere is entirely a part of upper mantle
 Heat transfer mechanism operating in earth’s interior
is complex & consist of combination of conduction +
Convection
b) 1940S BASED ON DIVERSITY
 The endogenetic forces operate on (expressed on)
 Earth was differentiated into three layers crust, mantle, and
core. Which increases from surface to center surface are the result of thermal convections
operating in Asthenosphere

 Core= highest density because of concentration of metallic

material i.e. Nife
 Crust:- low density due to Sial
c) BASED ON STATE OF MATTER

 Segments of lithosphere called “Plate”

 Due to action of different thermal convections in
asthenosphere i.e. plates move and their interaction
is known as “Tectonic”.
 Stability of earth’s crust depend on tectonics of plates
i.e. why plate boundaries are considered as unstable
regions
 So majority of earthquakes and any happenings are at
plate boundaries
 Crystal stability or instability of a region is determined
by interaction of lithosphere
 The zone of plate boundaries is considered to be
more dynamic & unstable due to interactions of the
plates
 Majority of geophysical phenomenon (earthquakes
etc) can be identified at plate boundaries
nd rd
….2 class done, 3 started…
 TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE, DENSITY
IN EARTH’s INTERIORS
 All increase with depth (non-uniform rate of increase
in all)
3
 Density of interior = 5.5 g/cm
 Density is a result of two things :- composition + state
of matter
 Density adjustments
 PRESSURE INSIDE THE EARTH :-
a) Weight exerted by overlying material called
pressure
b) Maximum pressure is at core from all the
directions so it is highly compressed & this
pressure increases the melting point of inner
core 7 pressure prevents the change of state of
core i.e. Solid in nature
c) Prevents solid to get converted into liquid in
spite of high temperature

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 TEMPERATURE OF EARTH’S INTERIOR:-  Stability / instability of surface also depends on
a) Increase in temperature with depth .evidences are direct relative difference b/w thickness of asthenosphere &
evidences lithosphere
b) Rate of increase of temperature is also non-uniform  2900km outer core:- liquid state = NiFe= melting
O O
c) (1 C every 30meter increases ÷ rate of increase of point less than 6000 C
temperature )= direct evidence (drilling , mining)= in crust  Approx. 100km:- solid= NiFe= higher melting point
O
d) 30 C/Km= rate of increase in temperature O
O O than 6000 C
e) Radius= 6400km , so 6400×30 = 2lakh C (impossible)
O  Pressure at inner core is greater than outer core i.e.
f) We know at interior earth center= 6000 C
g) Therefore, the rate of increase of temperature is non- reason of increase of melting point of inner core
uniform. So there are some areas beneath earth which  Outer core rotates over the inner core
have temp less or constant  Inner Core= metallic (Nife)
h) With the normal rate of increase in temperature
O
(1 C/30m), the center of earth will experience extremely
O
high temperature i.e. more than 2 lakh C
i) There are geological and paleoclimatic (old) climatic
evidences of maximum temperature experienced by earth
O O
is 6000 C (not more than 6000 C ) thus the temperature
O
need to be stabilized in order to reach 6000 C.
j) Therefore rate of increase in temperature in earth’s interior
is considered non-uniform.

 Geomagnetism:- magnetic property of earth is

referred as geomagnetism. A magnetic dipole
induced due endogenetic forces due to rotation of
outer core over the inner core. Earth acts as a giant
magnet with magnetic field
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENDOGENETIC FORCES
 BASED ON INTENSITY OF EXPRESSION
a. Diastrophic
 Slow operating
 Slow outcome
 Over the period seen on surface
 Examples:- Himalayas, landforms
b. Catastrophic
 Very high intensity
 Expression is sudden
 Examples:- volcanic eruption
 Majority of the earth’s surface features are the
outcomes of diastrophic forces
 Rapid increase of temperature in asthenosphere is because  DIASTROPHIC FORCES
of concentration of radioactive material which  Can have two orientations perpendicular and parallel
concentrated during density adjustment & continuously to surfaces
decaying and producing heat so rate of temperature  So called vertical and horizontal forces, these are
increases suddenly result of thermal convection
A. EPEIROGENETIC FORCE:-
 vertical forces name
 Can be interior (downward force)
 Can be towards surface (upward force)
 Narmada valley has vindhyas and satpura = Horst
and Graben like structures

 Thickness of asthenosphere creates instability of

surface of earth because if thickness is more than
more thermal convection happens, so it impacts the
surface of earth & forms tectonic plates (endogenetic
forces)

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 COMPRESSIVE FORCE
 Let A=B (intensity equal)
 There is a formation of fold then axis is
perpendicular divides the fold to two equal
halves(folds) called “Symmetrical”

 Let A>B = Asymmetrical Folds , unequal divisions,

inclined axis

B. OROGENETIC FORCES:-
 Horizontal forces name, most of the world’s mountains are
built by this
 Convergent = acting towards point and Compressive forces
→●←
 Divergent :- Expansive / tensional force
←●→
 TENSIONAL FORCE:-


Leads to faulting, (fracture)
Chances of Earthquakes are more at faults
 CONDITION A>B
 Example:- central Indian fault line of Gujarat & MP the
activation of these fault lines has resulted in BHUJ
earthquake 2001
 Rifting is a slow process sometimes rift lakes formed

 In east African rift has a lot of rift lakes (Lake turkana)

 Man evolved from these places called “Gene Pool” of Man
 Map Work Atlas :- make list of all lakes & Surrounding area

 Upper layer get extended called “recumbent

folds”
 More inclined limb of fold
 Axial plane almost parallel to surface
 Difference of rocks cause this
 Wide gap b/w limb & surface
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 CONDITION A>>>>B  Monocline:- one crust, one trough
 Multicline:- more crust and trough
 Isoclines:- axis are parallel of folds, symmetrical

 Geosynclines:- when comprehensive force is

equal and intensive , the geological structure
gets uniform.
 Arrangement of rocks is the method for
differentiating b/w blocks & Fold Mountains. So
syncline is a depression associated with folded
structure

 Axial plane completely parallel to surface

 Folds formed are called “Nappe Folds”
 Limb of fold completely horizontal to surface
 Gap b/w fold and surface is almost absent
 CONDITION A>>>>>>>>B
 FAULTS
 Normal faults:-
 are identified by feature i.e. waterfalls
 here block shifts downward

 Breaks & overlaps (slide over other)

 Due to intense compression
 Formation of faults or “thrust fault”
 FAN FOLD
 Multiple type of folds in same region
 Variation of rocks
 Symmetrical + asymmetrical are in one region
together

 Reverse fault:-
 Watershed or break in river structure happens
 Here block shifts upward (over thrust)
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 Upward movement + Compressive fault act
 EXOGENETIC FORCES
 Also called “leveling forces”
 They operate by two process
a. Weathering (w)
b. Erosion (E)
 Denudation (degradation) :- W+E

 TOPIC:- WEATHERING
 Strike Slip fault:-  Is a simply disintegration of rocks (rocks are broken)
 Parallel movement based on some factors
 Shifting of coarse of river  Types of weathering
1) Physical weathering :-
 By external force like temperature
 By flora & fauna
 E.g :- Penetration of roots
2) Chemical weathering:-
3) Biological weathering:-
4) Anthropogenic weathering:-
 CHEMICAL WEATHERING:-
 By chemical reaction or chemical change
 Main factor is composition of rock that determine
chemical weathering
 Fe+ Moisture= rusting disintegrates rock

 Tensional Force

 Karst Topography:- region rich in limestone rocks

called Karst topography
 Granular weathering:- disintegration of the rocks in
an irregular shapes

 Convergent Force

 Exfoliation:- disintegration of rocks in form of layers

is called exfoliation

rd th
….3 class done, 4 started…
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 How Karst Topography Modified by Chemical  All are surface landforms on a Karst topography
Weathering  By Percolation of water (Non-Surface features)
 Caves:- hollow pipe like structure formed as water
percolates down landform. Can be of many kms

 Results (All At Source features)

 Stalactite:- sometimes limestone is left & clear water

percolated down & from the roof towards floor only
limestone gets accumulated on roof. Hundreds in
number
 Stalagmite:- pillar like structure established at floor
of cave . Raised structure from floor of cave.
Hundreds in number

 Sink holes:-Water percolation of water creating

narrow depressions created by downward water
movement called “Sink holes” (round)
 Lapies:- when water flowing through cracks on
surface , water creates elongated depressions called
lapies:- elongated depressions created along the  Pillar:- extension of stalactite & stalagmite join and
cracks of the limestone rocks form pillars
 Doline:- if multiple lapies and sinkholes get together  Travertine- removal of limestones at a specific region
& creates a large depression called Doline. but have no entry & exit point as caves have
Significantly large depressions , even accumulation of
water can happen (lake appearance)
 Uvala:- if doline formed at edge of topography 7 size
increases :- huge deformation of landform can be
seen called uvala. Not be in interior, formed only at
edges of landforms. So uvalas are the encroachment
of dolines and are large depressions caused by
removal of significant part of landform. They occur at
the edge of the Karst topography

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
 THE PHYSICAL WEATHERING 
Influenced by “Temperature”
Temperature↑↑↑↑=water(liquid)=volume↓↓
 Disintegration of the rocks by external stress contracts
 Temperature is the Most dominant factor causing it  Temperature ↓↓↓↓ = water (ice-solid) = Volume
 By temperature ↑↑↑ expansion
a. Process of exfoliation  Due to periodic melting and freezing under influence
b. Freeze and thaw (type of granular weathering) of temperature , water gets expanded and contracted
1. PROCESS OF EXFOLIATION alternatively and it can cause stress on rocks
 Mid latitudinal climate is characterized by seasonal
 Layered integration
contrast in temperature
 Onion-layer weathering
 Rate of evaporation = low= water retention
 Occurs in deserts , especially in tropical hot deserts
o o
like Sahara, Atacama (30 N-30 S)
 During day temperature = very high
 During night= temperature is very low
 So in day and night= contrast in temp
 Therefore it is refereed as “Diurnal contrast in temp”
{Diurnal any phenomenon occurs day and night)

o o
Example:- Libya (Sahara desert) :- 65 C day, 5 C night

 So water is retained throughout the years in

 Day time temperature ↑↑↑↑:- outer layer of rock temperate as compare to tropical regions
gets heated and expands  ROCK:-
 Night time Temp↓↓↓↓:- outer layer gets cooled  Summer :- water =liquid= thawing
rapidly and rock contracts  Winter= water= ice= solid= freezing
 If the phenomenon of this expansion and contraction
continues for a longer duration , the outer layer gets
loosen and falls apart
 Exfoliation:- This alternate , periodic expansion &
contraction disintegrates the rock (outer layer first) in
layers called Exfoliation
 Reasons for contrast of temperature
 Absence of moisture increases contrast
 Moisture always has moderating effect on
temperature
 If moisture is present, temp will not be very
high and not very low
 Also called “Maritime Influence “ if a water
body around there
 Why absence of moisture in Deserts
 Deserts are under the influence of off-shore
winds most of the year and so moisture gets
removed by these winds

 Factors of stress in rocks

 Change in volume of water by contraction and
 Prevalence of off-shore winds expansion of water under influence of the
temperature
2. FREEZE AND THAW  Freeze and thaw weathering is associated with the
 Freeze= solidification lower ranges of Himalayas i.e. middle Himalayas and
 Thaw =melting shivalik
 Change in state of water
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 THE PROCESS OF EROSION  ENDOGENETIC FORCES
 Denudation :- a. Endogenic (or endogenetic) factors are agents
a. degradation / down wasting supplying energy for actions that are located within
b. weathering + Erosion the earth.
 EROSION:- b. Endogenic factors have origins located well below the
 Translocation of the rock material/ rock sediments earth's surface.
 Involves movement and transportation c. The term is applied, for example, to volcanic origins
 Medium that transports rock material called “Agent of landforms, but it is also applied to the original
of erosion” chemical precipitates
 Agent of erosion Examples:- Water, Wind, Glacier,
Sea waves
 EARTHQUAKES:-
 For prelims
 Water::- most dominant agent of erosion
 Relief modification:- erosion plays a dominant role in
a. Definition
modification of the relief (than weathering) b. Causes
c. Scales
Denudation process= geomorphic process
d. EQ waves
Can change existing landforms , end product is almost
 For mains
feature less plain or a flat landform called erosion surface
a. Study of earth’s interior by seismic waves
or Pene plain
(indirect evidence)
b. Global distribution of earth quakes
 Earthquake:- release of the energy from the earth’s
interior recorded or expressed on the surface is
referred as earthquake

 Magnitude of earthquake
EROSION REGION LAND EXAMPLE a. Energy released at focus
AGENT FORMs b. Richter scale 1 to 9 (non-linear)
Water Humid Fluvial Valley  Intensity of earth quake
landforms Delta a. Energy recorded on surface
Wind Arid Aeolian Loess b. Maximum at epicenter
Sanddunes c. Used :- mercury scale 1 to 12
Glacier Polar Glacial Moraine d. Magnitude is related to intensity
Mountains landforms Hanging e. Intensity of earthquake is determined by
Valleys  Depth of the focus
Sea waves coast Coastal Beach  Type of geological structure
landforms cliffs f. Magnitudes increases so intensity also increases
 Are weathering and erosion independent? g. But intensity is not only determined by
 No magnitude but also by depth of focus, the type of
Note:- Understanding the world’s climate will help in geological structure (type of rock)
appreciating the role of the different agents of erosion.
Every agent of erosion has unique set of landforms  SCALES MEASURE EARTHQUAKE
established  For magnitude:- Richter scale , 1 to 10 , non-linear or
Landforms recorded video must watch logarithms scale means 1 point increase on it is 10
times multiplication of previous energy . example

