(SM) Geography by SK Manocha Sirrr

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022
 (SM) GEOGRAPHY SK MANOCHA in the United States, to determine a prime meridian for
international use. The conference was held at the
 SOURCES request of U.S. President Chester A. Arthur.
a) NCERT-XI +XII O
 The Greenwich Meridian {0 meridian= prime
b) GC LEONG meridian} was chosen as the Prime Meridian of the
c) ATLAS World in 1884. Forty-one delegates from 25 nations
 TAUGHT met in Washington DC for the International Meridian
a) Atmosphere Conference.
b) Hydrosphere  Fundamental to geography analysis , is the
 SK Manocha sir Mobile No:- 9810598886 development of a comprehensive & logical frame work
to establish accurate location of any spot on the earth
 GEOGRAPHY surface
 Geo = earth, greeks are the first geographers of the  The imaginary grid system (network of parallels,
earth meridians) is anchored by the position of the poles &
 Eratosthenes:- geo is the study of earth as the home of equator which are determined by the earth’s slight
man. (home of man lies on surface of earth, so primary variance from a perfectly spherical shape.
focus of geography is surface of earth)  Decided concept related to time, international date
 Geography has no boundary in terms of content study, line
as it studies almost everything of nature and human  Before 1884 , we had local systems , even local times
society, spatial analysis approach is used  As earth is Geoid, it is easy to locate any position on
 Spatial analysis Geography is governed by a method earth surface by knowing latitudes and longitudes
rather than by a specific body of knowledge and this values
method is spatial analysis. Means analysis anything  Parallels are based on angles called latitudes , it is An
w.r.t or relation to space angular distance of a place north or south of the
 Spatial analysis :- process, why, how, dimensions equator
 Geopolitics refers to geographical causation of  Meridians are based on angles called longitudes , it is
international politics an Angular distance b/w the meridian passing through
 Science is a deadly enemy of uniqueness (said by a given point (P) & the Greenwich meridian (0
O
Bunge) means science kills uniqueness (makes life N/prime meridian)

easy). To know about Order ,pattern o anything science st nd
…………..1 class ended,2 started………….
helps to make it easier.
 Geodesy :- is a science that attempts to determine  THOUGHTS: 2ND CLASS:-
earth shape & size by survey’s & mathematical 1) Nature nurtures us , we must nurture nature
calculations. 2) Nature to be commanded, must be obeyed
3) Noting that is natural is disgraceful
 EARTH’S SHAPE 4) While we are postponing , life speeds by
 In 1687:- sir issac Newton postulated that the round 5) Ambition is the path to success, persistence is the
earth along with other planets could not be perfectly vehicle you arrive in
spherical. Until this time the spherical perfection model  Why Greenwich was chosen
was a basic assumption of geodesy O
 Selection of Greenwich meridian = 0 meridian= prime
 Newton reasoned that earth is a slightly misshapen by
meridian is perhaps of the following reasons
its spinning, making it bulge through the
a) Royal observatory present at Greenwich was used
middle/equator and flattened at the top & bottom
as a reference point by the sailors. Greenwich was
(poles of earth = oblate spheroid)
already in use as a reference point
 Today the earth is considered a Geoid. The Geoid
b) Dominance of English empire that time.
means that the shape of earth is uniquely earth shaped O
c) Greenwich meridian as a 0 meridian gave a
 Slightly flattened polar diameter ≈ 12,714 km
convenient choice for international date time {I.D.L
 Slightly bulging equatorial diameter ≈ 12756km O
= 180 east & west, has maximum variation}
 % variation from a perfect sphere {12756-
d) Greenwich opposite exactly passes through the
12714}÷12756 = 0.3%
ocean so not much disturbing to humanity about
 Variation from two spherical shapes is very acute,
day and night change
therefore we can treat earth as if it were a perfect
sphere
 For more practical purposes , earth may be properly
considered as a “sphere”, indeed it is merely more
perfect sphere then most of the spheres which come
into frequent contact such as Basket ball, football etc
 IMC:- INTERNATIONAL MERIDIAN
CONFERENCE 1884:-
 The International Meridian Conference was a
conference held in October 1884 in Washington, D.C.,
NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 1

 Like at 12 noon, local time , when the sun is highest in the sky
(overhead) i.e. the shortest shadow moment (of the object
infers the 12 noon, and old people fix watch like that
noticing)
 Roman are the good in making sun-dial (Jantar mantar) ,
helps to tell as the 12 noon local time
a) Meri sun’s higher position
b) Dian = day
 Meridian (12 noon)
 A.M =anti-meridian (before noon)
 P.m = post meridian (after noon)
 Time:- local and Standard
 The term meridian was given by Romans to Indicate the
12noon moment of the day & it refers to moment of the day
when the sun is highest in the sky (i.e. 12 noon local time)
 Network of parallels and meridians on the globe is called grid
system
 CONVERSION OF DEGREE LATITUDE &
LONGITUDE INTO LINEAR DISTANCES:-
O
 1 latitude = ? km , need to make relationship b/w degrees of
latitudes and distance from earth’s surface
O
 Total = 360 of longitude is circumference of earth
O
 So, 90 = (¼)2πR, R=6400km
O
 Bu solving :- get:- 1 ≈111km of linear distance
O O
 1 latitude in polar region is little more than 1 latitude in
equatorial region, as earth is slightly flattened at poles the
 LATITUDE  PARALLEL linear distance of degree latitude in polar region is little
longer than degree of latitude in equatorial region
 An angular distance of a place measured north or south of
the equator (IMC in 1884 Washington DC)
 We can project a line from a given point (P) on the earth
surface through the centre of the earth (c)
 The angle b/w CP and Equatorial plane (CA) is the measure of
latitude of the given point (P)
O O
 Latitudes Varies from 0 -90 N/S
 Term “parallel “refers to a line which joins places of the same
latitude
 Lines of latitude are called parallels as they run parallel to O
 1 longitude at equator is maximum and decreasing towards
each other O
O poles and become 0 at poles
 Example:- 0 parallel is called equator O
a) At the NP/SP, 1 longitude = zero km as meridians
 Parallel is called “SOAK” because all the lines are latitudes are
converge at poles
parallel to each other O
b) At the equator, 1 longitude ≈111km
 Latitude  Parallel O
c) At about 60 longitude N/S a degree of longitude is
 LONGITUDE  MERIDIAN approx =56km (half of what it is at equator)
 Angular distance b/w the meridian passing through a given
O
point (P) & the Greenwich meridian (0 N/prime meridian)
 IMPORTANT PARALLELS
(reference line)  These are circles on a globe but represented as lines on this
 It is measured east/west of the Greenwich meridian page in 2D
O O
 Longitude varies  0 - 180 E/W
 Meridian:- is a line joining a place of same longitude
 They Are not parallel to one another, except where they

cross the equator
a) Meridian relates to time
 Local time refers to the time of a particular place fixed in the
preference to position of sun in the sky.

 Why these parallels are important:-  IMPORTANCE OF ARCTIC,ANTARTIC
st
a) help us understanding about the distribution of a)On 21 December from arctic to N-pole would not
insolation (incoming solar radiation) on earth surface see day for 24 hours
b) the two tropics represent the farthest limit of the b) On 20 march  north pole will get the light
apparent movement of the sun in the sky c) On 21june  Antarctic to S-pole will not see sun
c) the two tropics represents the farthest limits of the for 24 hours
vertical rays of the sun d) On 23 September  south pole gets sun light
d) the term tropic comes from the Latin word “Tropics” e) Each meridian makes half of great circle.
which means a turn and it refers to the parallel from  Note:- primary variation of insolation on the earth
where the sun appears to take a turn surface is in terms of latitudes {insolation decreases
 As earth revolves around sun, their relation changes from equator to poles}, similarly climate (& vegetation)
b/w them in one year time and this results in seasons would vary primarily in terms of latitudes
nd rd
of earth as orientation of earth towards sun is changing ………….2 class ended,3 started………..
 THOUGHTS:- 3RD CLASS
1) It always seems impossible until it is done
2) Modern technology owes ecology an apology
3) Forests precede people, deserts succeed them
4) Giving birth to a baby is easier than worrying about it
5) Don’t wait time will never be just right
6) Short cuts often make long delays
7) Earth is one but world is not
 LATITUDINAL REGIONS/ZONES/BELT
 IMPORTANCE OF EQUATOR, TROPICS