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 Richter scale 1.0 = e, b. Disaster management integration:- Disaster
 if 2.0 the e×10 management should be integrated with
 9.5 Chile sustainable development
 More than 7 is destructive c. BBB:- Build back better:- capacity building
 Important for geologist means experience of one disaster should be
 For intensity:- adding to risk of other disaster. We should have
a. Mercalli scale. 1 to 10, 1 stands for least intensity and input from one disasters to prepare for same
10 for higher intensity. disaster in future
th th
b. At present:- Modified Mercalli scale have I to XII is to ……….4 class ended, 5 started…
measure intensity and impact of the earthquake (how
is expression of earthquakes in the region or how it is  CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
felt in any region) 1. Interaction of the plates
 ‘I’-for least felt and XII for maximum damage 2. Volcanism
 Important for:- disaster management, policy making, 3. Crustal deformation (folding, molding)
demarcation of seismic zones 4. Anthropogenic (human factors , dams etc) (dams
 Damaging effect:- VII or above induced seismicity like Koyna dam in MH is known as
 Upto VII :- things can be easily reversed but above it for earthquakes )
would be very hard 5. Elastic rebounce
 Modified M scale:- is an important tool for disaster  ELASTIC REBOUNCE
tool  Disturbance due to change in equilibrium condition &
Scale Japan India Nepal releasing energy process called elastic rebounce
RS 7.5 7.5 7.5
MM V VII X
Has good in MM says
management Nepal is the
of disasters More
,earthquakes vulnerable
 Demarcation of earthquakes:- demarcating the
Earthquakes regions which are at greater risk and are
at lower risk
 GLOBAL STANDARD FOR DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
 2030:- 50% reduction in damage or in loses
(economic or human loss) must be done following
global framework for disaster management by a
country who is following this global framework
 UNISDR:- United Nations International Strategy For
Disaster Reduction. Under this conferences are held
st
a. 1994:- Yokohama Conference (1 ), objective was to
build resilient world (1995 to 2005 for deciding the  R(resistance)=S (stress) (state of equilibrium) when
framework = international decade of disaster stress exerted by overlying load and resistance
management ) (here planning was done exerted by underlying load are not in equilibrium &
b. 2005:- HYOGO conference or Hyogo framework for gets disturbed called elastic rebounce
action. Here now implementation of framework
made in yokohama’s planning is done from 2005 to
2015
 Law, Agency, Decentralization, Awareness and
early warning systems, means countries
members of yokohama conference must do all
these things about disaster management before
occurring it like make laws , should have agencies
, should have decentralization etc etc
 Ended in 2015:- but damage was found to
increase instead of decreasing so
c. 2015:- SENDAI framework for action (SFA)
 Here admitted that Success of disaster
management lies in three things
a. CBDM:- Community based disaster
management:- equal participation of the people
 Stress (S) can be modified by exogenetic and
endogenetic forces both natural and anthropogenic
NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 12
 NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
 Erosion decreases stress
 Deposition increases stress
 Reservoirs increases stress
 Mining reduces the stress
 S= weight exerted here by land + ice glacier
 S= SL + SG = R (over many years equilibrium
occurs )
 Global warming  glacier melt rapidly  S≠R
equilibrium disturbed  elastic rebounce 
these areas experience earthquakes
 Example polar regions
 In Himalayas there is increased frequency of the
earthquakes , this is also contributed by rapid melting
of the glaciers (Climate change factor)
 ENERGIES OF EARTHQUAKES
1. SURFACE WAVES ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR
 Tremors , vibrations , disturbances on surface
 Damaging effect of earthquakes
 Cracks in wall , damage of buildings
NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
 Help us not very much in study earth’s interior, they
are only body waves (indirect evidences) for study of
interior of earth
 Intensity of surface waves
a. Depends on depth of focus
b. Strength of S-waves determined by depth of
focus
1. Shallow focus:- 0 to 75km (in crust , upper part
of lithosphere)
2. Intermediate focus :- 75-250 km (lower
lithosphere & upper mantle)
3. Deep focus earthquake:- 250-700km (700km
repetti boundary of upper mantle)
2. BODY WAVES
 Different directions/ orientations of waves
 Two types
a. Primary waves or P-waves
b. Secondary waves or S-waves
 Differentiate based on the velocity & direction among
P and S waves
 Characteristics of P waves
 Vibrations of particles is parallel to direction of
propagation of energy
 Vibrations of particles is perpendicular to direction of
propagation of energy
 P-waves have more (maximum) velocity in Solid
medium
 Velocity decreases in liquid medium as particles in
liquid not as tightly packed as in solids
 First to reach at surface (seismograph recorded)
 If the medium changes of P-waves
a. Velocity changes from solid to liquid
b. Deflection with change in medium from solid to
liquid
c. This helps us to know boundaries in interior of
earth
 Characteristics of P waves
 After primary waves , S-waves are detected
 Propagation in solid even slow
 Cannot travel through liquid medium
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 NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
 Overall velocity of S-waves is less than P-waves in
solid medium
 Velocity in liquid medium= zero
 Therefore we can also say that S-waves are blocked
by liquid mediums
 Answer writing tips
 Don’t make very technical answer
 Use terminology and underline keywords
 Diagram
 Map
 Examples for support either case study (India
+ world)
 Write demand in proportional manner
 EXPLAIN HOW SEISMIC WAVES ACT AS
INDIRECT EVIDENCE FOR STUDY OF EARTH’S
INTERIOR (200words , 10-15 marks)
Answer:-
 Study of the interiors of the earth is done by direct
and indirect evidences
 Direct evidences have certain limitations thus we
need to complement it by indirect evidence.
earthquakes are the major source of information of
earth’s interior
1. EARTHQUAKE WAVES
 Characteristics of P waves
 Vibrations of particles is parallel to direction of
propagation of energy
 Overall velocity of S-waves is less than P-waves in
solid medium
 Velocity in liquid medium= zero
 Therefore we can also say that S-waves are blocked
by liquid mediums
2. ASSUMPTION
 Let the earth is if homogenous
 P-waves would be in straight lines with similar
velocities recorded at all locations with similar
velocities
 S-waves have also similar velocity & recorded at
all locations
3. SEISMIC OBSERVATIONS (practical data)
 P-waves are recorded but with variable velocity
(indicates density and material differences)
 S-waves are not recorded at all locations (indicating
presence of the liquid material in interiors)
 Practical observations of the seismic data contradicts
the assumption thus we can conclude that earth is
heterogeneous (there is difference of material in
terms of density & presence of liquid material in
interior of earth)
 However there are shadow zones , regions where EQ
waves are not recorded
 Behavior of P-waves

 Vibrations of particles is perpendicular to direction of

propagation of energy

 P-waves have more (maximum) velocity in Solid

medium
 Velocity decreases in liquid medium as particles in
liquid not as tightly packed as in solids
 First to reach at surface (seismograph recorded)
 If the medium changes of P-waves
a) Velocity changes from solid to liquid
b) Deflection with change in medium from solid to
liquid
c) This helps us to know boundaries in interior of
earth
 Characteristics of P waves
 After primary waves , S-waves are detected
 Propagation in solid even slow
 Cannot travel through liquid medium

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 14

 NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
 However P-waves are only can change in medium but
cannot mark boundary
 Study of P-waves is insufficient for identifying the
presence of liquid material in Interior of earth
 This need to be complemented by data of S-waves
 Behavior Of S-waves
 Shadow zone of S-wave is created by “Blockage “,
implies there is a liquid medium present
 P-wave shadow zone:- by deflection , small
 S-wave shadow zone :- by blockage , large
 But the depth corresponding to 105, by
superimposing /overlapping the both shadow zones ,
we get the region where there is a change in Medium
and density this is the boundary of Mantle and Outer
core.
 Difference in Mantle/core= P +S waves
 Difference in inner core/ outer core= only P-waves
 GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
 There is a zonal pattern of occurrence of EQ-related
with plate tectonics
 Majority of earthquakes occur at plate boundaries
(zone of interaction)
 Highest frequency is recorded at convergent
boundaries
 Highest intensities are at C-C convergent boundaries
where two continents are colliding like Himalayas
 Divergent boundaries have low to moderate intensity
earthquakes
 Divergent boundaries on ocean floor have low
intensity EQ
 The transform boundary (parallel movement of plate)
on ocean floor cause high intensity earthquakes &
this can trigger high Sea waves i.e. Tsunami
NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
 High intensity EQ:-
a. convergent boundaries. M
b. fold mountains and islands,
c. tsunami regions like Caribbean, Japan, SE
Asian, central pacific
 Moderate and low intensity EQ:-
a. Divergent boundaries
 Note the Map is same for global distribution
of volcanism , however, the absence in
Himalayas , rift valley , west Asia is also
there
TOPIC:- VOLCANISM
 Definition
 Structure of volcano
 Rock cycle
 Characteristics of Magma & formation of
igneous rocks
 Classification of volcanoes
 Volcanic land forms
a. Intrusive
b. Extrusive
 Byproducts of volcanism
 Global distribution of volcanoes with
reference to plate tectonics
 DEFINITION
 Process of formation, movement &
eruption of magma is referred as
volcanism & the structure created on the
surface is known as Volcano.
 Volcanism is diastrophic (takes time)
 Volcanicity, volcano, volcanic eruption
are catastrophic (sudden)
STRUCTURE OF VOLCANO
 Benioff Zone:- region of formation of
magma
 Vent:-
 Volcanic Cone:-
 Volcanic islands:- oceanic islands, parts of
ocean floor, Japan etc
 Crater:- narrow depression at mouth of vent
. due to time , they get filed with water and
called “Crater lake” (highest water bodies).
Also examples of hot springs – naturally high
temperature.
 Caldera:- enlarged (Craters) depressions
caused by collapse of volcanic vent. Result of
frequent high intensity eruptions (extend for
several kilometers)
 Nested Crater:- narrow depression in large
depressions or a crater inside calderas
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 NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
1. WHAT TYPE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS ARE
th th
………5 class ended,6 starts…..
TOPIC:- ROCK CYCLE
 Reasons for eruption of Magma
a. Density is low , density adjustment needed
b. Pressure belt in magma chamber
c. Escaped of the trapped gases
A. Intrusive rocks or landforms:- Some magma is
gets solidified below surface creates intrusive
rocks or landforms
B. Extrusive rocks or landforms:-Magma erupts out
has
a. Gas
2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS,
b. Solid
c. Liquid
d. Combination of all these called pyroclast
material
 Lava:- Liquid part of magma spreads on surface
called Lava
 Cooling of lava decided by what area it is
erupting and what are weather conditions
there
 Obsidian:- When lava cools rapidly, or
instant cooling of lava is there , creates rock
that has glassy appearance called obsidian
(also called Volcanic glass, it is a type of
igneous rock)
NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
CREATED DEPENDS ON
a. Rate of cooling of magma
b. What is it made up of