 Tropic term comes from Latin word “tropicus” means
turn
a) Summer solstice= 21june sun reaches farthest position
i.e 23 (tropic of cancer) in northern hemisphere and
for southern hemisphere it would be winter solstice, it
means after 21 june from this parallel sun would
appear to take turn from here (so we called tropic)
b) As sun moves towards south, certainly there will come
a time when sun comes overhead the equator
(23september = equal day & night = Autumn Equinox)
c) 21 December sun would be overhead on tropic of
Capricorn, winter solstice in northern and summer
solstice in southern hemisphere, after 21 December
sun again takes turn And on 20 march, sun reaches 1) EQUATORIAL REGION
o O O
overhead of equator (equinox)  0  10 N+10 S (Varies but in general)
d) 2 = solstices, 2= equinox 2) TROPICAL REGION (LOWER LATITUDE)
 Area b/w 23 North and 23 south (in general)
 Equatorial Region is subset of this region
3) SUB-TROPICAL REGION
O O O O
 Area b/w 23 N-40 Nand 23 S-40 S {in general}
4) TEMPERATE REGION (MIDDLE LATITUDES}
O O O O
 Area b/w 23 N-66.5 Nand 23 S-66.5 S {in general}
 Sub-tropical region is subset of this region
5) POLAR REGION
 Areas around poles
6) SUB-POLAR REGION
 Higher altitudes just outside arctic & Antarctic circles
e) Important  b/w 23 North and 23 south 
vertical rays of sun possible  rays are inclined 
 CONCEPT OF GREAT CIRCLE
 A Great Circle is a plane that passes through the center
more heat or intensely heated  more warm air, 
of the earth. (e.g. Equator and all Meridians). The
more moisture in air variation in climate more, more
shortest distance between any two points on the
rainfall  more diverse vegetation
earth's surface is attained along the arc of a Great
Circle. Small Circles are lines that do not pass through  WEATHER:-
the center of the earth  For a small place = for short time = day to day state of
 Simply if we run a knife from the center of sphere and atmosphere
divides it into two equal half, the circle you get is the  Term weather refers to the short-run atmospheric
larger circle for the sphere representing its conditions involving heat , moisture & their motions for
circumference and called “Great circle” (example a given time and a specific area
equator (only parallel) makes great circle for earth)  CLIMATE:-
a) Any plane that is passed through the center of a  Climate term refers to the Aggregation of weather or
sphere, bisects the sphere & creates a great circle atmospheric conditions involving heat , moisture &
where it intersects the surface of this sphere their motions of larger area over long period (more
b) For a given sphere we can have infinite great circles. It than 30 years) time which allow for designation of
can be infinite in number because we can cut by ‘n’ seasonal patterns and expected future weather.
number of times from anywhere  QUOTE FOR CLIMATE:-
c) A great circle is the largest circle that can be drawn to a) Mark twain:- “climate is what you expect, weather
sphere & it represents the circumference of that’s is what you get”
sphere b) It is the climate that attracts people, and weather
d) Of all the parallels , equator alone makes a great circles that makes them leave”
, all other parallels are small circles
e) Each meridian makes a semi-great circles.
 GREEKS -3-CLIMATIC ZONES
1. TORRID ZONE
 Near equator , Tropical region
 Lower latitudes
 Very hot conditions (torrid)
2. FRIGID ZONE
 Very cold conditions
 Polar regions {high pressure of atm}
 Higher regions
3. TEMPERATE ZONE
 Areas with “moderate conditions”
 Mathematical property of great circle  Middle latitudes of world { low pressure of atm}}
 Arcs of great circle provide shortest routes for any two
 Maximum variability of weather in world
points on earth’s surface
 CIRCLE OF ILLUMINATION
 The imaginary line that separates day from night on
earth is called the circle of illumination. It is basically
the region that is experiencing sunshine. The circle of
illumination cuts all latitudes into half on the spring
and autumnal equinoxes.
 sun-illuminates one-half of earth at any given moment,
the edge of sun-lit hemisphere, called circle of
illumination, is a great circle that divides the earth into
light half & dark half.
 Every movement of sun’s rotation, the earth
experiences
a) Light half (day)
b) Dark half (night)
 Arc of the great circle joining any two points on the
earth’s surface is always a shortest route between the  Greeks always believed nature always dominate
points {environmental determinism} and even they wrote that
 THE WEATHER & CLIMATE people live in torrid zone are lethargic due to adverse
 Both representing “State of atmosphere” means heat + effect of sunlight and they are destined to be slave and
moisture (two major elements) and their motions people of frigid never able to organize politically and
 Moisture travels in air & leads to rainfall {most of the we Greeks are the best and rulers of world
moisture comes from oceans}  Because grasslands, woods and many more are the
 Heals also travels in air when moisture is travelling advantages the temperate area has  so European of
 DURING SUMMER these areas, coupled their natural advantages with
 Sun → water (Liquid) → (latent heat absorbed) → scientific (technology) and this led to industrial
vapor (gas) (contains heat) → (latent heat revolution and made them traders of the world
released) → water droplets  MIDDLE LATITUDE/TEMPERATE ZONE
 LATENT HEAT  Even some pockets of temperate zone are
 heat either released or absorbed while transition of experiencing 4 seasons of year within one day due to
one state to another (like liquid to gas, gas to liquid) unpredictable & variable weather

 Present scientist say that The use of term “temperate”  Earth having received energy from sun , earth also
is a misnomer (misleading) for the middle latitudes as becomes good radiator (out-radiation:- as energy is
these areas have the maximum variability of weather being radiated out from earth)
conditions of the world. {so use more moderate}  So at same time ,both insolation and out-radiation
happen at same time
 The mechanisms present in atmosphere and world
oceans (like current of ocean) help in moderating the
GHI
 80% of heat transfer  by Mechanism of atmospheric
circulations
 20% of heat transfer  by circulating In oceans
 Why much of variability in weather?

1) Wind = horizontal movement of air from higher to
lower pressure
a) Polar areas= High Pressure of atmosphere
b) Middle latitudes = LP
c) Subtropical areas= HP
d) Equatorial =LP
2) Cold air (dry) + warmer air (moist) come to middle
latitude & become zones of convergence of polar and
tropical regions
3) Norway’s scientists found that at time of WW-I, when
these two contrasting air masses meet in the middle
latitudes since they are contrasting in nature they
don’t mix into each other and b/w these two airmasses
, there is a zone of transition formed & they called zone
of transition “FRONT” that is boundary where two air O O
1) B/w approximately 35 N-35 S there is a surplus of
masses meet energy because insolation exceeds out-radiation
4) These fronts become reasons for weather (variable) O O
2) Polewards from 35 N & 35 S, there is a deficit of
conditions in temperate zone (middle latitudes) energy because OR>>I {out-radiation exceeds
because fronts create cyclones that are frequent insolation}
temperate cyclones lead to variability in weather 3) Theoretically such an imbalance in energy distribution
conditions {not destructive} could result in the lower latitudes becoming warmer &
 Front is a zone of transition (generally formed in
the higher latitudes becoming ever colder. In reality,
middle latitudes) b/w two contrasting air masses – the however, energy is transferred from areas of surplus to
cold, dry polar air mass and warm, moist tropical air areas of deficit
mass 4) Mother nature has provided mechanisms both in
5) These fronts under favourable conditions result in atmosphere and world oceans which attempt
temperate cyclones & these cyclones are a major moderating the GHI
reason for high variability of weather conditions 5) As per one broad estimation about 80% of heat
 Temperate cyclones when come to India called transfer is through atmospheric circulations and about
western disturbance, it brings cold air to India , 20% is through oceanic circulations
sometimes it lead to rain, snowfall in India when polar
cold air mass reaches.  TOPIC:“CONCEPT OF TIME”
rd th
…………..3 class ended,4 started………  Are of two types local & standard
TH
 THOUGHTS 4 CLASS A. LOCAL TIME:-
1) The wisdom of wise is an uncommon degree of common  Local time :- at a place when time is fixed with
sense reference to the path of sun in sky
2) You were always a better person inside , all you had to do  It is 12 noon local time when the angle of inclination of
was to peel away the layers the sun is maximum. (shortest shadow moment as sun
3) Child labour is both a cause and consequence of poverty
is highest in the sky)
4) Thoughts become words, words become actions, actions
 All places on a given longitude have = same local time
become habits, habits become characters, characters O
 Earth spin’s once in 24hrs = 360 of longitude
become your destiny O
 For 1 longitudinal difference, this implies a time
 GLOBAL HEAT IMBALANCE:GHI difference = 4 min
 Insolation :- incoming solar radiation, energy of sun  As Earth rotates west to east :- time difference is to be
reaches to earth added in case of places to east of point & is to be
subtracted for places of west
O O O O O
1) Find out the local time at Tokyo (140 E) when 12noon  GM=0 , 15 , 30 , 45 ,_ _ _ _
O
Monday at Greenwich (0 )?
O
 140 ×4 = 560min = 9hr20min
 Tokyo = 12noon+9hrs20min
 Time = 09:20PM (Monday) = local Tokyo time
O
2) A cricket match commences at delhi (77 E) at 10AM
on Sunday, what will be the local times at Sydney
O O
(150 E) & New York (74 W) ? when the radio
commentary is received ?
O O O
 150 - 77 = 73 ×4= 292min
 Sydney = 10AM + 4hrs2min
 Local Sydney time = 02:52PM Sunday
O O O
 American = 74 + 77 = 151 ×4=604min
 Local time America= 11:56PM Saturday
B. STANDARD TIME:-
th
 Before middle of 19 century = 100rds of the different
local time systems were in use throughout the world
based on rising of the sun
 Sir sanford fleming:- led the fight in Canada for a
standard time and for an international agreement upon
O
a prime meridian  First time zone= 7.5 ,
O
 His struggle led the US & Canada to adopt a  Second time zone= 15 ,
O
standard time in 1883  Third rime zone= 30 ,
O
 1884= the international meridian conference (IMC)  Fourth time zone= 45 & so on
= Washington DC was held  24 time zones =
O st nd
 When we use a “common time” throughout a country a) 15 difference b/w 1 and 2 time zone
O
region , it is referred to as standard time” b) 15 ×4 = 60 min = 1 hours
 Meridian on which the standard time is based called c) So time difference b/w two time zones = 1 hour
O
“standard time (15 )
O
 Example:- 82.5 East = Indian standard time IST, why 1) World was divided into 24 standard time zones each
O O
82. 5 East is with reference to Greenwich, as value is extending over the 15 longitude
O
so chosen that it is divisible by 7.5 so that standard 2) The local solar time of the Greenwich meridian was
time differs from Greenwich mean time (GMT) by chosen as standard for entire system
multiples of half an hour) 3) The prime meridian became entre of time zone that
 In selection of standard meridian, generally (not O
extends 7.5 of longitude both to the west & east of
always) following norms are followed:- Greenwich meridian
a) Central location O O O
4) Similarly, the meridians at a multiple of 15 , {15 , 30 ,
b) Proximity to an important place (like cultural) O O
45 , _ _ _ _ 180 } both east & west of Greenwich
O
c) The value is so chosen that it is divisible by 7.5 so that
meridians were set as standard meridians for the 23
standard time differs from Greenwich mean time (GMT) O
other time zones (each of 15 longitude)
by multiples of half an hour
5) 12 zones to east of Greenwich meridian were designated to
 Large countries with vast longitudinal extent generally opt for
O be ahead of the time at Greenwich by 1 hour/zone
more than one time zone, each approximately 15 of
6) Similarly 12 zones to west of the Greenwich are behind in
longitude
O time
 Exception:- although China extends across about 60
7) On the continents, over land areas , actual E&W boundaries
longitude, the entire nation, at least officially observes the
O of time zones vary to coincide with approximate political &
time of 120 east meridian which is close to its capital. {no
economic constraints, but in international waters these time
more than one time one} O
zones are shown exactly 7.5 E & to west of the standard
 IMC 1884 (THE OUTCOMES) meridians
th th
 IMC :- INTERNATIONAL MERIDIAN CONFERENCE ………..4 class ended,5 started……..
 Time zone:- the longitudinal zone in which a common THOUGHT :- 5TH CLASS
time is used called time zone 1) You may delay, but time will not
O
 Divided world:- 24 time zones , each of 15 of 2) The first rule of intelligent tinkering is to save all the pieces
longitude 3) In order to become the master, the politician poses as the
 How they divided:- base-local time at Greenwich for first servant
time zone, than took multiples of 15 & said & declared 4) God sleeps in the minerals , awakens in plants, walks in
standard zones for each meridian animals, and thinks man

 INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE (I.D.L) 
After 48 hours (not 24 hours)
24 time zones = 360
O
O
 1-time zone = 15 = 1 hour difference
 Fist 24 hrs day cover whole earth + next 24 hrs day
vanishes from earth = 48 hours
 At any given point of time Two days come= new day +
old day
 Exist process (from) at one time zone starts after 24
hours
 TWO MAJOR DEVIATIONS IN IDL
 West to east by crossing IDL= gain of day in date

 East to west by crossing IDL = loss of day in date
th
 If decrease of date on calendar, means 26 Dec becomes
th
25 Dec:- it is a gain of day when you travel from east to
th
west of IDL because you already spent 26 in east now after
th
crossing you can again spend 26
th th
 If increase of date on calendar 25 Dec becomes 26 dec =it
is loss of day for whom travelling west to east of IDL as they
didn’t spend it
1. FROM BERING SEA

 Bering sea is b/w Russia and USA, geopolitically very
important area
 Why deviation:- as Aleutian islands belong to Alaska which
are on both sides of IDL
 Objection by USA for the date difference of the Islands:-
they carried all islands to one side of IDL & deviated the IDL.
So that same day & time can be seen (no trouble about time
and date they wanted)
2. FROM SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN DEVIATION
 NOTE  Why:- Some islands were first falling on both sides of IDL in
beginning (islands like of Fiji, Tonga) and so for no confusion
1) Time on watch/clock remains same of time & date these islands were kept in one side of IDL so
 when you cross IDL only the date changes because deviation happens in IDL
0OM was set for time fixed so there is no effect on
time
2) What if you stand at IDL
 Theoretically, you can enjoy 2 days at same moment
even two times
 E.g= 6AM Tuesday 26Dec + 6 AM Monday 25 dec = both
you can enjoy at standing IDL
3) Planet turning eastwards from west
 Planet W to E  Day & time  travel westwards
 Earth moves west to east so sun rises from  Japan  India
 UK  USA
 Therefore
a) Time + Day = moving westward as earth moving west to
eastward
b) Day travel 1-hour per zone as we have 24 time zones
c) Day travel westwards
d) New day starts from 12 midnight
O
e) Earliest day begins at easternmost meridian = 180 E =
O
new day begins at 180 E IDL
 New day which begins at 12 midnight at IDL
after how many hours it will have its final
exist from the earth surface ?
 BASIS OF DST
 Length of day (short/long) :- affects DST
 Change in length of day tells seasonality
 Seasonality gets manifested through changing
length of the day
 Seasonal variation in the length of the day
increases from equator to the poles. Higher
 CONCEPT OF IDL NOW WRITTEN:- latitudes, longer is the length of summer day
1. It is an imaginary line agreed internationally which
O
follows the meridian of 180 with some deviations to
accommodate certain land areas
2. A traveller crossing the date line from West to east ,
gains a day in date and from E  w loses day in date
3. One advantage of establishing Greenwich meridian as
prime meridian is that it opposites are is in pacific
O
ocean. 180 Meridian, transiting the sparsely
populated mid pacific was chosen as the meridian at
which new days would begin and old days would exist  BENJAMIN FRANKLIN:-
from surface of earth  Gave the idea of DST to use this longer day light.
O
4. IDL deviates from 180 meridians in Bering sea to  He suggested in his essay that he wrote in summer
include all the Aleutian islands of Alaska within same we have longer days and we should use it
day and deviates again in south pacific to keep islands effectively but he was himself not serious about
of the of same group like Fiji, Tonga within same day this idea (1784). So that time idea lost for some
5. Since the IDL lies in middle of time zone as it crossed & time
when it is crossed there is no change on watch because  However during WW-I, European again remind DST
of fixed meridian idea & wanted to change time. So one by one country
O
6. Theoretically along 180 meridians , it is both 6AM did it (Summer)
Monday & 6 AM Tuesday with the earth turning  HOW FORWARDING WATCH LEADS TO ENERGY
eastward , time /day moves westwards CONSERVATION
7. New day first appears on the earth at 12-midnight at
O
IDL (180 ). For the next 24 hours , the new day
advances westward around the world finally covering
the entire surface at the end of this period (24 hours).
For next 24 hours , this day leaves/exists the earth ,
one hour at a time, making its final exist 48 hours after
its first appearance.
 DAYLIGHT SAVING TIME (DST)
 In these middle& higher, -latitudes countries, In
spring just before summer they forward their
watches +1hour standard time. However, in
autumn, just before winter bring their time back
to original time
 Autumn season is called “fall” in these countries.
So DST is like spring forward; fall back  Diffused illumination in sky means
 Basically DST used to save energy consumption a) Scattering (S)
b) Refraction of sun light (R )  Atmosphere is a mixture of gases held to the earth by force
of gravity & as a result most of what comprises the
atmosphere is confined towards earth surface
 Atmosphere can be traced to a height of 9000-10000km from
earth’s surface but gravity pulls it so well , 50% of it is within
50-60km as 97% within the 30km & 99% within 40km from
the earth’s surface is found
 Though atmosphere can be traced to height as much as 9000-
10000km but about 50% of atmospheric mass is within first
A. S+R= D+T small 5-6km from the earth’s surface
B. S+R more leads to D +T more  After certain height (40km beyond) , Atmosphere is like a
C. S+R much more leads to D+T much more vacuum
 Lower is the angle of sun’s rays = large thicken  For all practical purposes , atmosphere height is taken
atmosphere to cross = longer dawn & twilight between 400-500km from earth’s surface
 Equator to pole :- progression in duration of dawn &
twilight because of angle of sun rays
 Therefore the duration of dawn & twilight increases
progressively from equator to poles
 CONCEPT OF DST NOTES:-
1) DST takes advantage of summer extra “day light hours”
2) Clocks are put forward usually by one hour in the
spring season {just before summer begins}
3) “Forwarded clocks” are used throughout the summer
season, thus gaining an hour’s sunlight during
conventional waking hours. Clocks are brought back to
original time in autumn season {just before winter
begins}
4) The practice was first suggested ,half seriously in 1784
in an essay, by American statesman & scientist  Atmosphere is not heated much by direct sunlight, as
Benjamin Franklin sunlight heats the earth and earth in turn radiates
5) It was not until First World War, that several countries energy (out-radiation), therefore earth’s atmosphere
including Australia, Britain, Germany and The USA gets primarily heated by earth’s out-radiation and as a
adopted DST. As a means of conserving energy result with increase in height in atmosphere we can
resources, besides energy conservation, the other expect a decrease in temperature
benefits are  Since atmosphere is bad conductor of heat & electricity
a) Increased leisure time , but some conduction still happening , so process here
b) Safer journeys {as people travel less in dark) is called Convection & it is primary process of the heat
6) But in tropical belt, the lengths of the day and night transfer in atmosphere
change little seasonally and there is not much twilight.
Consequently, DST would offer little or no servings for
tropical regions.
th th
….5 class ended, 6 started……
 THOUGHTS- 6TH CLASS
1) Nurture your mind with great thoughts for you will never go
higher than you think
2) When we heal the earth e heal ourselves
3) Adapt or perish, now as ever, is nature’s inexorable  Air is a poor conductor of heat and therefore
imperative
conduction as a process of heat transfer is not much
4) We must travel in direction of our fear
significant in atmospheric science .
 CIRCADIAN RHYTHM  However, Air does conduct especially in the lower part
 Metabolic rhythm found in most organisms which of the atmosphere where air is in the physical contact
generally coincides with the 24 hours days . it’s most with ground or earth’s surface
evident manifestation is regular cycle of sleeping &  CONVECTION
waking
 JET LAG
 Effect of sudden switch of time zones in air travel,
resulting in tiredness & getting out of step with day &
night.
 THE:- ATMOSPHERE:-
 Gravity pulls atmosphere towards earth. Therefore
most of the gases are confined near earth’s surface