Vesicular rock:- If magma has high %age of gases
and such magma cools, there will be formation of
hard igneous rocks but have small pores for
escape of gases. this is hard porous igneous rock
called as “vesicular rock {igneous hard porous
rock}{have rough texture e.g Pumice rock}
 Igneous rocks have large decreasing size of
sediments like Gravel/cobble/pebbles  sand 
siltclay
 Igneous rocks are called parent rocks or primary
rocks as they cannot get converted from
metamorphic of sedimentary rocks on surface
 Igneous further undergo weathering and erosion
(denudation) and gets converted into
sedimentary rocks;
 it is decided by type of weathering and climate
that what kind of sedimentary rock will be
formed.
 After erosion , these sediments of rocks gets
deposited and after deposition it is cementing of
sediments and last compaction resulting
sedimentary rock
 Sedimentary rocks have foliated structure
(layers)
 Sedimentary are fossiliferous , provides us the
clue of life and age can be exactly calculated by
radio carbon dating as compare to igneous rocks
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 NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
 Only sedimentary rocks retain the fossils called
fossiliferous rocks and the process of formation
of fossils is called petrification
 Four major types of sedimentary types depends
upon size of the sediments and their compaction
together
a. Conglomerates: - when gravels deposited and
compacted together, has rough structure. Size of
pores is very large but number is very small. In
these large pores , dead matters gets trapped
and gases will also gets trapped and escaped out
b. Sand stone:- when sand deposited and
compacted together
c. Silt stone:- when silts deposited and compacted
together
d. Shale:- when clay deposited and compacted
together, have smoothest structure. Size of pores
is very small but number is very large. In these
small pores , dead matters gets trapped and
gases will also gets trapped and cannot escape
due to small pore size and this gas is called shale
gas {shale is sedimentary rock has shale gas and
able to retain gases }
3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS:-
 when action of temp (when rocks come in contact of
hot magma called as contact metamorphism or
thermal morphisim) and pressure (overlying load,
pressure metamorphism) on the sedimentary rocks ,
rocks change its character and get converted into
metamorphic .
 sedimentary rocks gets easily metamorphosed but
igneous rocks take long time
 If igneous also exposed to pressure and temperature
it also get converted to metamorphic rocks
 Metamorphic rocks when exposed to surface and
under denudation it gets converted to sedimentary
rocks
 Interchangeable rocks therefore are sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks
4. SUBDUCTION:-
 When rocks are transported deep interior is
called subduction
 When subduction occurs, the rocks come under
geothermal energy so again magma formed.
 Subduction is a destructive process for the rocks
as they destroy the rocks by exposing them with
high temperature inside the deep interior of
earth
 CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGMA
a) Molten material present below surface of earth
b) Process of formation of magma takes place in
o o
temperature range of 800 C to 2000 C, decided by
depth of magma chamber
c) Process of formation of magma is called as partial
melting {as some part of magma has higher melting
point depending on area of magma and material
inside in it means nature of pyroclast )
d) Pyroclast:-Difference in composition of magma , has
liquid , solid, gases state material combined called
Pyroclast
e) Lava:- liquid part of magma
NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
f) Bombs:- Large solid blocks of magma thrown out
from vent
g) Ashes:- tiny solid particles Powder like solid material
coming out from vent
h) Heat domes:- Gases like CO2, CO, N2O, SO2 (volcanoes
are natural sources of green house gases) all gets
accumulated around the opening of volcano ,
temperature around volcano increases and these
regions are called heat domes {natural factor for high
temperature , note forest fires also increases temp of
surrounding areas so also is heat domes)
i) These three only CO, N2O, SO2 react with water
vapour and reduces PH of water vapour drastically
and results in acid rain
j) CO2 is not very reactive with water vapour but can
dissolve with water and sinks into oceans , therefore
oceans are also called as carbon sinks , means
k) CO2 + H2O  carbonic acid = ocean acidification
l) Why rainfall is not always acidic:- Droplets is in liquid
state formed by condensation and CO2 react with
water droplets not with water vapour and slightly
decrease the PH of rainfall , makes slightly acidic
nature of rainfall but cannot say acid rain because PH
below 5.6 is only considered as Acid rain. Thus CO2
contributes in acidity of rainfall but cannot be
considered as acid rain as it only reduces very less PH
of rainfall. So every rainfall is slightly acidic but not
the acidic rain
m) Magma when gets cooled and its cooling rate
depends upon the place, material inside it.
n) Crystalline rocks:-Rapid cooling = easy consolidation
of the materials, such type rocks called crystalline
rocks (grain sizes are visible). They are brittle rock.
Relatively soft rocks. so more vulnerable to process of
weathering
o) Slow cooling= non-crystalline rocks. hard rock’s
formation is here. Here weathering process is slow
p) Majority of the intrusive igneous rocks are non-
crystalline and hard formations
q) If there is a volcanic eruption on oceanic floor and
also on continental surface, oceanic is crystalline in
nature due to rapid cooling and solidification
relatively
r) The volcanic structures established on the ocean floor
are crystalline igneous formation
s) As we go from equator to poles the igneous rocks are
more crystalline{note rapid cooling is the reason
because of latitudinal variation the temperature is
very less in polar years}
t) All volcanic landforms appear with less relief and
more disintegrated compare to tropical regions
because of weathering variation
 COMPOSITION OF MAGMA
 Silica is bad conductor
 Felsic magma:-
 high Silica content= felsic magma (greater than
50%, near to 80% or more called Ultra felsic).
 More viscous magma as silica is more.
 Light in color and after solidification makes light
colored igneous rocks (dull grey, yellowish) , dull
in appearance .
 Acidic magma (PH reduces).
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 NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
 Intensity of eruption is higher,
 erupts with great explosivity (intense eruptions).
 Greater possibility magma remains below the
surface , so majority of intrusive formation are
felsic in nature
 Mafic magma:-
 Less silica content = Mafic magma(silica is less
than 50%) (if less than 10% called ultra mafic).
 More fluid magma because viscosity is less.
 PH high here and alkaline or basic in nature.
 Dark colored igneous rocks (black).
 Eruptions are generally quite.
 formation of black soil when these rocks
disintegrates , forms plateaus like Deccan plateau
created by mafic eruption so has black soil
 Note:- color of igneous rocks is a parameter for
estimating the intensity of volcanic eruptions
 CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANOES
A. Based on frequency of eruption
a. Active volcanoes:- mostly found in pacific ring of
fires and Meditarriarn areas (light house of
Meditarriarn =Mt. Stromboli active volcano)
b. Dormant:- where there is a gap b/w two
volcanoes. Also a part of pacific ring off fires
(Andes volcanoes, recently erupted is Mt
Krakatau of Indonesia is most dangerous
dormant volcano). They are more disastrous
c. Extinct:- Deccan plateau example , lost ability to
erupt
B. Based on the type of eruption
a. Fissure type:- eruption through multiple vents,
associated with divergent plates. Quite eruption,
silent eruption.
 On continents creates plateau and in ocean floor
it creates Ridges (note all ridges so related to
divergent boundary).
 Landform occupies large areas so is of fissure
type.
 Uneven asymmetrical structure created by
fissure type of eruption. It can be both felsic and
mafic.
 Fissure mafic least intensity erupts. Fissure felsic
chances of eruption are very less.
 Deccan plateau so is fissure mafic and PH is high
and basic magma and going through creates dark
rock and black soil
 {Deccan plateau  fissure  Mafic  Large area
 PH high basic  dark rock  black soil}
b. Central type:- when erupts from a single vent
only, associated with convergent plates.
 More explosive as all pressure released through
single vent. Create high relief , if on continents
create mountain peak and if erupts in ocean
created islands .
 islands so related to convergent boundaries.
narrow region.
 Symmetrical landforms or structures are created.
 It can also be both felsic and mafic.
 Central felsic erupts with most intensity and
most elevated landforms it creates
NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
C. Based on explosivity (intensity of
volcanic eruption)
 Two factors decides explosivity
a. Composition of magma or viscosity
b. Type of eruption
 VEI:- volcanic explosivity Index ,
 from 1 to 8, 1= least explosive, 8= maximum
explosivity
 On VEI 6 or 6+ = destructive volcanoes
a. Hawaiian type= quite eruptions, low explosivity
b. Strombolian type= moderate explosivity,
c. Vulcanian type = erupts with very strong
proportion of ashes ,
d. Pelean type = most violent eruptions, most
explosive volcanoes, characterized by bombs, EQ
with volcanoes frequency is high
VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
 Structure created at the surface by solidification of
the magma are referred as volcanic landforms
 Classified as
1. Extrusive landforms
2. Intrusive landform
 Shape of intrusive landforms is determined
by layers of the existing rocks
A. EXTRUSIVE LANDFORMS
1. Lava dome or volcanic shield :-
 Low lying feature with gentle slope and spread
over the large area and has a convexity.
 Composed of homogenous igneous rocks
 mafic eruption, central type of eruption,
continuous , active volcanoes
2. Composite or Stratified Core:-
 known as composite as it consists of different
types of rocks and stratified
 because it has layered arrangement of the rocks,
dormant volcanoes (take gap b/w eruption),
every time the volcanoes erupts it has layers of
pure rocks (igneous ) and impure rocks layer
(sedimentary because of denudation ).
 They are consist of alternate arrangement of
pure igneous and impure weathered rocks ,
height of composite cones will increase with time
and consecutive eruptions ,
 majority of the volcanic structures are composite
in nature
 example the recent eruption of
 Congo ,
 La Palma eruption of Spain,
 Mayan of Philippines ,
 Merepi eruption of Indonesia
3. Parasitic volcanoes :-
 dormancy of long period is required ,
 occur in eruption In regions of very low
temperature ,
 due to long dormancy the magma gets solidified
in vent ,
 and next time when erupts the mouth of vent
explodes forms calderas,
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 when long period of dormancy all magma
present in all vents solidifies at to considerable
depth and after becoming active magma tries to
come out from weak rocks makes cone on the
wall as it erupt on the wall,
 should not be considered as fissure type , only
central type
B. INTRUSIVE LANDFORMS
1. Cordant :- structure created according to the rocks
2. Discordant :- when there is modification of the
existing rocks called discordant structure
3. Batholiths :- are the huge depositions at greater
depth (deepest intrusive structure) and connected
with the magma chamber , possibility that they may
not completely solidified as of under great temp , can
be secondary magma chambers , discordant
4. Laccoliths:- dome shaped deposition under earth
surface is called laccoliths, discordant
5. Sill:- horizontal structure b/w two hard rocks,
Cordant
6. Dyke:- Cordant , can be exposed to surface
7. Lopolith:- a saucer- or lens-shaped body of intrusive
igneous rock, formed by the penetration of magma
between the beds or layers of existing rock and
subsequent subsidence beneath the intrusion
compare laccoliths
8. Stock:- formation is interior so intrusive
th th
…………..6 class ended,7 started……
 BY-PRODUCTS OF VOLCANISM
 These are the features created by interaction of
magma with the environment at the surface like
1. ACID RAIN:-
 this is the change in PH of the rainfall because of
the volcanic gases
2. HOT SPRINGS:-
 water bodies in which the temperature increases
due to the head transferred from the magma
lying below the surface
3. GEYSERS:-
 water jumps out from water body , fountain like
appearance of water flowing out because of
some gases escaping from water bodies derived
from magma rich in gas ,
 condition is that the rocks below these water
bodies have some pores or capillaries
NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
 most of geysers are non-periodic in nature but
there are some periodic geysers like Old faithful
(most consistent )erupting every 90 minutes part
of yellow stone park (California region)
 Condition 2 :- periodic geysers are result of
occurrence of capillary chambers below water
body
 Hot springs and geysers can occur together as
majority of the geysers are hot springs
 For a geyser to occur there should be gases
travelling from magma towards the surface
 Condition 3:- Hydrothermal vents also become
reason for geysers
4. FUMAROLES:-
 When there is continuous eruption of gases
instead of lava called fumaroles eruptions. When
main vent has fumes and sometimes there are
some volcanoes at main vent they erupt lava but
at joining vents there are fumaroles
 Fumaroles are the indicators of the
characteristics of magma present below the
surface
 When liquid and solid part of magma thrown
through main vent of volcano and finally erupts
gases so fumaroles indicates the last or old stage
of eruption or
5. SULFOTORAS:-
 If the rocks are rich in sulphur (sulphur MP is very
less ) and comes in contact with hot lava these
gets converted in sulphuric Acid or gases , such
types of eruption rich in sulphur or sulphuric
gases are called as Sulfotoras.
 Recent eruption of Congo.
 Common feature of Meditarriarn
 Largest area of it found in volcanism of Italy is
known for this character .
 rotten smell can be experienced in this region
6. VESUVIUS ERUPTION:-
 When gases erupts with huge ashes they these tiny
solid particles can act as Hygroscopic nuclei or
condensation nuclei , help in accumulation of water
and formation of water droplets forming then clouds
.
 Result into muddy rainfall and when hits the ground ,
there will be intense flow of mud (derived from
Ashes) flow on the surface and
7. LAHAR
 Such huge flow of mud along with water on the
surface is called Lahar. Recent Merapi eruption
of Indonesia. lahar is destructive
 GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANO
 Same as of earthquakes
 SURFACE CONFIGURATION OF EARTH
 Understanding how the landforms are arranged on
the surface
 How is the distribution of oceans and continents,
geophysical phenomenon (earthquakes ,etc )
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 TWO SCHOOL OF THOUGHTS
1. Permanency of continents
2. Non-permanency of continents (more logical)
 THERE ARE THREE THEORIES
1. CONCEPT OF CONTINENTAL
DRIFT
 Given by 1912 by Alfred Wegener based on
understanding of earth i.e. earth Is composed of Sial
and Sima
 To explain arrangement of the continents
 He applied the concept of drift (movement of the
landmasses)
A. FORCE:-
 There is a role of tidal force (moons gravitational pull)
(exogenetic force) to move landmasses / continents
 Wegener so dependent on exogenetic force
 See the changes and formation of atlantic and other
B. OBJECTIVE:- oceans over time by drifting as NA and SA drifted
 to explain arrangement & distribution of continents westwards forming atlantic ocean and See the
C. ASSUMPTIONS:- movement of others
1. a continental landmass is made up of lighter material  Drifting of continents led to formation of oceans
(Sial) and these continents are floating on ocean floor
or oceanic crust (composed of Sima)
E. EVIDENCES OF THE CONTINENTS
1. Juxta fix of continents:- complementary nature
of the coast line . means shape of continents
complement each other
2. The geological similarity :-similarity in rocks in
their composition , age & arrangement e.g rocks of
2. There is a friction less movement of Sial over Sima brazil corresponds with rocks of west Africa
(means continents can easily slide on ocean floor and 3. Fossil evidences:- remains of life forms in
this movement is known as drifting of continents sedimentary rocks and their distribution of fossils in
D. THEME:- several continents where the organism are not
adopted to but the fossils were got. Example fossils
 All the present continents have evolved from the
found in India are suitable for temperate regions but
fragmentation and drifting of a single super continent
India has tropical climate , it means it is only possible
(Pangaea) that existed 300 million years before
because of drifting
present

 The distribution of fossils can be explained by

a. Shifting of climatic zones
b. Drifting of are continents
 climatic zones are the result of tilt and revolution
of earth, thus they remain fixed
 Thus-The distribution of fossils is the outcome
of drifting of continents
4. Sediment deposits:- these are the sedimentation
done by different agents of erosion i.e. the deposition
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of water called fluvial deposits, deposits by glacier effected as it has less thickness as compare to
deposits called Tillite deposits. We are getting the continental crust
deposition of fluvial sediments in the region of a
Kalahari desert (Africa) means in past water as an
agent of erosion worked .
 as in east rift valley of Africa glacier deposits
were found indicating its nearest to polar regions
in long past (by process of polar fleeing :- drifting
of landmass closer to poles and then away from
the poles)
 for polar fleeing regions :- tillite deposits are
evidence

c. This is that endogenetic forces are responsible

for drifting of continents
 Mantle Fume:-
 Endogenetic forces rise from mantle and known as
“Mantle Fume”:- the thermal convection which
originates from mantle
C. MECHANISM OR THEME:-
 What is causing drifting is not justifiable  formation of ocean floor results in drifting of
continents
F. PROBLEM:-
 It could not prove the mechanism for drifting (what
force is driving drifting)

2. 1962 SEA-FLOOR SPREADING

THEORY
 1930:- Thermal convection concept developed and
given by Arthur Holmes and applied by harry Hess
who gave concept of “Sea-floor spreading”
 1962 sea-floor spreading theory given but studies
were done during WW2
 Based on idea of crust and mantle
A. OBJECTIVE:-
 To explain formation of the oceans & also
mechanism for drifting of the continents and
B. BASED ON ASSUMPTION THAT
a. outmost layer of earth is crust (composed of Sial)
and below this is mantle composed of Sima
 Crust thickness:- near 40km
 Both made of Sial but Continental Sial is
thick as compare to Oceanic Sial
b. Force is coming from interior of earth, there is
large area in mantle very temperatures are very
high called Hot Spots and in these hot spots the
material gets melted and formed magma and it
rises towards surface and this rising current is
referred as “Mantle Plume” and this mantle
plume will hit crust , oceanic crust gets more

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 Age of the rock increases with increasing
distance from the ridge
 as Older rocks are found closer to continents
and younger rocks are located at the ridges
3. Symmetrical arrangements of rocks
 same rock is found at equal distance on
opposite sides of the ridge
 similar rock occurs at equal distance from
the ridge, indicating spreading of ocean floor
4. Height of volcanic structure
 as we move away from the ridge the height
of volcanic structure decreasing
 the height of volcanic structure decreases
away from the ridge indicating continents
shifting and sea floor spreading
5. Paleo Magnetic evidences
 Oceans are better evidences of the
magnetism of the earth
 Slab pull:- the tensional force on the oceanic  Because of the composition and greater
crust due to divergence of magma below the %age or proportion of magnetic material ,
surface the ocean floors provides evidence for the
 There is a addition of new rocks or crust to the past magnetic orientation of earth , this is
ocean floor and the area of ocean floor increases known as Paleo-Magnetism
, this will cause drifting of the continents