 heat is getting transferred from lower to upper layers,  Beyond 80km in atmosphere is generally called
by actual movement of particles of matter and the “Heterosphere”
transfer of heat in vertical form is called Convection C. FUNCTIONAL ZONATION
and in horizontal form is called Advection  Ozonosphere :- coincides with stratosphere
 Convection:- it is a process of heat transfer from place  Ionosphere:- coincides with thermosphere
too place within a fluid caused by the movement of the  Charged particles
fluid itself. It plays a significant role in atmospheric  Makes possible radio communication of earth’s
science surface (so called functional)
 Note:- real atmosphere is troposphere for a geography
student. And there are mainly Tropopause,
Stratopause, Mesopause are present
 THE TROPOSPHERE
 Tropopause is an
inclined zone not
 In particular the term convection is used for vertical horizontal zone (not a
transfers of the heat & term advection refers to line , it is a zone)
horizontal transfer of heat  Quote you can use
 Winds and ocean currents are two major agents for here:- Earth is one,
advection in nature nature is one, but
world is not one
 VERTICALLY-ATMOSPHERIC ZONE
A. THERMAL ZONATION:-
 Troposphere :-As we go up in height , first part of the
atmosphere the temperature decreases with height &
 CONCEPTS ABOUT TROPOSPHERE
this part or zone is called “troposphere” {13-14 km  Atmosphere pressure difference makes air to move
mostly generally Seen decrease In T}
from higher pressure to lower pressure (less air
 ↑↑↑ height= ↓↓↓temperature
movement) {wind is nothing but to balance the
 Stratosphere :- Beyond this average height 13-14 km
atmosphere pressure}
the increasing temperature is generally found this zone
is called “stratosphere”
 Why there is atmospheric pressure difference:-
 Because of the differential heating of earth surface
 Average 14-50km
(not uniformly heating)
 Ozone layer factor, ↑↑height = ↑↑temperature
 Mesosphere:-.Beyond this average 50km , again
temperature decreases upto 80km and this is called
mesosphere.
 ↑↑↑ height= ↓↓↓temperature
 50km -80km around
 Thermosphere:- beyond this average 80km to 400-500
therefore generally beyond 80km
 Due to presence of ionosphere, ↑↑height =
↑↑temperature  Earth’s rotation also has a role in atmosphere pressure
 Note:- exosphere is not the part of atmosphere, it is differences along with differential heating of earth’s
outside the atmosphere surface
B. COMPOSITIONAL ZONATION  WIND:- Moving air is called wind in particular
 Homosphere horizontal movement of air
 Where more homogeneity near the earth’s surface  Air is generally in a hurry because of the
(around 80km from earth’s surface) atmosphere pressure differences
 Homogeneity also varies in these kms, but generally it  Wind is nature’s act to balance atmospheric
is seen more near earth pressure
 Heterosphere

 Atm pressure differences on earth’s surface are a) Column of air means a vertical atmosphere over a
primarily (not always) because of the differential particular area having a particular identity of its
heating of earth’s surface own
 Atm. Pressure differences are further complicated b) Sometimes air gets stationary over the surface of
because of earth’s rotation earth & develops relationship b/w two & both
 Atm pressure distribution on the earth’s start influencing each other
surface is the combined effect of c) Both air,water attempt to get their levels
a) The differential heating of earth’s surface
b) Earth’s rotation
 Differential heating of earth’s surface
 Because of latitudinal difference means location +
insolation is not same
 Albedo:- means the reflectivity of a surface 
 Amount of insolation reflected from atmosphere and d) Warmer air rise and expand during expansion it
surface back to space uses heat and getting cooled but don’t get cooled
 It is the %age of incident energy that gets reflected by by the transfer of heat, therefore this cooling is
earth’s surface called as Adiabatic cooling
 Word albedo comes latin word “Albus” means white
e) Expansion of air is because it comes under
 Bright colors reflect more,
 snow , ice have high albedo ranging b/w 70-90% they
increasing lower pressure with rise
reflect and so in mountains sun glasses are must to f) Expansion of air  cooling  clouds 
wear. precipitation  vegetation
 It is also reason of snow & ice melting,  Warmer air is lighter therefore it rises and as it
 climate change  increase in melting of snow , ice and it rises it gets adiabatically cooled (not by transferring of
is contributing to increase in global warming heat) because of expansion
1) Ultimately insolation is ultimate driving force of moving air or
wind
2) Ultimate driving force of wind is the solar radiation
3) Winds represent nature’s attempt to balance out the uneven
distribution of air pressure over the earth
4) Wind has two directions
a) Direction of its origin
b) Direction of its destination
 As per a convection wind is named as per its direction of
origin
 Example:- westerly winds means wind is coming from  Cold air  denser sinks  compressed  increase
(origin) west and moving towards east in temperature  cold air descends regularly & gets
5) Current:- vertical movement of air compressed due to increasing more pressure
 Cold air is denser therefore it sinks , as it sinks it gets
adiabatically warmed because of compression (not by
absorbing a transferred heat), it than gives us a clear
sky.
th th
….6 class ended, 7 started……
 THOUGHTS- 7TH CLASS
1) Don’t watch the clock , do what it does , keep going
 ADIABATIC CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE 2) The best way to predict the future is to invent it
 Adiabatic change in temperature Of a body which is without 3) All sins are attempts to fill voids
heat transfer 4) We shape our tools and our tools shape us (for essay)
 It plays a significant role in atmospheric science
 Column of air  TOPIC:- LAPSE RATE
 ↑H= T↓ generally (not always)
 Lapse means decline
 ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE (ELR):-
 Actual rate of decline of temperature with increase of
height in atmosphere at a particular place & time
under given weather conditions
 ELR Has spatial and temporal variations
 ELR = used for weather forecasting and civil aviation
industry
 NORMAL LAPSE RATE (NLR):-
 It refers to The average concept of ELR and it is
O
generally estimated to be a decline of 6.4 C per km
rise in the atmosphere
O
 Average value = 6.4 C/km and doesn’t allow the penetration of weather
 THE TEMPERATURE INVERSION elements (clouds) into stratosphere
5) This is so because there occurs a case of temperature
 Note:- It is also discussed further second time in
inversion across the Tropopause (i.e. colder conditions
detail in 17th lecture lie beneath warmer conditions)
1) It refers to An atmospheric condition in which
with increase height , there is an increase in
temperature (instead of ELR) (relates to
troposphere not other zone)
2) Temperature inversion is a phenomenon relates
primarily to troposphere
3) Lower latitudes have strongest convectional

currents of the world because lower latitudes are
most heated areas of world due to sun)
4) Since the lower latitudes are the most intensely
heated areas, these areas have stronger
convectional currents and have warmer air
5) Warmer air rises ,higher it rises, as it rises it gets
adiabatically cooled
6) As we go towards higher latitude, convection gets 6) Air near earth surface gets warmed and warm air rises
weekend (heat less there) and warm air rises to & gets adiabatically cooled. This cold air cant go
low elevations beyond Tropopause and sinks back
7) This all explains the spatial variations in the
height of tropo-pause (as shown in the diagram)
8) Besides spatial variations , height of Tropopause
also varies temporally, summer is a time for
stronger convection & hence higher elevation of
Tropopause at a given place
9) It is apparently paradox that the lowest
temperature in the Troposphere is vertically
overhead at the equator rather than at the poles 7) As a result , troposphere becomes the zone of the
10) Coldest conditions of the atmosphere are atmosphere in which air keeps Turing itself (word
generally found /seen at Mesopause (temp b/w - tropos in latin means a turn)
85OC to -90OC)
 ISOTHERMAL ZONE
 RELEVANCE TO TROPOPAUSE &  As we go vertically up for few kms , there is neither a
TROPOSPHERE:- significant decline nor incline in temperature , it seems
little constant is a isothermal zone in atmosphere
1) Across Tropopause there occurs a case of 1) A zone in the atmosphere in which with increase in
temperature inversion height there is almost a constancy (almost same) of the
2) Troposphere is the real weather sphere of nature temperature
3) Most of what comprises weather (clouds (weather 2) Lower part of stratosphere , just above the Tropopause
elements)) remains confined within troposphere generally shows , represents isothermal conditions
4) So Tropopause acts as a lid of troposphere and 3) In this zone , with increase in height, temperature
doesn’t let clouds go out Tropopause generally doesn’t decrease much because there is not much
convection here.