D. EVIDENCES SEA-FLOOR SPREADING

1. Mid-Oceanic Ridge (MoRs)

E. LIMITATIONS
1. No explanation for arrangement of the mantle
plumes
2. All ridges are accompanied by trenches (in reality it is
not true they do not exist together at all the
locations, there are trenches without ridges)
3. Theory only focusing on opening of the ocean floor &
ignores the compensatory process (rectified in plate
tectonics)
2. Age of the rocks on the ocean floor
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F. PROBLEM:- 4. Tertiary: - newest and latest phase around 100
 not thoroughly applicable to all the oceans as it is million years. example :- Fold mountains
more applicable to Atlantic and to some extent to  Lithosphere is resting on asthenosphere
Indian Ocean but could not find correlation to pacific  Energy for convection in asthenosphere is radioactive
ocean and its landform formation decay and is responsible for size of the plates.
G. SIZE OF THE PLATE IS DETERMINED BY AREA
3. THEORY PLATE TECTONICS OF CONVECTION , PLATES ARE
 Given around 1964 (contribution of many)
1. Major plates
A. IDEA :- meaning of plate was given by T.Wilson  North American plate
B. CONCEPT of lithosphere and asthenosphere  South American plate
C. OBJECTIVE:-  Pacific plate
 to explain the first and second order landforms  Antarctic plate
on surface of earth  Eurasia plate
 to explain the arrangement of continents  African plate
 to explain formation of fold mountains (Rockiees,  Indo-Australian plates
Andes, Himalayas = tertiary fold mountains) 2. Minor plates
 to explain distribution of archipelago (SE-Asian,  Arabian Plate
Caribbean , Japan)  Caribbean plate
 to explain distribution of geo-physical  NAZCA plate
phenomenon (volcanism, EQ, Tsunamis)  COCOS plate
 much broader than previous theories  Burmese plate
D. BASED ON endogenetic forces , the concept of  Philippines plate
th th
thermal convections operating in Asthenosphere ….7 class ended,8 started………
(main source of energy for movement or drifting of H. Plate Margin
plates  Where the two plates interact with each other called
E. PLATE TECTONICS IS combination of :- plate margin
continental Drift + sea floor spreading + new model  Plate Boundary and plate margin are the zone of
of earth’s interior + concept of thermal convection = interaction of the plate
Plate tectonics  Based on direction of movement of the plate the
 Most comprehensive, logical scientific theory zone of interaction considered as plate boundary.
 Mountains can be classified as :- Fold, Block and When taken as plate margin
volcanic mountains . major are fold mountains 1. ocean-ocean
2. Ocean-continent
3. Continent-continent
 Based on nature of the plate surface, the zone of
interaction considered as plate boundary. These are
three types
1. Convergent (destructive boundaries)
2. Divergent (constructive boundaries)
3. Transform (conservative boundaries)
 Theoretically we get 9 types of interaction of the
plates and all interactions will produce characteristic
features
1) ocean-ocean convergent
2) Ocean-continent convergent
3) Continent-continent convergent
4) ocean-ocean divergent
5) Ocean-continent divergent
6) Continent-continent divergent
7) ocean-ocean transform
F. THERE ARE PHASES OF MOUNTAIN 8) Ocean-continent transform
BUILDING THIS IS KNOWN AS “PHASES OF 9) Continent-continent transform
OROGENY”
1. Pre Cambrian Orogeny:- old 2.5 billion years old.
Example :- Aravellis
2. Caledonian: - 1200 million years. Example most
of European mountains l
3. Hercynian:- 700 million years. Examples :- URAL,
Appalachians

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 plate tectonic is validating the continental drift , sea
floor spreading and also explains how ocean floor is
created and going to expand
 when there is a convergent boundary the subduction
happens and subducting part gets destroyed under
magma action in asthenosphere , so convergent
boundary is called destructive boundary

 C-C Divergence
 This boundary is located resulted in separation of and
masses
 Characterized by Earthquakes
 It is fault, rift and separation of landmass and then
occurrence of earthquake

 whereas at divergent boundary , with the increase of

ocean floor some new crust is formed so divergent
boundary also called a constructive boundary
A. Divergent boundaries (constructive
boundaries)
 Shown by I I I I I I I I I I I I I I this symbol on map
 O-O Divergence
 Means this boundary is located on ocean floor
 Formation of ridge happens and fissure type of
volcanism starts to erupt and here there will be
earthquakes ,
 but it is quite eruption (low intensity EQ) and this will
not be able to trigger tsunami and even not supports
the formation of islands

 O-C Divergence
 Very rare or rather absent as we don’t have exact
boundary where continents ends
 Example for this will be  Not well recognised in plate tectonics

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B. Convergent boundaries (destructive
boundaries)
 It is denoted by ^^^^^^^^^^ symbol on
the map
 When there is convergent boundary b/w two plates
then the higher density plate (density determined by
composition and size) subducts and during
subduction it experiences very high temperature in
asthenosphere and gets melted creating a Benioff
zone of melting and gets destroyed
 This destroyed material, comes erupts from other
plate as with magma rises and this eruption is called
“central type eruption (located away from the
junction)
 Here intensity of the volcanism is high
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 At the plate margins there is dominance of
metamorphic rocks due to compressive forces
a) O-O Convergence
 Junction of the plate have trenches
 Emergence of eruption above sea level forms series
of Islands or archipelago
 Active volcanism due to continuous subduction and
large magma rise
 More explosive eruption due to central type of
eruption
 High magnitude earthquakes occurs
 Tsunami occurrence due to endogenetic forces
b) O-C convergence
 Intense compression at boundary
 Formation of fold mountains
 Formation of plutonic intrinsic rocks
 Occurrence of volcanic peaks where gap is more or
height is less
 Example Rockies in North America and Andes in
South America
 Rockies are appeared to be wide and spread over
1000km of area , also called western cordillera
 Andes are like western ghats a, narrow and with a lot
of peaks , like western ghats of India
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 Rockies and Andes have structural differences
because of the size of interacting plates and rockies
are created by two major plates (Pacific and North
American plate) boundary and Andes are created by
major and minor plate
c) C-C convergence
 Intense pressure on both sides and edges get folded
and form fold mountains
 Here subduction will be slow
 Slow rate of magma formation
 Formation of fold mountains and occurrence of high
intensity earthquakes
 Plutonic rocks formed inside the crust and if there is a
water body due to heat energy of magma the hot
springs also form
 Alps and Himalayas are example
 There is a structural difference b/w Alps and
Himalayas
 Alps are low in relief (because of inclination of African
and Eurasian plates, compressive force is less and
there is a buffer zone (Meditarriarn sea) , Himalayas
are narrow and elevated and some of the highest
peaks (direct collision of Indian and Eurasian plate, so
compressive force is high
Discuss the structural differences in the relief
features of fold mountains created at the
convergent boundary
 Note:- Plate tectonic theory explains all the features
that are located at the plate boundaries but the
features interior of the plate cannot be explained by
present configuration of the plates for example
 Aravellis ,
 Urals ,
 Appalachians ,
 Drakensberg (South Africa),
 Great dividing range of Australia,
 Mt. Kilimanjaro (Tanzania in central Africa)
GEOMORPHOLOGY CHAPTER DONE
THE INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
 Prelims = 5 Q/Ans
 Mains = GS-3, GS-1, 2-3 Q/Ans
 Indian geography
 Physical geo of India
 Human & Economic Geo of India (Agriculture
etc)
 Reference
 Class notes
 Indian Geography Yellow book
 NCERT India’s Physical Environment
 Topics in India’s Physical Geography
 Configuration of India as a part of South Asia
 Geological structure of India
 Physiographic aviation
 Drainage system
 Soils of India
 Natural vegetation
 Climate of India (Tropical Monsoon) (Manocha
sir)
 BASIC ABOUT INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
 Having diversity in India an concept of Unity in India
 Diversity is mostly caused by Geography in India
 Foundation of Diversity of India is geographical

C. Transform boundaries (conservative Conditions

 Studying geography of India is important for
boundaries) a) Important input for planning
 Denoted by symbol __→→→_ b) For identification of resources
 When the two plates move parallel to each other c) Environment and biodiversity
these type of boundaries are called transform d) Regional development
boundary e) Economic-regional development
 Responsible for release of energy, will be experienced f) Disaster management
as earthquake if at O-C, C-C and if this released on O- g) To understand the cultural and overall diversity
O it will get modified into Tsunami  In India, The Diversities are in
 Geographical
 Geological
 Cultural
 Population
 We have to achieve uniformity in
 Human development
 Per capita Income
 Social capital
 Human capital
 Population
 Regional diversities can be minimized
 India is a part of South Asia
 Read some data from yellow book

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 India constitutes one of the major countries of South
Asia called Indian-Sub continent as south of
Himalayas is considered as Indian –Sub continent
 India has a unique identity as a part of sub-continent
a) Because of its climatic conditions surrounded by
water blocked by Himalayas, tropic of cancer
passing through country
b) Geological uniqueness
c) Physiographic conditions means arrangement of
the landforms (like Aravellis the oldest and latest
like Deccan plateau)
d) Unique in terms of population (all the races of
the world representation & diversified ethnicity)
 Negrito first race to come India (In Andaman
Nicobar)
 Mediterrarian race (more a part of southern
India Maharashtra and Dravidian)
 Proto-Australoids = aborigines of Australia
found in TN & Kerala
 Mongoloids = Ladakh and North-eastern
states
 Brachycephals from middle east to UP,
Chhattisgarh
 Indo-European = Nordics = PB,RJ ,GJ (Aryans)
e) Unique In terms of culture (Indian Culture)
f) Food security because of climatic conditions
 CONFIGURATION OF INDIA AS A
PART OF SOUTH ASIA
 How Indian Landscape come into existence
 Idea of Super Continent
 Pangaea 300milion years ago
 Broken into Laurasia and Gondwana land around 200
million years
 India was attached t Africa and this region (part of
Gondwana land) called as Indian Kraton in southern
hemisphere
 Before India got separated it was having
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 Aravellis :- created by Convergence (old fold
mountain)
 Satpura
 Vindhyas
 Eastern Ghats (700 million years ago)
 Most of them are geosynclinical in origin means
they were created by sedimentary rocks and
metamorphic rocks
 700 million years ago , there were forests and valleys
and climatic conditions , this climate might not have
supported the continuation of forests , so formation
of wood happened and these wood were transported
to depressions and covered by sediments and then
pressure acting on it and there were formation of
coal (India has coal belong to Pangaea, even older
than the formation of Gondwana )
 If there was thermal metamorphism (magma flowing)
acting on this and heating it up under great pressure ,
this coal gets converted into diamond
 Panna diamond belt as old as Gondwana land
 Outcome of Drifting of India from south to
northern hemisphere
 Climate change
 Ecological succession
 Change in bio-diversity
 Dispersal of species and assimilation of species
 Change in denudational process means process
of weathering and erosion , has contributed to
change in rock cycle(modification of structure)
 Rifting is represented in the steep continental shelf
and tilt of Indian landmass caused the emergence of
western ghats around 120million years ago
 Eastern ghats were denuded and all material
deposited near the coast lead to formation of east
coastal plains
 In western ghats , continental shelf on western coast
is submergent because of its steepness and depth ,
however, on the east coast continental shelf have
been uplifted by Deposition occurs on continental
shelf and due to deposition it come up and appears
very shallow (on east coast) and is known as
Emergent continental shelf (artificial ports are more
on east coast therefore)
 Madagascar is the island result of breakdown and
rifting of India from Africa, it is left back when India
drifted
 India moved towards North and around 66million
before present, India came over reunion hotspot (was
a mantle plume) and this lead to formation of
Deccan plateau and further upliftments of western
ghats (also called escarpments = result of both endo +
exo genetic forces )
th th
……8 class ended, 9 started……
 DECCAN PLATEAU FORMATION
 can be considered as Bare land , as it was having a
primary succession (reestablishment of life in this
region as its biodiversity is new (like new forests) as
compare to outside places of deccan plateau not like
Gondwanaland)
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a) Height of elevation of deccan plateau is decreasing
from west to east as maximum deposition is on the
western side
b) It was formed due to fissure eruption
c) Eruption of magma along with Deccan Plateau also
uplifted the following
 Malwa plateau
 Kathiawar peninsula (of Gujarat)
 Chota Nagpur plateau
 Nilgiri
 These are also a region we have black soils along with
deccan plateau
 The slope of peninsular India is established by
a) Rifting from Africa
b) Slope/height of deccan plateau decreasing from
west to east
c) Differential collision of India with Eurasia
 When India was a Kraton, it was made up of Archean
rock, means metallic in character. Now India came
near the reunion hotspot, these rocks got destroyed
or trapped under the thick layer of magma.
 These Archean rocks are no more available in Deccan
plateau now, so Deccan plateau is de-void of metallic
minerals. so no metal based industry is there in
western part of this area
 Deccan plateau covered the existing Archean rocks
that constituted the basement of peninsular India.
 Deccan plateau is also devoid of coal.
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 EVERGREEN & RAINFORESTS (INDIA)
 Now , 66 million years before, after formation of
deccan plateau , India moved towards equatorial
region, and 50 million years before, India was located
on equator experiencing equatorial climate (rainfall),
and India was covered with evergreen forests and
rainforests got established
 FORMATION OF COAL RESERVES
a) Around 45-40million years before present, India
crossing the equator, India was experiencing change
in temperature and climate, the forests formed or
established were not able to sustain , trees fallen
down and wood of these were transported by water
and deposited into geo synclines and the coal
deposits of India formed.
b) So majority of the coal deposits of India belong to
submergence of the equatorial rain forests.
c) These coal reserves are of recent origin
d) Wherever there were depressions, coals were formed
there.
e) Deccan plateau was not a depression therefore no
coal is present here, so it is devoid of coal.
f) Most of the coal formation is present outside the
deccan plateau
g) Most of the coal found from MP to WB (coal belt of
India = major deposition of coal) , and this is in the
center of India , this is the region of Gonds tribe ,
therefore called “Gondwana coal deposits” (the coals
belong to Gondwana reserves, central India =
Gondwana= most of the coal of India)
 FORMATION OF OTHER FEATURES
ALONG & IN INDIA
 40-45million years before present , India was above
the equator, so b/w India and Eurasia was Tethys sea
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c) Rann of Kutch
 Due to upliftments of western Eurasia , the Indo-Oxus
river direction shifted from east-west to west-east , it
started flowing towards east and part of this river
entered into Himalayas, and formed Indus river, and
some part made Brahmaputra river.
 Rivers are older than Himalayas , so Himalayan rivers
are antecedent rivers (means existing before the
formation of Himalayas as the name of Indo-Oxus)
 Western Himalayas are older than eastern Himalayas
 after upliftments of western part by colliding of
 From Eurasia , there was a river flowing towards
Indian plate with Eurasia, in eastern part the Tethys
Tethys , originated from east to West called as “Indo-
sea still present, now further compressive force was
Oxus “ river, it means slope of Eurasia was towards
acting forming arc like movement of India , providing
west, and
angular momentum to India, and India moved very
 Indian plate carrying Indian landmass was moving
intensely and collided in the east (very intensely) ,
towards North, Indian landmass collided with Eurasia
referred as “Door Slamming/ arc like movement of
and the size of Tethys sea was decreasing and
India, closing the Tethys sea left in east
sedimentation in Tethys increasing (sedimentation
brought by Indo-Oxus), the level of Tethys sea had
increased.
 So rise in level of Tethys sea was because of
a) Decreasing size of Tethys
b) Increased deposition of sediments
 Now sea had encroached upon the land and Northern
part of India came under submergence.
 It means the northern part of India for a significant
time remained the part of Continental shelf,
 Before Indian plate finally collision with Eurasia, it
was under water of Tethys sea , so was supporting
marine life, dead matter, biodiversity (as part of
continental shelf)
 So there was formation of fossils fuel of India , due to
submergence
 Around 30 million years before present , India
collided with Eurasia in non-uniform way (not
uniformly) , first collision was in western side creating
western Himalayas , the Tethys sea was moving back
or residing back lead to formation of Arabian sea

 this lead to rise of eastern Himalayas, the collision

 When Tethys sea was residing back towards south-
west, it had left back sand deposit (Rajasthan) , some
water bodies (salts lakes of Rajasthan), and one salty
patch of land that became Rann of Kutch
 Tethys had resided towards south-west, this
contributed to Formation of
a) Rajasthan plains (formed by recession of Tethys
sea towards south-west)
b) Salt water lakes of Rajasthan
was so intense supported by convection mechanism
that time, creating some depressions
 There was depression created infront of Himalayas
on eastern side and because of this the north eastern
part of India got separated from Main land India , this
is known as “Malda Gap”
 So the intense collision of India by door slamming
resulted in a depression known as the malda gap. It
separated north eastern part of India from Main land
India