4) In this zone , with increase in height, temperature

doesn’t increase much because there is not much
ozone here
5) In this zone we have ideal flying conditions for
aircrafts , because of following three major
reasons
a) In general absence of clouds
b) In general absence of strong convection
c) In general , presence of isothermal conditions
 Even in this zone pilots can sleep by putting
airplane in autopilot mode
 TROPOSPHERIC AIR CIRCULATIONS
 In lower part of the troposphere, the air moves
high to low pressure horizontally. low pressure
area is that area where air rises and gets
adiabatically cooled and reaches to Tropopause
and then starts diverging in upper troposphere
and then finally cold dense air sinks and making
that area , where it sinks, high pressure area. This
all process is three dimensional circulation of air
 CELL:- term cell refers to 3-Dimensional  Trade winds:- tropical areas , the lower latitudes near
circulation of air within the troposphere earth surface , the wind is called trade wind
 Westerlies:- the winds of middle latitudes, is
 Polar easteries:- the winds n polar areas
 PLANETARY WINDS The trade winds (trades) ,
westerlies, polar easterlies collectively referred as
planetary winds as they are almost global in their
extent
 As they blow almost throughout the year so these
are also called prevailing winds,
 these three systems (trade winds (trades) ,
westerlies, polar easterlies) constitute the
primary circulations of atmosphere
 Over and above these primary circulations , there
take place many spatial & temporal variations ,
called secondary circulations (cyclones,
monsoons)
 So other like monsoon, cyclones are secondary
circulations as these only come or blow after the
primary circulations
 MONSOON of India is nothing but a drastic
transformation of trade winds
 So areas where air sinks vertically down gets  Cyclones:- a byproduct of trade winds
warmed and making clear sky (no cloud
th th
formation) and dry areas. ….7 class ended, 8 started……

TH
 THOUGHTS- 8 CLASS  For a zone of convergence near earth surface (means
lower troposphere) , there is a zone of divergence in
1) Don’t raise your voice , improve your argument
upper troposphere (as air from Low pressure is made
2) Learn to be alone , it will make you strong
to rise up by mother nature to keep Low Pressure
3) Don’t give up, beginning is always the hardest
remain low pressure area)
4) Not doing more than average is what keeps the
average down
 THE ZONES OF CONVERGENCE &
DIVERGENCE OF AIR:-
 Sea level pressure = 1013mb
 Low pressure = <1013mb
 High pressure = >1013mb
1. Zone of convergence of air is a zone where there is a
net-inflow of air. Low pressure conditions result in
zones of convergence
2. Zone of divergence of air :- where there is net-outflow
of air. High pressure conditions result in zones of
divergence
 For every zone of divergence in lower troposphere

near earth’s surface, there is a zone of convergence in
upper troposphere
 Note:- no one yet knows either convergence/
divergence is cause or effect of one another. So they
are co-related not cause/effect (answer writing
remember)
 THE EARTH’S SPIN
a) Equatorial perspective:- earth rotates west to east
b) North pole perspective:- earth rotates anti-
clockwise
c) South pole perspective:- earth rotates clockwise
 THE EARTH’S SPEED:-
1. EARTH’S ANGULAR SPEED
O O
 360 ÷ 24hr = 15 /hr
 Earth spins once in 24 hours therefore, earth’s uniform
O
angular speed is 15 /hr {everywhere on earth, every
place has earth’s uniform angular speed }
2. EARTH’S ROTATIONAL SPEED
 Speed= {distance travelled in total ÷ total time taken}
 Cyclone :- wind system with low pressure at center  bad
 This speed varies from place to place
weather 
 Anti-cyclone:- wind system with high pressure at center   Earth’s rotational speed is Maximum at equator and
fair weather generally (may persist more than 2 weeks) minimum at poles as earth has to travel longer distance
at equator with 24 hours, so it rotates fast
 So, maximum speed as compare to poles where

rotational speed could be zero as no distance to travel.

a) Steep pressure gradient

 E.g:- tropical cyclones
 D1 to D5 :- distance to be travelled by earth along  PGF = strong /higher = faster movement of wind
different parallels for completion of one in 24 hours  Closely spaced isobars
 S1 to S5 :- are earth’s rotational speeds along different
parallels
b) Gentle pressure gradient
 Ordinary weather condition
A. Since earth is spherical in shape  earth gets
 PGF= Weak/small = slow movement of wind
smaller as we move from equator to poles  Widely spaced isobars
therefore  PGF is a such force which attempts taking air from high
1) Distance to be travelled by earth to complete a pressure to low pressure right across isobars at 90
O
spin in 24 hours decreases from equator to poles , direction

symbolically we can write D1>D2>D3>D4>D5
2) Earth’s rotational speed is maximum at equator &
decreases towards the poles , symbolically we can
write S1>S2>S3>S4>S5
 PGF acts at right angle to the isobars in the direction of

low pressure (Nature of Force)
B. Since earth is spherical in shape  earth gets

increasingly smaller as we move from equator to
poles therefore
1) Distances to be travelled by earth for completion
of a spin decrease progressively {i.e. at an
increasing rate) from equator to poles ,
symbolically we can write (D1-D2 ) < (D2-D3) <
(D3-D4) < (D4-D5)
2) Earth’s rotational speed is maximum at equator &
decreases progressively {i.e. at an increasing rate)
from equator towards the poles , symbolically we
can write (S1-S2) < (S2-S3) < (S3-S4) < (S4-S5)
 Note the earth’s rotational speed is decreasing at non
uniform rate towards poles, rate is less and lower in
lower latitudes and higher in higher latitudes
 FORCES ACTING ON THE MOVING AIR
NEAR THE EARTH SURFACE (Mainly 3)
1. PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE (PGF)
 It is basic activating force for the wind i.e. it initiates
th th
movement of air .….8 class ended, 9 started……
 Amount/ strength of this force depends upon the rate 1) The nearer the dawn , the darker the night
of change of pressure 2) What if you failed yesterday? Today is not yesterday
 If the rate of change of pressure is higher than PGF is 3) Anxiety is the interest paid on a trouble before it is
stronger & wind blows faster due
 Rate of change of pressure i.e the pressure gradient 4) It is better to wear out than to rust out
depends/relates to weather conditions (high/low)
2. CORIOLIS FORCE /EFFECT
 Very important where we have moving objects
involved
a. Coriolis effect
 earth’s rotation is causing an apparent deflection
 Because of the earth’s rotation, all freely moving
objects on the earth appear to be deflected from
their true paths.
 (free to move from one place to other example
water in world ocean , missile , airplane , air in
atmosphere)
 Earth’s rotational speed is maximum at equator &
 Needed for general (multiple applications)
decreases progressively {i.e. at an increasing rate) from
 To understand/account this apparent deflection
equator towards the poles , symbolically we can write
scientist “invented” a force called coriolis force
(S1-S2) < (S2-S3) < (S3-S4) < (S4-S5)
(named after a French mathematician Gaspar
coriolis )(pseudo force , not real force and is not in
nature )
b. Ferrel’s Law of Deflection
 Only tells the nature of the deflection
 States the effect of coriolis force on a freely
moving body-there is an apparent deflection of a
moving body to its right in the N-hemisphere and
to its left in S-hemisphere { This is because As
earth rotates in particular way i.e west to east}
c. Magnitude of coriolis force (variation, how)

 Coriolis effect is negligible or very less near the equator
and increases progressively towards poles
 Reason:-
 This is in relation of the way earth rotational speed  To some extent, a body travels along or close a
decreases from equator to poles. parallel, coriolis force is negligible
 The rate of decrease of earth’s rotational speed in 3. FRICTIONAL FORCE
lower latitudes is low and as a result in these  Frictional drag of the earth’s surface acts both to slow
latitudes Coriolis Effect is less. down wind movement & to modify its direction of flow
 As we go towards higher attitudes, the earth  Friction’s effect on air speed near earth surface :-
rotational speed decreases at an increasing rate or friction would reduces speed of air and also modifies
higher rate and as a result coriolis effect increases the direction of the moving air
towards the poles  Reduction of speed of wind affects the coriolis force as
d. Coriolis force relation with objects it reduces then coriolis force also gets reduced
 Coriolis effect also depends on speed of the Note:- Air beyond earth surface blow under the effects of PGF and
moving objects ( air, water, airplane, etc) Coriolis force not the frictional forces
 Faster moving objects experience more coriolis  TERM “MODEL”:-
effect  Term model in scientific investigation refers to a simplified
 More the body crosses parallels more would be version of a complex reality
the coriolis objects  Simplified reality instead of studying complex reality by
 Speed of body matters not mass here making certain assumptions and comeback to complex reality
then from simplified (model) reality
 Some facts we studied before needed for  Hadley. It suggests that Air at the Equator is
upcoming topics heated up causing it to creating a belt of
 Global winds only understood when we understand  The warm air moves towards the poles where it...,
global pressure distribution which is decided by creating a belt of... Surface winds always blow...
differential heating of the earth’s surface  This completes the Hadley Cell.
 Earth rotation complicates pressure distribution as  In this way, surplus energy from the Equator is
rotation causes coriolis effect which affects air transferred polewards
movement and decides somehow where air rises and 2. WILLIAM FERREL:- THREE CELL MODEL
where air sinks and that would be effect on pressure TROPOSPHERIC AIR CIRCULATION (1856)
distribution  Ferrels model is based on the following three
 Earth atmospheric pressure distribution is primarily concentrations
because of differential heating of earth’s surface and 1) Assumption of uniform Earth surface (either ocean
further complicated because of earth’s rotation or land)
Pressure distribution so is combined effect of heat and 2) A rotating Earth (coriolis effect is being
earth’s rotation considered) (fact of nature)
3) Sun being overhead at equator (equinox position)
(assumption)
th th
.….9 class ended, 10 started……
1) If you give up on your dream, what is left?
2) You have to think anyway, so why not think big
3) What comes easy, won’t last, what lasts won’t come easy
4) To exist is to change , to change is to mature, to mature is to
go on creating our self endlessly
5) Begin with the end in mind
 AIR CIRCULATION TROPOSPHERE