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 As similarity of rocks of Chota Nagpur plateau and
Shillong plateau is found proving north east was part
of Indian main land (geological similarity), therefore
malda gap is also known as “Rajmahal-Garo Gap”
 This depression (malda gap), reoriented the drainage
on the east and rivers Brahmaputra and gangas
started moving towards this depression and it has
been filled with deposition of sediments , and there is
a formation of plains (Bangladesh occupied major
part of Malda gap)
 As part of Northern-Eastern India was also
submerged under water and during door slamming ,
the water got moved back towards North-eastern
region, there was occurrence of fossils fuels like in
Assam .(again they are the product of submergence)
 Shivalik also formed by deposition of western
Himalayas towards east, so shivalik height is also
decreasing from west to east
 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF INDIA
 The study of geological structure helps in
understanding
a) Mineral resources
b) Type of soils
c) Ground water resources (means rock also
supports water table)
d) Load bearing capacity
 Geological structure of India is complex , it has the
oldest rocks (means that belong to original formation
of rust) to the newest formations (sedimentary
rocks)
 Rocks in India divided into 4 major groups
 In descending order
1) Archean rocks (oldest)
2) Purana rock system
3) Dravidian rocks
4) Aryan rock group
1) Archean rocks (oldest):-
 Around 2.5 billion years before present,, majority
of oldest rock present in peninsular India (south
India).
 No established fossils In these rocks. These are
completely devoid of fossils.
 Also called basement or foundation rocks.
(means all other rocks were created from it).
 Also called for metallic minerals
2) Purana rock system:-
 Around 1200 million or 1.2 billion years before
present
 Are known for their sedimentary nature (more
dominant) and for non-metals
3) Dravidian rock group :-
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 Around 700 million years before present, these
were created (India was part of Gondwana or
Pangaea).
 Well established fossils found In these rocks.
 Carbon dating method is more applicable here.
 These are metamorphic in nature
 They are known for rare minerals.
 Means these rocks are formed under specific
condition and are highly scattered
4) Aryan rock group:-
 After separation of India from Africa. Rocks of
Deccan plateau, Western ghats, northern plains,
and some of the rocks created in case of
Himalayas’.
 Volcanic and sedimentary rocks of recent
formation
 Only established fossils found in these rocks.
 carbon dating method is more applicable here
also
 PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
OF INDIA:-
 Very important topic for exam
 Physiographic divisions of India corresponds with the
geological structure.
 Physiography is arrangement of landforms
 India is divided into three major physiographic
divisions
1) Peninsular India
2) Fold Mountains
3) Northern Plains
A. NORTHERN PLAINS (GREAT
PLAINS) (NEWEST)
 Also called as great plains and cradle of modern
Indian civilization
 Aravellis came closer to Himalayas during Indian plate
subducting under Eurasian plate, led to formation of
Northern plains by sediments deposition around it.
 Aravellis appear in northern plains but its basement
lies as a part of peninsular India
 Basement of northern plains is made up of Archean
rocks
 Extending from Rajasthan to North-east are northern
plains
They are overlapped with aravellis
 Important as region of high cultural significance and
uniqueness, population, agriculture
 Northern plains are further divided into 5
divisions on basis of Origin and orientation
of the slope:-
1) Rajasthan plains =Western side of aravellis
2) Punjab plains
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3) Haryana plains  Mustard is very important crop,
4) Ganga plains  Rohi:- seasonal cultivations in eastern RJ,
5) Assam plains facilitated by the streams originating over the
aravellis
 food security gets compromised due to climate,
thus to ensure the agriculture the water is
brought from PB by IGC (Indra Gandhi Canal,
planned in 1940, redesigned after independence,
first part operational in 1967). IGC targets
Ganganagar, Bikaner, Jaisalmer , Some parts
Barmer. Successful for Ganganagar (granary of
RJ)
 Aravellis overlap with Haryana plains , so plains of
Haryana seem to be slightly uplifted as compare to  ARAVELLIS & CHARACTERISTICS
Punjab plains  Old fold mountains
 There is climatic and topographical influence of  2.5 billion years before
aravellis over north-west India .  Mt.Abu :- circular arrangement of aravellis hills,
there is a depression forming freshwater lake at
1. RAJASTHAN PLAINS foothills of Mt. Abu called “Nakki Lake”
 Eastern side= aravellis  Highest peak :- Gurushikhar peak 1722meters (part
 These are in west of aravellis of Mt. Abu) In Rajasthan
 North side= PB
 South Side= Rann Of Kutch
 Origin:- by recession of the Tethys sea
 Thus the slope of RJ plain is towards south-west
(same as the drainage )

 IT IS DIVIDED INTO TWO PARTS

a) REGION OF THAR
 Western side
 Dry , occurrence of sand dunes and salt water
lakes
 Rainfall <25cm
 Agriculture is not possible
 More cattle rearing
 Nomadic and tribal population
b) RJ BAGAR
 Semi-arid condition
 Rainfall upto 60 cm because of Aravellis
 There are rocks here not sand dunes
 Have formation of calcimorphic soils (rich in salts
and minerals, when rate of Evaporation is greater
than precipitation these rocks formed, alkaline
soils pH>7,8)
 Cultivation:- mustard , Maize
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 Today considered as “relict mountains” means
residue of original mountain
 Basement made of Archean rocks, and is
superimposed with Purana rocks. So metallic
minerals found here along with marvels etc
 Intense mining is also the reason of decline the
elevation of aravellis
 Extending from Rajasthan, Gujarat to north-east
getting overlapped with Haryana plains, they are
parallel to south-west monsoon
 As from south to N-E , the aravellis height is
decreasing and becoming more fragmented
(scattered) towards national capital and Haryana
 Aravellis part in Delhi is called = Delhi Ridge
 Beyond Delhi, the scattered hill like structure of
Aravellis of Haryana is called fan out structure of
aravellis , this constitute the elevated part of
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
Haryana called as “Bhiwani Bagar”
Bagar describes dry condition with poor vegetation
 DRAINAGE OF ARAVELLIS
(semi-arid, arid)  Luni
 SW monsoon strikes the southern segment of a) Originates from a place called Naga Hills,
aravellis (which is wide and elevated, rainfall is originating as sagarmati and joined by another
orographic , heavy), this monsoon loses most of its river which originates at Pushkar called sarsruiti
precipitation here, and drops very less rainfall in made confluence and Luni river originates.
Delhi, then least in Haryana. b) It is a saline river
 So rainfall decreases from south of aravellis to north c) Also called Lavanavari (lavana = saline)
 So Punjab gets more rainfall than Haryana, as the d) Lower coarse of Luni is salinating, this is
overlap of Aravellis cause difference of rainfall b/w induced by the sand from adjoining region of
PB & HR. Thar.
 Therefore, as So rainfall decreases from south of
aravellis to north, same pattern is of density of
forest. Highest density of forest in north west India
is in southern part of Aravellis is in Mount Abu
 The pattern of rainfall over aravellis is decline
towards north, thus highest density of forest is
established in southern segment of the Aravellis
 SW monsoon from Arabian sea is called Arabian sea
branch of SW monsoon
 Similarly , aravellis also act as physical barriers of
Bay of Bengal Branch of the monsoon, thus they
 Sabarmati
a) SRFD:- Sabarmati river front development
have caused dry conditions in Rajasthan
project implemented by Govt of GJ for
 Punjab has combination of high rainfall caused by
sustainable urbanization & Industrialization on
Arabian sea branch of SW monsoon and least
its bank
rainfall caused by Bay of Bengal Branch of the
b) This project is implemented on the lines of
monsoon and also it gets rainfall from western
Namami ganga project
disturbances. So overall , 140-160cm rainfall
 Haryana:- also has three systems from where it gets  Banas
rainfall, but as the overlap of Aravellis cause a) Tributary of Chambal
difference of rainfall b/w PB & HR makes HR more b) Eastward flowing
arid . c) These rivers have caused excessive erosion of
 GJ Plains: - get water from streams originated from soils and establishment of the bad lands
aravellis and water from Narmada river. So  Mahi
frequency of floods in Gujarat is more because a) Originates on Vindhyas (MP) not Aravellis
a) streams originated over aravellis b) MP- Northwards – RJ-GJ-Gulf of Khambat
b) large volume of water added by Narmada c) Largest area of drainage of Mahi is in RJ.
d) It cuts tropic of cancer twice
e) Anand Town famous for white revolution is
located on Mahi in GJ
f) Kadana Dam located on Mahi in GJ

 ZONE OF TRANSITION
a) Near the Rann of Kutch a transition ecosystem exists
b) There is a zone of transition b/w the Rann of Kutch
and desert of RJ, which has intermediate ecosystem
having water bodies in scattered form and growth
of halophytic grass (grown in saline condition of
 Kathiawar region
saline )
a) Black soil formation
c) This grass land is known as “Banni Grassland”
b) Elevated volcanic hills are present
d) Restoration of Banni Grassland:- initiative of GOI
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 Gir
 Girnar = highest elevation among these
 Mandav
 Barda hills
c) Low to moderate rainfall (100-120cm),
establishing semi-arid conditions
d) Temperature remains moderate , high due to
maritime influence, Tropic of cancer located
very near to it
e) Vegetation:- Extensive growth of grasses with
scattered presence of trees, therefore this
condition of Kathiawar resembling savannah
climate
f) Thus this is the habitats for Asiatic Lions
(mammals)
 Malwa
a) Also volcanic, black soil
b) Gets rainfall from SW monsoon winds (100-
120cm)
c) Tropic of cancer passes cross to this
d) Temperature remains high
e) So conditions of malwa similar to Kathiawar
f) So selected for alternate habitat to shift Asiatic
lions from Kathiawar to this region
th th
……. 9 class ended, 10 started…….
because of the favourable conditions established
by the western disturbances
 Cropping intensity:- All these factors making PB as
more favourable for Green revolution. PB has
intensive agriculture means cropping intensity of PB
is very high.
 Cropping intensity means :- the number of crops
cultivated per unit land per year
 Therefore land use efficiency is also high due to
high cropping intensity.
 {in PB cattle rearing not allied activity as land of
agriculture is not utilised for fodder etc. cattle
rearing is an independent activity in PB}
 Characteristics of Punjab Plains
 There is a confluence of two rivers and there is a land
b/w two confluences :- called as Doaba.
 Doab regions have the flood plains of the rivers
joining each other and this becomes the region of
fertile soil. So they are fertile regions as they are the
reason of merger of the rivers.

2. PUNJAB PLAINS:-
 PB plain has slope towards the western side due to
river flow towards west. So it has western orientation

 Bist Doab:- Beas & Sutluj

 Bari:- beas and Ravi
 Chaj (Jech) doaba :- Chenab and Jhelum
 Rechna doaba:- Ravi and Chenab
 Sind sagar doaba:- b/w Jhelum and Indus {northern-
most doaba)
 Punjab is also known as “Land of Doaba”, Doaba
increases the irrigation potential of the PB plains ,
reason for Green devolution
 Origin:- Thoroughly are depositional plains (by rivers)
 Characterised by:- thick profile of the soil (thick
alluvial)
 Fertility of soil is high
 Drainage:- dendritic pattern of drainage with high
drainage density
 (as many rivers flow here, dendritic means rivers
are joining like a branch of a tree)
 (density of drainage means the length of river
per unit area)
 Irrigation potential of Punjab is high
 Rainfall:- 140-160cm,PB get rainfall by
 By the winds coming from Arabian sea branch
 By the Bay of Bengal branch
 In winters caused by western disturbances
(during wheat crop) . Western disturbances
cause favourable conditions for the Punjab and
this is the reason of highest yield of wheat of
Punjab. Yield of wheat in PB is maximum
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 In north PB is bordered by Shivalik (Himalayas) and it
is getting the rainfall by wind of Arabian sea branch of
monsoon.
 Northern part of PB gets more rainfall because of
orographic rainfall as of physical barrier shivalik
present as compare to the south PB plains.
 Rivers originating in shivalik (north) flows towards
south in PB, so southern part has more deposition
making it more fertile as compare to northern PB
plains.
 So there is a formation of bad land in PB as there is
excessive run off of water, this region is foothills of
shivalik in PB and belt of northern PB. These bad
lands of northern most plains are referred as Chos.
Agricultural productivity of these plains gets reduced
even with the presence of rainfall.
 Northern most region of PB plains is experiencing
decline in agricultural productivity because of
formation of the bad lands due to excessive erosion
of the soils.
3. HARYANA PLAINS:-
 HR plains drains , inclines towards the south, as due
to the yamuna rivers flow. So it has south orientation
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 Origin:- in overlap of aravellis
 Characterised by:- low grade alluvial
 Fertility of soil is low
 Drainage:- No dendritic pattern of drainage is
found here as only yamuna river flows here
 Drainage density is poor
 Irrigation potential is also less.
 Rainfall:- <120 cm, due to Aravellis, establishing
semi-arid conditions
 Less availability of rainfall, less irrigation, less
soil fertility, cropping pattern of HR gets
affected
 It gets rainfall by bay of Bengal branch of
monsoon
 Cropping intensity:- HR has low cropping
intensity as there is no rainfall, irrigation
facilities. .
 Therefore in HR, Crop + livestock means
cattle rearing is an important allied activity
along with farming.
 Farmers also use his land for fodder for the
allied activity like cattle rearing as land of
agriculture is used for it {in PB it is not allied
activity as land is not utilised for fodder etc.
cattle rearing is an independent activity in
PB}
 Therefore HR played an important role in
White revolution
4. GANGA PLAINS:-
 Bordered by himalayas in the north. On western
side by aravellis, in south by central highlands, in
east by eastern plateau (chota Nagpur plateau)
 Origin :- of ganga plain :- it is a depositional
plain.
 Soil:- alluvial soil
 Drainage:- dendritic patter,
 Orientation:- eastward orientation due to east
flowing rivers.
 Ganga plain is not entirely located in India as it
also extends to Nepal (southern part of Nepal)
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 FROM SOURCE TO MOUTH OF RIVER
GANGA , DIVISIONS OF GANGA PLAINS:-
 If you take cross section of ganga plains from
 Taking section of ganga plains , ganga plains appear
 Size of the sediments from the origin to the mouth of
 DIVISIONS OF GANGA PLAINS:-
 Ganga plains are further divided into Four divisions
a) Upper ganga plain:-
 Constituting part of western UP
 Also known as Rohilkhanad plains.
b) Middle ganga plain
 Constitutes the eastern UP
 Also called as “Awadh Plains”
c) Lower ganga plain
 Constitutes Bihar and WB
 Also called as “Bihar plains” {it is a physiographic
division constituting both Bihar and WB}
 Kosi and Mahanda are the main rivers.
d) Coastal plains
 (regions of Mangroves , formation of delta,
Sundarbans deltas)
 Rainfall & Characteristics of Ganga plains:-
 This is the way of Bengal branch of monsoon that
gives rainfall to ganga plains.
 Winds coming from bay of Bengal
 From east to west rainfall decreases.
 So population density also decreases from east
to west and area of fertile soil also decreases
from east to west of ganga plains, this is because
ganga is depositing more on eastern side.
 Cropping pattern of ganga plains:-
 However, agricultural productivity is highest in
upper Ganga plains (western UP), as land size of
land holding is large due to less population
density and have more developed canal
irrigation, and this was the area under
implementation of Green Revolution. So
importance is given to cash crops, non-food
crops means more oriented towards the market.
 Agricultural productivity is less in lower ganga
plains due to higher density of population and
fragmentation of land is more and per capita
land is less and most of the farmers turn into
marginal farmers and agricultural becomes
subsistence type. In spite of favourable
conditions here, the agricultural productivity is
less due to fragmented land holding. So
importance is given to food crops
himalayas to the sea level , ganga plains can be
divided into 4 parts
as a gently sloping stepped stricture, means slowly it
comes closer to the sea level
the river gangs decreases
a) Bhabbar
 Most of Bhabbar area lies in Nepal.
 Largest size of sediment (means pebbles) found
here
 Not suitable for cultivation because of presence
of very large sediments (pebbles)
 River has not its real identity in this region
because of the heavy percolation of water i.e.
most of the flow of river in Bhabbar region is
underground and river is remerging in terai
region forming alluvial fans in terai region.
b) Terai
 Partially in Nepal and in India, so Indo-Nepal
border is the region of Terai.
 In India, Northern part of UP and Bihar
constitutes the terai.
 Partially terai is Nepal, And some part is in India ,
it is also in Uttrakhand but small area
 Silt sediment found here
 alluvial fans in terai region are formed by the
river because of emergence from Bhabbar region
(where mostly it flows underground). The
opening of the mouth of river is called as Duars
(found in Terai).
 Duars are the alluvial fans created by the
deposits of the sediments , they are more
developed in the north eastern states. They
contribute the fertile soils.
 Terai has, therefore, a dense forest cover.
 Note: - the only region in Nepal suitable for
cultivation is terai. This is also one factor for
deforestation in terai. Forest of terai regulates
the flow of rivers, sediments towards India, but
now when it is getting deforested, the sediment
loan , soil erosion and velocity of water increases
, this is the reason for increased frequency of
floods in UP and Bihar.
 Therefore terai is important ecologically and geo-
politically
c) Bhangar
 Largest area of Bhangar lies in UP and Bihar
d) Khadar
 Largest area of khadar is along the banks of
Ganga i.e. flood plains of ganga constitutes the
region of khadar.
 Where tributary joins the main river is Khadar for
the tributary river of gangs like Ghagar
 At the confluence of ganga river (near bank of
ganga) , these are khadar regions.
 Smallest size of sediment (means clay) found
here
 Doab is a khadar

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 Fertility of soil ∞ Ghat
 this river system after the confluence , this river gets a
 So khadar are the most fertile region. (doabs)
 Newest alluvium brought by the river is new tributary named Surma river (called Barak river
deposited in region of khadar (mouth + banks of originated in Manipur hills). After surma joins the
river) Jamuna, it became high volume water river and gets
 It is most fertile but immature because the
known by Meghna river (left Bank tributary of
sediments are renewed , and soil profile gets Brahmaputra in Bangladesh After surma joins the
unstable Jamuna). After this rivers flows towards bay of Bengal
 From Bhabbar  terai  Bhangar  Khadar:- and forms delta (one of the largest deltas) at mouth of
in order meghna river
 tista river (Right Bank tributary of Brahmaputra in
 Fertility increases
 Sediment (particle) size decreases Bangladesh ) has origin in Sikkim and flow of it is towards
 Oldest sediments to newest sediments as south , it joins Jamuna river (in Bangladesh :- tista river
the age of the sediments decreases constitutes the right bank tributary). Note:- Tista was
originally a tributary of river ganga, but it was floods of
1860 after which tista shifted its course and became
tributary of Brahmaputra. Floods of 1860 caused shifting
of channels of Tista and it became a tributary
Brahmaputra
 Torsa River (Right Bank tributary of Brahmaputra in
Bangladesh):- torsa joins North and below that it is
tista
 Right Bank tributaries of Brahmaputra in Assam
a) Manas
b) Subansri:- largest (in terms of volume and
length) Right Bank tributaries of Brahmaputra in
Assam . At the confluence of this Subansri river
with Brahmaputra there is formation of Majuli
island (newest district of Assam and Assam
Govt launched zero carbon footprint for tourism
in district of majauli, majauli is formed by
shifting of channel , it is not a deposition of
island)
c) Kameng
d) Sankosh
5. ASSAM PLAINS:-  Dhansri:- Left Bank tributaries of Brahmaputra in
th
This table content is discussed in class 11 Assam
 DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF N-E INDIA
(BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER BASIN)
 Originated From mansrover lake in Tibet as Tsang Po ,
entering into Arunachal Pradesh as Dihang (Not called
Brahmaputra in Arunachal Pradesh) and gets two
tributaries mixed into it Dibang and Lohit
 At confluence of these Dibang and Lohit this river is
known as Brahmaputra. Then flowing through Assam ,
this is course of Brahmaputra which constitutes the
National waterway-2 from Sadia to Dhubri . slope of
Assam is from East to west , crossing from Assam ,
Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh and referred as
jamuna
 This jamuna flows towards bay of Bengal and gets joined
by another river named Padma (padma is in Bangladesh
but is the same ganga coming from India)
 At farakka barrage( a dam constructed during Indo-
Bangladesh water sharing treaty) , the Ganga gets
bifurcated and this is origin of Hooghly river (distributary
of ganga river) and Hooghly gets joined by Damodar river
(tributary of Hooghly)
 Ganga enters into Bangladesh referred as Padma , and
confluence of padma and jamuna is known as Gualundo
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B. PENINSULAR INDIA (OLDER)

 Note some facts:-
 Eastern most extent = Shillong plateau { Karbi
Anglong plateau)
 Bordered by aravellis in north-west
 Central highland in the north

 Parts:- Aravellis, Satpura, Vindhyas, Western ghats :-

together all 4 are referred national water shed or
national water divide as they cause difference in
drainage and rainfall. these divide the drainage and
divide natural rainfall of India.