1. THE {SINGLE} ONE CELL MODEL OF
TROPOSPHERE AIR CIRCULATION
 Given by George Hadley (1735)
 Rejected in science
 But , George Hadley says that on a non-rotating earth
,because of the heat over the lower latitudes , this area of
world will have low pressure and polar cold areas will have
more pressure
 His model is based on non-rotating earth and convection
currents which are upwards movements of warm air
 According to Hadley in each hemisphere there is a large  PHPB:- Polar high pressure belt
convection cell powered by the heating of equatorial regions  ELPB= Equatorial low pressure belt
 By means of these convection cells, surplus energy is  STHPB= sub tropical high pressure belt
transferred pole wards  TLPB= Su-polar low pressure belt(temperate low pressure
◦ ◦
 Since he neglected earth’s rotation , his model got over- belt)= 60 N ,60 S
simplified and as a result failed to describe and explain the  ELPB+ PHPB= Thermally induced pressure belts (more related
complexities of Tropospheric air circulations to heat)
 One cell in each hemisphere making a complete
circulation of air
 L= low pressure , H= high pressure

 The pressure distribution shown in this diagram is the 1. TRADE WINDS:-
combined effect of heat and earth rotation  as these winds in tropical areas generally blow with good
 Equatorial low pressure belt and polar high pressure speed and are more consistent than other areas wind system
belts are more to do or related with the heat and and relatively in constant direction throughout the year so
referred to as thermally induced pressure belts were used for commerce In past so called trade winds (
 Sub-tropical high pressure belts and temperate low North-eastern trade winds and South-east trade winds).
pressure belts are related with earth’s rotation and  Even the trade winds change and broadly speaking these are
referred to as Dynamically Induced pressure belt easterlies in character or easters
 Air is moving near the earth surface from high pressure  During summer in south Asia the trade winds change
drastically and result in south-west monsoon ( which brings
to low pressure and rises from low pressure then come th
India 3/4 of its annual rainfall )
down as of high pressure called cell  The seasonal variation in insolation increases from equator to
the poles – this is why winds become more variable as we go
towards high latitudes
 Winds in tropical regions generally blow with good speed and
in relatively constant direction, s results these winds become
the winds of commerce and came to referred to as trade
winds
 all tropical cyclones are part and parcel of trades
2. WESTERLIES:
 generally come from west in middle latitudes
 all temperate cyclones are part and parcel of westerlies
3. POLAR EASTERLIES :-
 Polar winds become typically easterlies because of stronger
coriolis force than PGF in higher latitudes
O O
 Polar Easterlies can be encountered at 60 -90 degrees
latitude in both the southern and northern hemispheres.
Tropical Easterlies flow from east to west because of the
Earth's rotation. Example: Fairbanks is far enough north that
polar easterlies are the predominant winds.
 NOTE:- Winds are broadly classified into three categories
as permanent wind, seasonal wind and local wind
 PRIMARY CIRCULATION WINDS:-

 all three winds ( trade winds + westerlies + Polar
easteries)
 All these winds are result of PGF(pressure gradient

force) and CF (coriolis force)

warm air from Hadley cells to the higher latitudes and
transfers cold air back to the lower latitudes for heating
3. Tropospheric air circulations make a closed circulation – with
neither a beginning nor an end, it is an ongoing process
4. In william ferrels models there is air circulation in North-
south orientation as the pressure difference is also in North-
South , referred technically as Meridional circulation
5. Ferrel’s model represents the long term average of the
Meridional (North-south) circulations over the globe.
6. In reality the air circulations are much more complex than
this model suggests
7. Now we break one by one both the assumptions of ferrel’s
model and attempt understanding the complexity of
Tropospheric air circulations
8. Since earth surface is not uniform we don't have pressure
belts in nature , instead of pressure belts we have systems of
low or high pressure cells ( pressure cell refers a large area
with more or less uniform low or high pressure )
9. Sir Gilbert Walker discovered that these pressure cells may
have significant east-west differences and as a result may
have associated east-west air circulation
10. Walker emphasized that the major part of the air circulation
(represented by Hadley Ferrel and polar cells ) is Meridional
in nature ( North- south) but it is complicated by the
presence of East West differences of pressure and their
associated air circulations
 In general east west circulation of air is referred to as Walker
cell
1. Hadley and polar cells both are driven directly by different

effects of surface heating. They are therefore called
thermally direct cells
2. Ferrel cells are thermally indirect cells because they are
powered by the other two (2). This allows them to transfer
THOUGHTS ……10 class ended,11th started….
th
 In reality
1. Either you run the day or day runs you  It is only two days at equinox position that is in march 21 and
2. Opportunity does not waste time with hate who are 22 September
O O
unprepared  Pressure cells shifts average (5 to 10 ) with sun movement ,
O
but may be very extreme shift also upto 20 . temperate belt
3. Be a voice not an echo
experience most weather variations as because of highest
4. Don’t watch the clock , do what it does, keep going variability of weather conditions (maximum impact of shift of
5. God could not be everywhere , and therefore , he pressure cells)
made mothers 1) There is an apparent movement of the sun in the sky b/w the
6. The whole purpose of education is to turn mirrors into two tropics & as a result there is a shifting of pressure
windows belts/pressure cells.
7. Meanwhile, time is flying……flying, never to return a. Sun is overhead at midday in different parts of the earth
8. Love, having no geography, knows no boundaries at different seasons
9. Relationship b/w earth and sun changes, earth gets b. The movement of pressure and wind belts follows the
movement of the sun
seasonality.
c. In june when the overhead sun is at the tropic of cancer,
 REVISION OF CLASS O
all the belts (pressure + winds) move about 5 to 10 N
O
 William ferrel 1856, modelled the atmospheric air of their average position
circulations (gave simplified version) by making two d. In the same manner when the sun is overhead at the
O
assumptions tropic of Capricorn in December, all the belts shift 5 to
O
a) Earth surface is uniform {i.e either water or land} 10 S of their average position
b) Assume Sun is over the equator throughout the year 2) The shift of pressure cells is seen to have lots of spatial and
O O
(equinox position) temporal variations-in general the shift ranges b/w 2 to 20 ,
 After this assumption, He gave us 3 wind systems 3) The shift of pressure cells is more in the northern hemisphere
(trades, westerlies, polar easteries) than in southern hemisphere, the reason being complex mix
 Ferrel gave us the understanding that the air circulation is or of land & water in North-Hemisphere
can be represented by three cells and these are Meridional 4) The shift is the greatest in the lower latitude and least in the
(north-south) in nature polar region
1. BREAKING FIRST ASSUMPTION 5) The impact of shift of pressure cells on weather conditions is
the maximum in the middle latitudes (as these areas are the
 REALITY:- EARTH SURFACE IS NOT UNIFORM
zones of convergence of contrasting airmasses-tropical &
 Each surface has its own reflectivity and absorption (albedo),
polar airmasses)
it means all areas of the earth have been heated differently,
so we have no uniform pressure in any belt of the world.  INTER-TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE {I.T.C.Z}
 So we don’t have pressure belts in nature , we have systems 1) ITCZ is a zone where trade winds converge, also
of pressure cells (means a large area of earth’s surface where referred to as thermal equator or meteorological
there is more or less a uniform pressure) equator
 Pressure cell is a large area of earth’s surface where there is 2) ITCZ is a zone of calmness, hot and rising air, and low
more or less a uniform pressure. Near equator there is low pressure
pressure (not uniform), we have low pressure cells across
3) ITCZ is dividing our earths in terms of thermal
equatorial belt. Similarly we have high pressure cells in
temperate areas and high pressure cells in polar areas
conditions (sun’s heat) as acting like equator
 Walker travelled from Indian to Pacific ocean wile studying 4) But in science we have three equator concepts for
monsoon , he found that in nature we can have significant planet earth
O
east-west pressure differences (pressure cells). He was the 1) Geographical equator 0 parallel
first to recognize the east-west circulations , so are called 2) Thermal equator or meteorological equator (ITCZ)
walker cells  Magnetic equator {like in India it is near to Thumba
2. BREAKING FIRST ASSUMPTION THAT SUN IS Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) }
OVER THE EQUATOR THROUGHOUT YEAR
 Ferrel assumed Sun is over the equator throughout the
year (equinox)

 The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ - pronounced
"itch") appears as a band of clouds consisting of showers,
with occasional thunderstorms, that encircles the globe near
the equator. The solid band of clouds may extend for many
hundreds of miles and is sometimes broken into smaller line
segments
 In ferrels model , sun is at the equator and as a result the LP
lies right over the equator {equatorial low pressure is the
would be zone of convergence for trade winds, and they
converge right at equator in ferrel’s model}
 But in reality, in summer this convergence is in north and in
O O
winter is in south of the equator b/w 2 to 20 , so we can say
the zone of convergence lie b/w two tropics , hence called
ITCZ
 ITCZ can be seen as a pressure belt or in terms of pressure
cells
 cyclones are intense low pressure systems, and ITCZ is a low
pressure area , so one of ITCZ systems if gets intensifies then
becomes cyclones.
 DOLDRUMS:-
 Term given by ancient sailors of the world and the
referred to ITCZ area in world ocean
 Doldrums in English means confused state of mind (in a
situation)
 In the world ocean the calm area of the ITCZ is called
the doldrums because sailors in the older days used to
get becalmed here.
 It is the region of small pressure gradient/weak PGF,
high humidity & high temperatures occurring near the
equator
Ancient sailors found that Winds were very slow & weak
and as a result the sailors used to get stuck up here
{gradient of the pressure was weak, so PGF was weak}
{low pressure cell area today we know near equator when
sun was overhead, high temp, high humidity areas}
 HORSE LATITUDES
 Also term given by the ancient sailors {traders}
 This is also about some problem area in world ocean.
But now we refer to sub-tropical high pressure cell
O
which is 30 N/S
 In olden days the zones about 30°–35° N and 30°–35° S
were known as horse latitudes. When ships were
becalmed horses were thrown to reduce the load
 Here the air is comparatively dry & winds are calm and
light {because of weak PGF}
 It’s a region of descending air currents {so no hope for
rain}
 Its an anti-cyclonic condition-:- more persistent in
nature
 horse latitude, either of two subtropical atmospheric
high-pressure belts that encircle Earth around latitudes
30°–35° N and 30°–35° S and that generate light winds
and clear skies.
 a belt of calm air and sea occurring in both the
northern and southern hemispheres between the trade
winds and the westerlies.
 Unable to sail and resupply due to lack of wind, crews
often ran out of drinking water. To conserve scarce
water, sailors on these ships would sometimes throw
the horses they were transporting overboard. Thus, the Europe or Africa used the trade winds to travel to North or
phrase 'horse latitudes' was born South America
 The consistently warm, dry, and sunny conditions of  Basic reason of air to move is insolation, and area b/w tropics
have less variations of insolation over different months of
the horse latitudes are the main cause for the
year. So wind would also not vary hence trade winds are
existence of the world's major hot deserts, such as the
more consistent {as compare polar winds are more variable
Sahara Desert in Africa, the Arabian and Syrian deserts in nature}
in the Middle East, the Mojave and Sonoran deserts in 1) Since trade winds blow from subtropical latitudes to low
the southwestern United States and northern Mexico latitudes, they have great capacity to hold moisture, in their
passage across the oceans, they gather more moisture and
bring heavy rainfall to the east coast of continent.
2) As they are off-shore on the west coast, these regions suffer
from great aridity & form the hot deserts of world
3) Examples Sahara, Atacama, Kalahari, great Australian Deserts
 Let us suppose in diagram we have a tropical continent, trade

winds being easterlies would be on-shore winds on east of
continent. Warm air of trade wind blows over ocean and
captures moisture and enters the continent from east so, So
eastern half would be humid, have clouds, have
precipitation,. By time this wind reaches to middle or western
part of continent these winds have already shed their
moisture , and for western half these winds are from land to
land , so as a tropical continents the central and western part
are very dry and sometimes they have deserts also. Example
Atacama
 TRADE WINDS
 The trade winds are air currents closer to Earth's surface that
blow from east to west near the equator. The trade winds
have been used by sailors for centuries. Sailors traveling from

 WESTERLIES “Roaring Forties” or “Furious Fifties” or Shrieking or
screaming Sixties”
 The westerlies, anti-trades, or prevailing westerlies, 10) In S-Hemisphere the weather is cloudy and seas are
are prevailing winds from the west toward the east in violent
the middle latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees
latitude. They originate from the high-pressure areas in
HAND-OUT MATERIAL
the horse latitudes and trend towards the poles and  EASTERLY WAVE
steer extra tropical cyclones in this general manner  The best known of the weak tropical disturbance is the
 The term westerlies refers to the zone of winds easterly wave. It is a trough-shaped, weak low-pressure
polewards from the subtropical high-pressure belt, region that is generally aligned on an approximate
present in both the Northern Hemisphere and north-south axis.
Southern Hemisphere, that is characterized by  These are usually several hundred kilometres long.
migratory cyclones and anticyclones traveling generally Travelling slowly in the trade winds belt from east to
west to east west, it is preceded by fair, dry weather and followed
by cloudy, showery weather. This occurs because air
tends to converge into the low from its rear, or the
east, causing lifting and convectional showers.
 The resulting divergence and subsidence to the west
(ahead of the wave) account for the fair weather.
Meteorologists believe that this type of disturbance
can on occasion develop into a tropical hurricane.
 POLAR EASTERLIES
 These are typically cold & dry winds
 These are highly variable winds:- More variable in N-
Hemisphere
 These are typically easterlies {because of Stronger
coriolis force of Higher latitudes }
 Polar cell is weakest cell in terms of air circulations
1) As we go towards the poles, seasonal variation of
 Polar air circulation is very weak:-
insolation increases, so winds become more variable in
a) the two regions being
nature, so westerlies are more variable winds and
b) Lesser mass of air {earth gets smaller in higher
don’t come south-west and north-west always , they
latitudes}
keep changing their directions always. However, the
western component is more stronger so called
westerlies
2) Westerlies in southern hemisphere are more stronger
due to uniformity of water & from high pressure to low
pressure there is continuous gradient of pressure than
northern hemisphere westerlies. These are so strong
that sailors of world have been using three adjectives
for southern westerlies as “Roaring Forties” or
“Furious Fifties” or Shrieking or screaming Sixties”
3) Weather is cloudy , seas are generally very violent in
southern hemisphere
4) Westerlies bring most of the precipitation to the th th
……..11 class ended,12 started…......
western coast of the temperate land, and give more 1) Choices are the hinges of destiny
rain to the western sides of the continents in southern 2) Your calm mind is the ultimate weapon against your
hemisphere due to huge expansion of ocean and taking challenges, so relax
more moisture. 3) Make each day your master piece
5) These are much less constant and persistent than the 4) Nature does not hurry, yet everything is accomplished
trade winds
6) These are more variable in northern hemisphere  BRIEF ABOUT MONSOON
7) Westerlies plays a valuable role in carrying warm  (FULL TOPIC IS DISCUSSED AT LAST OF NOTES):-
tropical air & water to the western coast of temperate 1. The term monsoon Comes from Arabic word “Mausim”
land means season, by monsoon we mean seasonal
8) Westerlies bring much precipitation to the western reversal of winds.
O O
coast of temperate land especially b/w 40 S and 60 S 2. It means those areas where there is a reversal of winds
because of huge oceanic expansion from one season to another are called monsoonal
9) In southern hemisphere westerlies flow with much areas example S-Asia
greater force and regularity throughout the year 3. Principle monsoonal area S-Asia, E-Asia, N-Australia,
{because of strong continuous pressure gradient}. It is W-Africa and all are tropical locations as well and are
usual for the sailors to refer to the westerlies as
the monsoonal areas, so monsoon is primarily  Heat and moisture decreases from equator to poles so
restricted to topical areas vegetation also decreases.
 India:- 3. Humboldt says that “Altitude mimics latitude”
4. It means there exist a closed parallel b/w latitudinal zonation
a) In Summer, June to September:- massive and
of lie & Altitudinal zonation of biomes. Mt .Kenya in east
consistent system of winds from Southwest
Africa and Mt. chimborazo in Ecuador have their feet on the
direction ,however heat and pressure conditions equator but there peaks are snow-covered.
are changing BUT there is a complex system of
monsoon as no other area has ever such  MEDITERRARIAN TYPE CLIMATE
consistent winds for 4 months  This Climate is related to following areas who have this type
b) In winter- From North-east , winds come climate:-
a) Areas around Mediterrarian sea
 All this makes India’s monsoon very unique and there
b) California in USA
are many reasons of this reversal , some are identified
c) Central Chile in S-America
and some are being identified, one of these is shifting d) Cape Province in South Africa
O O
of pressure cells , in general b/w 2 to 20 , and in India e) Southern & South-western Australia
O
it is more than 20 , as  These all are in the lower-middle latitudes (low temperate
a) In summer when the sun is at peak there is shift of belt) and these are west-facing coastal locations.
equatorial low pressure cell at equator (ITCZ) to  These areas’ summers are so hot and dry for their latitudes ,
the plains of India and generally extends from if hot & dry conditions were to continue for the whole year ,
Calcutta in east to Karachi in west and this is called they would have become deserts of the world. but these
areas are now “orchards of the world” as their winters
Monsoon trough (Extensive low pressure
become cool & moist. Due to shifting of pressure belts.
area=trough) or ITCZ
 Their respective summers are hot & dry as during summer
b) In winter it shifts few degrees down of equator they are under the influence of trade winds (easterlies) and
upto Madagascar island being on the west they don’t get moisture.
4. Dr, Flohn (1950s) suggested that the exceptional shift  In their respective winter seasons, with the shifting of
of ITCZ in S-Asia during summer season is one major pressure belts, these areas come under the influence of cool
reason for the origin of south-west monsoon and moist westerlies & get good amount of moisture {this is
5. Monsoons are primarily restricted to tropical belts as how they become orchards of the world}
these areas experience the maximum shift of pressure
conditions with the apparent movement of Sun in the
 TOPIC:-OCEAN CURRENTS:-
sky.  Atmosphere and oceans are acting hand in hand in nature
 The action we see in the atmosphere is primarily the result of
 Note:- result of shifting of pressure conditions is
release of latent heat
Mediterrarian climate, without shifting of pressure
a) Vapour in air  Condenses  Water droplets
conditions we would not have Mediterrarian climate b) Vapour in air (Gas) Sublimation  Ice crystals (Solid)
 BRIEF ABOUT “BIOME”:-  In all these two conversions latent heat is released
 Note:- one major reason that makes tropical cyclones so
 Note:- vegetation is the true index of climate of an
destructive is that they release enormous quantities of
areas as it shows the adaptations to the climatic latent heat
conditions and has large extensive coverage area and is  Water (l)  latent heat absorbed  Vapour (g)
also static in nature as compare to animals.  Note:- for this topic, we use the term surface layer of ocean
 BIOSPHERE is the largest ecosystem in nature and means 100 meter from the top.
divided into two  Ocean currents:- horizontal movement of water in surface
a) Terrestrial layer of ocean. And there are number of reasons that make it
b) Aquatic move horizontally.{some factors come from earth’s rotation,
some from properties of ocean water, some come
1. Biome is a largest recognizable (identifiable) sub-
atmosphere}
division of the terrestrial ecosystem, means a largest
area of land with such an assemblage and association SIR DISCUSSION IN WORDS
of plants and animals that it stands apart from rest of  Currents are categorised into cold and warm currents, based
the world. {plants and animals are arranged in such a on relative concentrations of temperatures in relation to the
way that areas gets its own unique identity } waters a current visits.{like current is warm because it is
warmer than the water it visits, and cold because it is colder
2. Examples of Biome:-
than water it visits}{one cold current can be warmer than the
 Tropical rainforests is a biome
warm current of other area, but called cold because it is
 Tropical deciduous forest is a biome
colder than water it visits}
 Tropical grassland (savannah) is a biome
 Generally, currents from lower to higher latitudes are warm,
 Temperate deciduous forest
and currents from higher to lower are cold.
 Temperate coniferous forest
 Some currents are near to equator are generally warm.
 Temperate grassland
 Westerlies are blowing from sub-tropical {high pressure
 Mediterrarian biome {result of shifting of pressure belts}
belts} areas to higher or middle-latitudes {temperate low
 Deserts
pressure belts}, this wind makes ocean currents in atlantic
 Tundra biome
ocean and reaches to west Europe as called North atlantic
 These are scattered but still come under one biome
drift {NAD} & when water of NAD reaches west Europe , it is
 Note:- Some areas have permanent ice cover on equator, O
only 2-3 C warmer than the present water but this difference
these are Mt .Kenya in east Africa and Mt. chimborazo in
affects the weather a lot.
Ecuador
 Eastern side of north America, the port cities are frozen as