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 NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
 Entire region lies b/w eastern and western ghats is
raised and called as Indian Plateau, which is a
combination of many plateaus
1. CENTRAL HIGHLANDS OF INDIA;-
 When you consider the central highland:- consists of
three regions
a) Bundelkhand
b) Bagelkhand
c) Bhander plateau
 They are composed of the Purana rock system
 Largest division is the bundelkhand; it is away from
the coast and located in the rain shadow of vindhyas.
So there is dry conditions and agriculture productivity
is less in Bundelkhand. It is divided into UP and MP
 VINDHYAS (Continuous) EXTENDS
 from MP to Jharkhand and has a overlap with CNP
(chota Nagpur plateau), the most elevated segment
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of vindhyas is in central region, i.e. the highest peak is
mount goodwill located in MP. Average elevation of
vindhyas is more than 750meters from the seal level.
 Two rivers betwa and ken originate from vindhyas
and run through bundelkhand and become tributaries
of yamuna river
 Betwa River has Rajghat and Matatila dams in MP.(I
upper course of betwa they have been built)
 Betwa is considered as deficit basin, means volume
of water available is very less and not-consistent.
 Ken is originating in eastern part and this is closer to
BOB therefore rainfall in this region is comparatively
higher, so source of ken river gets more rainfall and
volume of water in ken is high, so ken river is
considered as surplus basin.
 Therefore a program has been initiates to transport
water from upper course of Ken to lower course of
betwa and known as Ken-Betwa river linking project
(first of India). It will give water to central region of
Bundelkhand and increase the irrigation potential and
help in improving agricultural productivity and
cropping intensity in central regions of bundelkhand.
 SATPURA RANGE (HILLS):-
 Extending in MP for a distance of 900Kms and
average elevation is >700 meters , satpura consist of
 Overall height is less than vindhyas
 Satpura most of the region lie in MP
 Satpura are fragmented whereas vindhyas are
continuous
 Satpura has 7 hills and has 4 divisions
 Four divisions of satpura range
a) The Rajpipla Hills to the west.
 Has lowest height
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b) Gawilgarh
 Note :- gap b/w the Rajpipla and Gawilgarh is
Khandwa gap (also a railway junction), this is
important connectivity from north to south ,
called as “Gateway to South India”.
c) Mahadeo Hills to the north:-
 Most elevated segment.
 Highest peak of satpura located in this range:-i.e.
Dhupgarh
d) the Maikala range to the east,
 {forming junction with Vindhyas and also
encloses of the Narmada valley}
 Central part of maikala is more elevated and on
the sides it is elevated and flat looking like step
and chair like structure , this flat area of maikala
is known as Amarkantak plateaus comes at
border of MP and Chhattisgarh. Amarkantak
plateau is the raised part of maikala range
 Winds of Arabian sea branch of monsoon ,
guided by the valley of vindhyas and come upto
maikala range and the winds from BOB branch of
monsoon also move upto maikala range. Both
winds take moisture here and winds get uplifted
and get converged due to the physical structure
of maikala range and form clouds and rainfall
ranges upto 200cm and this is the region
northern border of Chhattisgarh and MP has
highest density of Forest
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 Due to this 200cm rainfall, it causes the flow of
water at Amarkantak plateau , so there is an
origin of rivers like Son river, Narmada river,
Mahanadi. Amarkantak so consists of radial
pattern of drainage. All these rivers carry high
volume of water, so these have developed high
tendency to cause floods.
 DRAINAGE OF SATPURA :-
1) Narmada river:-
 Originates from Amarkantak plateau , flows through
MP, and enters into Gujarat plains and joins the
Arabian sea.
 Narmada has Bedaghat gorge and Dhaundhar
waterfall, both in Jabalpur MP. This waterfall is of
high velocity.
 Rainfall of Amarkantak is very high, so Narmada has
also very high volume of water as well as velocity but
when it enters Gujarat its velocity goes down along
with volume and Gujarat gets floods . to control the
floods in Gujarat , have to construct dams to regulate
the flow of water.
 Therefore Narmada valley projects has been
initiated as a multi-purpose project. It as objectives
a) Flood control
b) Power generation
c) Water for agriculture and industry
 It consists of series of major and minor dams
constructed on Narmada and its tributaries
 The direct beneficiary of this project is MP and
Gujarat, which will turn power-surplus , while
indirect beneficiaries will be Maharashtra and
Rajasthan.
 This project will facilitate industrialization and
agricultural productivity
 They important dams are , Indira saga,
Maheshwar, Omkareshwar and sardar sarover
dam
 Against this there is also a movement started
named as “Narmada bachao Andolan”
 Tributary of Narmada:- from Northern slopes of
Mahadeo (MP) there is a origin of river named as
“Tawa” (largest tributary of Narmada)
2) TAPI RIVER:-
 southern slope of Mahadeo (MP) , a place named as
Betul, from here a river originates , flows southward
and becomes parallel to Narmada , this is the Tapi
river.
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 It flows from MP  MH  GJ  Arabian sea.
Largest area of tapi is in MH and it is the lifeline
of northern MH.
 Volume of water carried by the river Tapi is less
as compare to Narmada , so it has no tendency
to cause floods
 UKAI hydro power project + Kakrapara dam
both located on Tapi River.
3) MAHANADI RIVER
 Eastern part of maikala, On the hills of 'Sihawa
(in Chhattisgarh) this place is origin of Mahanadi
River.
 Popularly known as 'the MahendraGiri' Situated
is the Ashram of famous Shringi Rishi of the
'Tretayuga'.
 Flows from Chhattisgarh  odisha  Way of
Bengal
 S-koel, Hasdo, Mand, IB are left bank tributaries
of Mahanadi
 Seonath, Tel, Jonk Are right bank tributaries of
Mahanadi
 Seonath is the longest tributary of Mahanadi.
 Hirakund dam (odisha) is constructed on
Mahanadi
2. EASTERN PLATEAU OF INDIA
 It is divided into three parts
a) Chota Nagpur plateau
b) Ramgarh hills
c) Garjat hills
2. Subarnarekha river
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a) Chota Nagpur plateau {Jharkhand}
 This region has super-imposed geological structure
(rock system) from pre-Cambrian to Aryan, all are
found here. Therefore are minerals are found here.
 Known as “mineral heart of India”.
 DRAINAGE OF CNP:-
1. Damodar river:-
 On the western side of CNP, has the origin of a river
dividing the CNP into two parts, this is Damodar
river. {Damodar is tributary of Hugli and hugli is
distributary if Ganga}. The two parts of CNP are
a) Ranchi Plateau:- Ranchi plateau is appearing at
many places with a flat step like structures
known as “Pat land topography”.
b) Hazaribagh plateau:- In eastern part of CNP has
Rajmahal Hills, there is Rajmahal Garo gap i.e.
Malda gap. This is the volcanic hill created during
the formation of the deccan plateau. It has
highest peak here known as “Parasnath”.
 Tributaries of Damodar are:- Jamunia, Konar,Barakar.
And the drainage pattern is dendritic , it’s rare that a
river creates a dendritic pattern on a plateau (CNP is
one of them)
 INDIA’s first Multi-purpose project 1949
 Now all these drain water into Damodar + rainfall
water also contributes to Damodar river, so
volume increases and this Damodar river drops
down from plateau (CNP-Jharkhand) to Plains
(West Bengal), and WB lies very close to sea
level, so it increases the possibility of floods in
WB, so Damodar is called Sorrow of WB.
 To control these floods, we have INDIA’s first
Multi-purpose project , series of dams on
Damodar constructed known as Damodar valley
corporation (DVC) (1949).
 Objectives:-
a) Flood control
b) Water for industries
c) Power generation
 DVC was designed on the lines of TVC
(Tennessee valley corporation of USA)
 Important dams as a part of DVC are:-
a) Konar dam
b) Thilaiya dam
c) Panchet dam
d) Maithon dam
 All are in Jharkhand; largest by capacity wise
is Maithon under DVC.
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 In Ranchi plateau (Jharkhand) , Subarnarekha
originates
 Jharkhand  WB  Odisha  BOB
 It is an independent river and joins directly BOB ,
not a tributary of any
 Creates HUNDRO falls in Jharkhand by
Subarnarekha
3. North koel and south Koel rivers, sankh
river are also part of CNP
 North koel is a tributary of Son river
 S-koel is a tributary of Mahanadi
 Sankh and S-koel get confluence and become
tributary of Mahanadi.
b) Ramgarh hills {Chhattisgarh}
 Known for coal reserves, iron ore and the raw
material from these hills is supplied to Bhilai steel
plant of Chhattisgarh
c) Garjat hills {Odisha}
 Highest peak:- Malaygiri
 Iron ore, uranium, coal found here
 Khond tribes lives here
th th
…..10 class ended, 11 started…..
 DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF NE INDIA (BRAHMAPUTRA
RIVER BASIN)
th
 This first 20 minutes topic is written in 10 class
notes as the topic is related to Assam plains , so go
there for write up
C. THE FOLD MOUNTAINS (AFTER
THE PENINSULAR INDIA)
 SIGNIFICANCE OF HIMALAYAS
a) In general, it provides separate identity to India (sub-
continental identity)
b) It influences the climate of India i.e tropical climate of
India is because of Himalayas
c) It protects India from cold air masses that come from
central asia {if himalayas were not there the cold air
masses would have come to India , temperature
reduces and it goes below 18OC then India would
have experienced temperate climate if himalayas
were not there)
 Below 18OC Isotherm:- temperate climate
 Above 18OC Isotherm:- Tropical climate
 Himalayas are considered as tertiary young fold
mountains .tertiary means this is the tertiary phase
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of mountain building this corresponds with the
tertiary period (i.e. last 70 mn years before present)
 MOUNTAIN BUILDING PHASES OF EARTH
1. Oldest Phase:- Pre-Cambrian Orogeny:-2.5billion
years before present
2. Hercynian
3. Caledonian
4. Tertiary :- Latest/ youngest phase of mountain
building
 Four phases are there of entire mountain building of
earth
 Fold mountains means this is the result of
compressive force (convergent boundary)
 Mountain means:- any relief feature that has
height more than 1000meter and a pointed summit ,
that is treated as mountain
 CHARACTERISTICS FEATURES OF
HIMALAYAS
a) It is SYNTAXIAL bend
b) It has stepped rise (as we move towards the interior
of himalayas from both the sides (Indian + tibetian)
you find height of the range is going to increase,
centre part of himalayas is raised structure)
c) It has multiple parallel ranges (there are gaps, valleys,
passes)
d) It has a diversity of rocks (means this landscape is
not made up of one geological structure, you cannot
find a uniform rock throughout)
 STRUCTURE OF HIMALAYAS
 Himalayas has syntaxial bending, we can divide the
himalayas from west to east (taking into
consideration of flow of river) . all rivers are
antecedent (means they cutting across the ranges of
himalayas)
A. SO WEST TO EAST HIMALAYAS CAN
BE DIVIDED INTO 4 DIVISIONS
1. Kashmir himalayas (also known as Punjab Himalayas
, because lies north of Punjab plains:- Indus and satluj
river flow through this)
 Satluj river enters India through Shipkila pass in
Himachal
2. Kumaon Himalayas or Garhwal Himalayas
 This region is b/w satluj and Kali river
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 Kali (or sharda river) is the river this is at Indo-Nepal
border. It is a tributary of River Ghagra
3. Nepal Himalayas
 Entire ranges of himalayas in Nepal
 B/w Kali and Tista river
4. Assam Himalayas
 b/w Tista and Brahmaputra rivers
 Tibet is b/w Kunlun and Himalayas, Himalayas lie b/w
Tibet and Northern Plains of India. South of
Himalayas we have northern Plains of India
B. NORTH TO SOUTH WE HAVE 4
DIVISIONS OF HIMALAYAS
 North to south we have 4 divisions of himalayas and
each division can have multiple ranges
 Divisions are determined by their composition and
origin
1. Tibetan/trans/Tethys himalayas
 This is the division of himalayas that provide us the
evidence of existence of Tethys sea before the
formation of himalayas .only this division provides us
this evidence (we cannot find evidence in entire
himalayas)
 It consist of ranges like we have karakoram range,
Ladakh, Zaskar range these are the ranges if trans
himalayas
 Northern Most is karakoram which is most elevated
catering highest peak K2, Siachen is also part of
karakoram peak
 Trans-himalayas is composed of sedimentary rock of
marine origin and it has a fossils of aquatic
organisms. This provides us the evidence of Tethys
sea
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2. Greater himalayas or Himadari
 Narrower segment of himalayas (highest compression
happens here)
 It is the most continuous range i.e. Nanga Parbat to
Namcha Barwa (West to east). It has multiple peaks
like Namcha Barwa, Everest, Kanchenjunga, Nanda
Devi, Annapurna
 The greater himalayas are composed of Archean
rocks (Archean rocks are known for metallic
minerals), therefore, these consist of ore of metals
but cannot be extracted so easily because of difficult
terrain
3. Middle himalayas or Himachal
 This is the widest segment of himalayas (extends
upto 120km)
 They consist of Pir Panjal (J&K + HP) , Dhauladar ((J&K
+ HP), Nag Tibba and Mussorie range (Uttrakhand)
 They are generally composed of metamorphic rock
(here it is pressure metamorphism means
compression)
 Because of folded structure there are a lot of
longitudinal valleys created in Middle himalayas at
some height, these longitudinal valleys are refereed
as DUNs .
 DUNs are the longitudinal valleys located in the
middle himalayas. Example Dehradun etc
 It also creates depression (circular depression is
created) with the valley and a lake like structure is
created this is called as Tal
 Tal:- depressions that has supported the
accumulation of water or water bodies of middle
himalayas referred as tals example:- Nainital

4. Shivalik
 It is extending from west to east
 Height in western part:- 2500meter
 In east:- In Arunachal Pradesh height is 1000m
 Wide:- In west 50km and becomes only 15Km wide in
east in Arunachal Pradesh
 Interior part of shivalik is folded and upper part is
mostly sedimentary formation (all gets deposited
from higher himalayas and increase the height of
himalayas), so shivalik consist of sedimentary rocks
 SOME GENERAL FACTS
 Suppose we take the cross section of the himalayas
from Tibet to the Northern Plains of India , the cross
section of the himalayas appear in the following way
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 Tibetan plateau is appearing as a raised table land

b/w the two mountains (Kunlun and Himalayas),
therefore Tibet is also referred as Inter-Montain
Plateau
 The average elevation of the trans and middle  ORIGIN OF HIMALAYAS
himalayas is almost same  Explained with the help of plate tectonics
 Kashmir valley:- b/w greater himalayas and  Himalayas are created by the convergence of Indian
middle himalayas (specifically Pir panjal). We know pate converging with Eurasian plate , Indian plate is
that the greater himalayas are mostly covered by subducting plate
glaciers and there is some melting in summers and
when water moves down , it carries sediments and
deposits the sediments in region of valley. In this way
it creates a particular type of soil called as Karewas
soil of valley suitable for saffron cultivation. So
karewas is the depositional soil created by the glacio-
fluvial process


 Ocean –ocean convergence results into volcanism

and there will be formation of island , this is how
Andaman and Nicobar island formed. These are
created by convergent boundary b/w Indian and
Burmese plate (minor plate), this boundary is on
ocean floor

 In western side Indian plate moving northward and it

has created a boundary on the south-western side ,
ocean –ocean divergence , this experiencing sea floor

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spreading , so there will be opening of ocean floor
and there is formation of Ridge . so distribution of
ridges are found in Arabian sea. Height of these
ridges because of ocean spreading over a period
increasing , these ridges have come upto sea level but
not above the sea level, this has supported the
growth of corals and this corals are now responsible
for island and this is the island of Lakshadweep .
Lakshadweep established as a substratum as the
base rocks, because of ridges and divergence
 In the North-eastern side there is ocean-continent
convergent boundary , it has created a fold mountain
which is appearing in continuity with Andaman and
nicobar , this is referred as Arckan yoma of Myanmar
which is parallel to himalayas
 Indian plate is subducting under Eurasian plate, initial
boundary is ocean-continent convergent . plate that
is moving down is experiencing melting and there is a
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formation of benioff zone. The river i.e. draining from
Eurasian plate to Tethys is depositing the sediments
on the floor of the Tethys plate and similarly some
from Indian side this is known as Accretionary
wedge. Accretionary wedge is the accumulation of
the sediments on the floor of Tethys due to the
river. As this Indian plate subducts, this is can be
situation around 40million years before present
 30 million years before, the Indian plate has come
close to Eurasian plate and the magma might have
erupted and edge of Eurasian plate gets folded and
this also has experienced intermediate volcanic
eruption, so the edge of Eurasian plate got raised as a
result of ocean-continent convergent. Tethys level
was rising and has entered over land that is northern
part of India came under submergence and became
part of continental shelf and the area of accretionary
wedge got increased and size of it has increased.
Bottom of Tethys got filled with sediments and this
sediments were more raised towards Eurasian plate ,
so overall area of Tethys sea was shrinking and
accretionary wedge is increasing
 As Indian plate comes closer to Eurasian plate , edge
of Eurasian plate got more raised and accretionary
wedge slowly started rising in a step manner one
after the another and because of the inclination of
the accretionary wedge , the northern part of
accretionary part is first uplifted and finally Indian
plate collides with Eurasian plate and boundary now
got converted into continent-continent boundary.
And already edge of Eurasian plate is uplifted and this
is folded with volcanic structure in between and the
accretionary wedge also got raised and Tethys went
into Arabia sea and bay of Bengal (called recession of
the sea caused Rajasthan and Rann of Kutch ). Part of
Indian plate at edge is also slowly gets elevated after
collision of Indian plate with Eurasian plate and this is
the formation of Tibetan plateau (made up of folded
and volcanic structure and Tibetan plateau part of
Eurasian plate) and accretionary raised part forms
trans himalayas (uplifted from Tethys sea , having
sedimentary rocks of marine origin and fossils of
aquatic organisms ).
 Basement of Indian is Gondwana rock which is
Archean and greater himalayas are made from Indian
plate therefore greater himalayas have Archean rocks
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 Ꝋ =magnetic inclination or declination = angle of
O
inclination of the magnetic field = 11.5 = angle b/w
geographic axis and magnetic axis

 Note:- greater , middle and shivalik are part of Indian

plate, Tibetan is part of Eurasian plate, and the Tethys
himalayas comes as a transition b/w Indian and
Eurasian plates so is called trans himalayas
 ITSZ:- The Indus-Yarlung suture zone or the Indus-
Yarlung Tsangpo suture is a tectonic suture in
southern Tibet and across the north margin of the
Himalayas which resulted from the collision
between the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate
starting about 52 Ma. It is the fault line b/w trans and
greater himalayas , this indicates the junction of
Indian plate with the Eurasian plate

 MAGNETIC FIELD OF EARTH =

a) the structure is not uniform , it extends from lakhs of
kilometers from one side and thousands in other side
b) magnetic field is more concentrated near the polar
region (the density of magnetic lines of forces is
more)
c) orientation of the magnetic field of the earth is from
southern hemisphere to northern hemisphere.
therefore magnetic pole of southern hemisphere is
magnetically north and geographically south

THE GEOMAGNETISM:-
 Earth is a magnet and it has a magnetic pole that
magnetic north and magnetic south and similarly
earth also has an area off a magnetic field this is
referred as magnetosphere
 Magnetosphere is uneven in shape and it is
fluctuating . it is continuously going under change

d) if the magnetic field is interfered by any energy, all

 Magnetic poles of the earth don’t coincide/overlap this energy will get dissipated in polar regions and
with the geographic poles of the earth there will be an electric discharge accompanied by

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formation of ions and this is experienced as a
lightening phenomenon for a short duration and this
is known as Aurora (bluish and greenish in
appearances). aurora is more common where density
of magnetic forces is high i.e. polar regions . auroras
are more common at the poles because of
concentration of magnetic field . they are referred as
Aurora borealis in northern hemisphere and aurora
australis in southern hemisphere. Aurora is a short
time phenomenon
 Note:- There are three types of radiations coming
from sun also solar flares (short duration radiation) +
solar wind (high intensity and continuous radiation) +
plasma (highest intensity and continuous radiation).
These are all coming from outermost layer of sun , so
referred as CME :- Coronal mass ejection.
e) If there is high intensity radiation (from sun)
continuously getting incident on magnetic field of
earth, magnetic field carries all this energy according
to its direction , this energy gets carried towards
north pole and this causes large scale aurora and this
will be referred as Northern Lights (Long duration
phenomenon). northern lights are because of solar
winds + plasma. The southern lights are not common
until the direct sun wind and plasma fall on southern
pole. Northern lights therefore is more common
because of direction of the magnetic field of the
earth
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 WHAT IS THE FACTOR BEHIND
GEOMAGNETISM
 Earth’s inner core is solid and composed of metals
(Nife) and outer core is liquid (has thermal
convections due to heat generation) and because of
thermal convection material is continuously moving
in outer core (convections that are operating on the
solid inner core is similar to the current passing on
metallic core):- this entire structure is helping in the
establishment of induction of magnetic field or
magnetic dipole
 So rotation of outer core over the inner core is the
reason of geomagnetism
 Note In a solenoid:- Field of the magnet is
proportional to intensity of the current and
orientation of the field is dependent on direction of
the current .If this is applied to the earth, the outer
core is fluctuating , therefore earth’s magnetic field
is also not static
 The characteristics of earth’s magnetic field are
 It is not static there is fluctuation in intensity of
magnetic field, this is because of change in
convections in outer core
 Most of the convections in outer core get conversed ,
the magnetic poles also get reversed (north becomes
south and south becomes north). So reversal of
earth’s magnetic polarity is possible and this is
caused by change in orientation/direction of outer
core and change in orientation of outer core
depends upon the radioactivity and temperature &
heat transfer
 The magnetic poles also shifts its position and this
change is again because of changes happening in
outer core. Possibly by 2050, it is expected that the
geographical pole and magnetic pole will overlap
 So with change in magnetic poles, magnetic axis also
changes , as the axis changes the magnetic inclination
/declination also changes :- so we have to correct our
magnetic compass
 Here we say that the position of the magnetic pole is
not constant and changes and if we connect all the
positions of the magnetic poles with a line this is
called poplar wandering curve. So polar wandering
curve is the line joining the past positions of the
magnetic poles .
 But the shifting of the poles is unpredictable that is
why word wandering is used
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 The apparent polar wander is the path that lighter rock, ‘crust’; the rocky ‘mantle’; a liquid-iron
the magnetic pole appears to take according to the ‘outer core’ and the innermost layer, an iron ‘inner
data on a continent. When multiple continents are core’. The ‘inner core’ of the Earth rotates at a
moving relative to each other, the path their different rate as compared to the solid outer layers.
magnetic pole follows will be different from others. This feature, together with currents in the molten
‘outer core’, generates the Earth’s magnetic field.
 The magnetic field generally is similar to the field
generated by a dipole magnet—a straight magnet
that has a north pole and a south pole—placed at the
Earth’s centre. But the magnetic field changes
depending on the time and location on the Earth. The
axis of the dipole is approximately 11 degrees from
the axis of rotation of the Earth which means that the
geographical poles and the magnetic poles in the
north and the south are not in the same place.
a) The magnetic poles are usually fairly close to the
geographic poles (earth’s axis passes through
these poles), which is why a compass works.
b) However, the dipole part of the field reverses
 Average magnetic field intensity of earth over a after a few thousand years causing the locations
geological period has declined (as temperature inside of the north and south magnetic poles to switch
the outer core has been decreasing as well)
HANDOUT ABOUT GEOMAGNETISM
 Geomagnetism is a relatively new field of study and it
has increased our knowledge related to geological
processes and the earth’s interior.
 This field of study in geomorphology is credited to
William Gilbert.
 Geomagnetism is the study of the dynamics of the
Earth’s magnetic field, which is produced in the outer
core.
 The Earth’s magnetic field is predominantly a geo-
axial dipole, with north and south magnetic poles
located near the geographic poles.  GEOMAGNETIC POLES.
 Earth’s magnetic field is known to have wandered a) The Geomagnetic poles (dipole poles) are the
and flipped in the geologic past. This wandering has intersections of the Earth’s surface and the axis of a
generally been quite slow, around 9 km a year, bar magnet hypothetically placed at the centre the
allowing scientists to easily keep track of its position. Earth.
But since the turn of the century, this speed has b) There is such a pole in each hemisphere, and the
increased to 50 km a year. poles are called as “the geomagnetic north pole” and
 The earth act as a dipole magnet where the “the geomagnetic south pole”, respectively.
geomagnetic south pole is near the earth’s c) Approximately, geomagnetic dipole is currently tilted
geographic north and vice versa. at an angle of about 11 degrees to Earth’s rotational
 The magnetosphere (zone in which we can feel axis.
magnetic effect) extends to about 60,000 km over
earth’s surface.
 Geomagnetism is one of the fundamental
interactions in universe which provides the study of
magnetic fields near the earth’s surface.
 Earth’s magnetic field extends up to 3200 km
which can dispel the solar wind and save earth from
disaster. Earth’s magnetic field
 It protects us from solar flares and plays an important
role in blocking the harmful gamma rays from the
sun.
 Some movements of earth’s geological past are
known to have witnessed the disappearance of
magnetic field. These phases also coincide with some
of major extinction on earth.
 The Earth’s Magnetic Field: d) On the other hand, the magnetic poles (the magnetic
 The Earth has four layers: the thin outermost layer of north pole and the magnetic south pole) are the
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points at which magnetic needles become vertical.
e) The difference in the position of magnetic poles and
geomagnetic poles is due to the uneven and complex
distribution of the earth’s magnetic field.
f) The geomagnetic poles are antipodal points where
the axis of a best-fitting dipole intersects the surface
of Earth. This theoretical dipole is equivalent to a
powerful bar magnet at the center of Earth and
comes closer than any other model to describing the
magnetic field observed at Earth’s surface.
g) In contrast, the magnetic poles of the actual Earth are
not antipodal; that is, the line on which they lie does
not pass through Earth’s centre.
 GEOMAGNETIC REVERSAL
 At times, the secular variation becomes very large
with the result that the magnetic poles are located
very distant from the geographic poles. This is termed
an ‘excursion’ for the poles. After such a period of
enhanced secular variation, when the magnetic field
returns to its state of rough alignment with the axis of
rotation of the Earth, it can have any polarity (the
Earth’s dynamo does not prefer a particular polarity).
This flipping over or reversal of the magnetic field is a
random occurrence. It can happen every ten
thousand years or every 50 million years or more.
(The Sun’s magnetic field in comparison reverses
every eleven years.) It is not necessary that magnetic
fields have to reverse; they can also be steady, with
no time-dependence feature.
 • A geomagnetic reversal or a reversal in earth’s
magnetic field is a change in a planet’s magnetic field
such that the positions of magnetic north and
magnetic south are interchanged.
 The reversal is not literally ‘periodic’ as it is on the
sun, whose magnetic field reverses every 11 years.
 • Lava flows of basalt have revealed that the Earth’s
magnetic field reverses at an average interval of
about 2, 50,000 years; the intervals, however, range
from thousands of years to millions of years. The last
reversal took place about 7, 80,000 years ago (the
BrunhesMatuyama reversal).
 • When the molten lava (basalt or even tholeiite)
from the volcanoes cool, it adopts the magnetic field
present at the time. Other lava flows that follow
produce bands of other magnetic fields. So we are
able to detect the variations in the Earth’s magnetic
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field over time. This kind of magnetisation is termed
‘palaeomagnetism’. Studying the sequence of lava
flows, the historical direction of the planet’s magnetic
field has been measured using a magnetic detector
(working like a compass). It has been discovered that
the Earth’s poles have shifted time and again.
 The magnetic poles emerge at odd latitudes
throughout the process of the reversal.
a) The North and South Magnetic Poles wander
(Polar Shift Theory) due to changes in Earth’s
magnetic field. • The North Magnetic Pole (
N, 1 2 W) lie to the north of Ellesmere Island in
northern Canada and is rapidly drifting towards
Siberia.
b) The location of the South Magnetic Pole is
currently off the coast of Antarctica and even
outside the Antarctic Circle.
c) Scientists suggest that the north magnetic pole
migrates about 10 kilometres per year.
d) Lately, the speed has accelerated to about 50
kilometres per year and could reach Siberia in a
few decades.
e) Since the Earth’s magnetic field is not exactly
symmetrical, the North and South Magnetic
Poles are not antipodal (a straight line drawn
from one to the other does not pass through the
centre of the Earth).
f) The Earth’s North and South Magnetic Poles are
also known as Magnetic Dip Poles because of the
vertical “dip” of the magnetic field lines at those
points.
 IMPACT ON THE COMPASS:
 The magnetic field reversals have a severe impact on
the navigational compass. The compass now points
roughly north at most geographical locations. But
before the last reversal occurred (7, 80,000 years),
the polarity was reversed and so the compass would
have pointed roughly to what is south now.
 During a reversal, the geometry of the magnetic field
is complicated. In such an instance, a compass would
point in any direction based on criteria like its
location on the Earth and the form of the mid-
transitional magnetic field. During a reversal, the
Earth’s magnetic field is weaker than normal with
multiple magnetic poles.
 MAIN FIELD:
 The geomagnetic field on the Earth’s surface is a
combination of several magnetic fields. Over 90 per
cent of the geomagnetic field measured is produced
‘internally, that is, in the planets outer core itself. This
part of the geomagnetic field is the Main Field. On
the other hand, magnetic fields are created by the
external currents in the ionised upper atmosphere
and magnetosphere formed by the differential flow
of ions and electrons in these areas. These magnetic
fields are even 10 per cent of the Main Field at times.
Magnetic fields are also induced by currents that flow
in the Earth’s crust.
 The Main Field shows small variation in time. It can
be compared to a bar magnet with north and south
poles inside the Earth and magnetic field lines that go
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into space.
 It is described by the International Geomagnetic
Reference Field (IGRF) and World Magnetic Model
(WMM).
 SUNSPOT THEORY (1884) - Sunspots are
regions on the photosphere of the sun that appear
dark because they are cooler than the surrounding
photosphere. Dark spots move across the surface of
the sun, contracting and expanding as they go.
Sunspots have a temperature of about 4500 K, which
is about 1500 K cooler than the rest of the
photosphere.
a) Sun by itself is a huge magnet and when it is in
waxing period of magnetism and the sunspot activity
is high, the solar wing can breach magnetic shield of
earth and enter earth’s sphere conditional to the fact
that earth’s magnetism is in waning period. Earth
may acquire magnetism according to magnetic
polarity of sun.
b) Meteoric hit or hit by a comet can reverse the
polarity because due to collision, magnetism is lost
and when magnetism is re-organised magnetic poles
can reverse it.
 AURORAS
a) Aurora is the name given to the luminous glow in the
upper atmosphere of the Earth which is produced by
charged particles (solar wind) descending from the
planet’s magnetosphere.
b) Positive ions slowly drift westward, and negative ions
drift eastward, giving rise to a ring current. This
current reduces the magnetic field at the Earth’s
surface.
c) Some of these particles penetrate the ionosphere and
collide with the atoms there.
d) This results in an excitation of the oxygen and
nitrogen molecular electrons. The molecules get back
to their original state by emitting photons of light
which are the aurorae.
e) The charged particles follow magnetic field lines
which are oriented in and out of our planet and its
atmosphere near the magnetic poles. Therefore,
aurorae mostly are seen to occur at high latitudes.
 MAGNETIC DECLINATION
 It is also called horizontal component. It is the
angle on the horizontal plane between magnetic
North and geographic (true) North.
 By convention the declination is positive when
magnetic north is east of true north and
negative when it is to the west.
 In present perspective magnetic field magnetic
declination reveals north magnetic pole to be
slightly west of the geographical North Pole and
thus magnetic South Pole slightly east of
geographical South Pole.
 The molten mobile iron rich core which spins like
dynamo flows and causes gradual westward drift
of geomagnetic field, resulting in the changing
magnetic declination in entire geological past.
Declination is measured with magnetic compass.
NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
 MAGNETIC EQUATOR:
 The area where the dip or inclination (I) is zero (there
is no vertical component to the magnetic field) is
called the magnetic equator. Again, the magnetic
equator, like the magnetic field and poles, is not
fixed. It changes but slowly. The north end of the dip
needle dips below the horizontal north of the
equator.
 Here, inclination (I) and vertical intensity (Z) are
measured positive. The south end of dip needle dips
below the horizontal south of the magnetic equator.
Here, inclination and vertical intensity are in the
negative.
 Both inclination and vertical intensity increases as
one moves farther from the magnetic equator.
Theories About Origin of Earth’s Magnetism:
 GILBERT THEORY:
 Earth’s magnetism was first discovered by Sir Gilbert
in 1600s.
 According to Gilbert, magnetism is because of an
embedded bar magnet in the interior of earth.
 He proposed that the Earth itself is a magnet like a
lodestone. The idea that the geomagnetic field
originates from the ferromagnetism of the Earth's
material prevailed until the early years of this century
when it became clear that the Curie temperature of
ferromagnetic materials is exceeded a few tens of
kilo-meters inside the Earth's crust and that an
unreasonably high magnetization of the upper crust
would be required. Even before that time the
phenomenon of secular variation was difficult to
reconcile with the hypothesis of remanent
magnetism.
 Numerous other hypotheses about the origin of
geomagnetism have been explored and disregarded
(Rikitake,1966) except for the dynamo hypothesis
originally put forward in 1919 by Larmor to explain
the magnetic field of sunspots. According to the
dynamo hypothesis, motions within the outer liquid-
iron core of the Earth can amplify a magnetic field.
 ROCK MAGNETISM
 Earth’s magnetism may be because of rock
magnetism. Rock magnetism is a fact but it is not
response for earth’s geomagnetism because
randomly created magnetic rocks can’t explain the
specific orientation of earth’s magnetic field.
 The high temperature of interior should have
destroyed the earth’s magnetism because no
magnetism can maintain itself in very high
temperature and in molten fluid state.
 DYNAMO THEORY
 The dynamo theory was proposed by the German-
born American physicist Walter M.Elsasser and the
British geophysicist Edward Bullard during the mid-
1900s. (1939)
 According to this theory magnetism may be the
consequence of particular structure of earth’s core.
 The core consists of iron rich solid inner core which is
magnetic and outer core which is hot fluid in near
plasma state with full movement of free electrons.
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 Because of the earth’s rotation the outer core with its
free electrons also rotates about the inner core
producing di-electricity. This arrangement is called a
typical solenoid.
 The solenoid creates a magnetic field which in turn
induces a strong electric field which again
strengthens the magnetic field. This mechanism
referred to as selfexiting dynamo.
 This theory though most acceptable one is unable to
explain fluctuation in magnetic field and reversal of
polarity. Even though earth’s rotation has been very
smooth and consistent throughout its geological
history earth’s spin never reversed.
TH
…..11 CLASS ENDED, ALL CLASSES DONE…..
 Note:- Get Print out three handout separately with
these notes of rizwan sir these hand-outs are
a) Desert landforms
b) Fluvial landforms
c) glacial landforms

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