they are visited by cold current named Labrador 6. If the sky falls there will be a bigger sky behind it
 Whenever, cold & warm currents meet, makes fish areas
 Open area is just like a desert if we talk about NPP/area {net A. IMPORTANT WARM CURRENTS:-
primary productivity/area), as coastal areas are generally  (Note:- mark locations in the atlas
productive. However, total biomass production is maximum  Near equator , in all ocean basins movement of water from
from world ocean. east to west
 Areas of upwelling have more nutrients at the surface and 1) NEC:- North equatorial current
are great fishing zones. So upwelling results in fishing. 2) SEC:- south equatorial current
However, coastal areas having intense upwelling act like a 3) Counter equatorial currents
desert also, as more cold water is brought from down during  Atlantic ocean
upwelling, as upwelling keeps desiccation (dry conditions). 1) Gulf stream is a warm current
 Based on wind speed, direction & identity, Ocean currents 2) NAD :- north atlantic drift (or current)
are also categorised as  In pacific ocean
a) Drift :- motion is slow, erratic in direction, boundaries 1) KUROSHIO current (also called Japan current)
are not defined. Generally 16-24km/day 2) North pacific drift
b) Current:- speed is more than drift, direction is better  Some more warm currents
defined , & identity is better defined than drift. 1) East Australian current
Generally 6-8 Km/hour speed 2) Brazil current
c) Stream:- huge body of water moving with good speed, 3) Agulhas or Mozambique current
moving with so well defined direction & identity that it 4) Caribbean current near equator going towards north
looks a river of a continent in the world ocean . fastest America
stream is gulf stream have speed of 8-10km/hour 5) Antilles current
1. Like the atmosphere, the world ocean also plays a significant 6) Florida current
role in moderating the global heat imbalance. 7) Guinea current (considered as an extension of
2. The term ocean current, in general, refers to the horizontal countered Equatorial current )
movement of ocean water in the surface layer(approx. top 8) Somali current
100meters) 9) Alaskan current
3. On the basis of relative concentrations of temperatures {in 10) Norwegian current
relation to the waters a current visits), the currents are 11) Irminger current {extension of gulf stream)(it is warm
categorised as current note and make it correct in GC leong where it is
a) Warm current written cold current, in fact it is a warm current)
b) Cold current
4. The three rules to be followed are:-
a) Currents near equator, in general, are warm currents
b) Currents from lower to higher latitudes are warm
currents
c) Currents from higher to lower latitudes are cold currents
5. The so-called warm & cold currents usually exhibit
temperatures that differ by only a few degrees from those of
surrounding waters. Yet these small temperature differences
are often sufficient to have a significant effect over
atmospheric conditions in a wide area
6. As per another classification, on the basis of relative
concentrations of parameters like speed, direction &
identity/boundaries, the currents are categorised as:-
a) Drift:- it refers to slow motion (16-24km/day) of the
surface layer with erratic behavior in terms of direction
& with no clear identity/boundaries. B. IMPORTANT COLD CURRENTS:-
b) Current:- it refers to surface movement which is more 1) Labrador current
rapidly (6-8km/hour) & more defined in terms of 2) Oya siwo current (also called Kamchatka current)
direction & identity than a drift 3) East Greenland current
c) Stream:- the term stream refers to a huge body of 4) California current
surface water moving with a good speed (8km/h or 5) Canary current
more) & very well defined direction & identity (almost 6) Peru current (Humboldt current)
like a major river of a continent) 7) Benguela current
 Now we use the term Ocean basin:- which means 8) West Australian current
larger area of the world ocean. 9) Falkland current
a) North atlantic ocean basin 10) West wind drift (also called Antarctic circumpolar current)
b) South atlantic O.B  Only current of world which is a global current
c) North pacific ocean basin  It flows unimpeded around the globe from west to east
d) South pacific ocean basin  It is greatest ocean current of world in terms of volume
e) Indian ocean basin of water it carries
th th
……..12 class ended,13 started…......  It is largely a response to the strong westerlies of this
region
1. Compassion is the basis of all morality
2. In anger one should refrain both from speech and action.  Movement of water is slow because of volume involved
3. Do all you can and do it the best you can 11) Okhotsk current {in okha sea near Kamchatka peninsula)
4. Focus on you, until the focus is on you 12) Leeuwin current (will discuss it under EL-lino, La-lina)
5. If you tickle the earth with a hoe, she laughs with a harvest
CURRENT TYPE OCEAN

1) East Australian current Warm 1) S.Pac.O
2) Brazil current Warm 2) S.At.O
3) Agulhas or Mozambique current Warm 3) Ind. O
4) Caribbean current Warm 4) At.O
5) Antilles current Warm 5) N.At. O
6) Florida current Warm 6) S.At.O
7) Guinea current Warm 7) At.O
8) Somali current Warm 8) W.Ind.O
9) Alaskan current Warm 9) N-Pac.O
10) Norwegian current Warm 10) N.At.O
11) Irminger current Warm 11) N.At.O
12) NEC:- North equatorial current Warm 12) Pacific
13) SEC:- south equatorial current Warm 13) Pacific
14) Counter equatorial currents Warm 14) Near Eq
15) Gulf stream is a warm current Warm 15) N.At. O
16) NAD :- north atlantic drift Warm 16) N.At. O
17) KUROSHIO (Japan current) Warm 17) N.Pac.O
18) North pacific drift Warm 18) N.Pac.O
1) Labrador current Cold 1) N.At.O
2) Oya siwo current (also called Cold 2) N.Pac.O
Kamchatka current) Cold 3) WN.Pac.O
3) East Greenland current Cold 4) At. Ocean
4) California current Cold 5) N.Pac.O
Cold 6) N.At.O
5) Canary current
Cold 7) S.Pac.O
6) Peru current (Humboldt current)
Cold 8) S-At.O
7) Benguela current Cold 9) Ind.O
8) West Australian current Cold 10) S.Pac.O
9) Falkland current Cold
10) West wind drift

Major gyres are sub-tropical gyres . note the latitudes
 GYRES:-
 A gyre is a large system of rotating ocean currents
 In various ocean basins, the continuously moving loops of
ocean currents are called Gyres. These are clockwise in north
hemisphere & anti-clockwise in southern hemisphere. Note:- use Newspaper + Atlas + internet + Class Notes and read
 In particular these are called sub-tropical gyres because the explore areas and surroundings
O
center of each gyre coincides with the sub-tropics at 30 N  Wherever coastal areas have cold currents we have dry areas
and South latitudes
 In west side of continents in all the gyres have cold current
HAND-OUTS FOR OCEAN CURRENTS
and eastern side has cold currents. Subtropical Gyres and Surface Ocean Currents
 In all 5 ocean water basins, there are loops of currents A. PACIFIC OCEAN
formed called gyre. In northern hemisphere they are 1) North Pacific Gyre –
clockwise and in southern hemisphere are anti-clockwise 1. North Pacific Drift/Current (W)
 There are five major gyres: the North and South Pacific 2. California Current (C)
Subtropical Gyres, the North and South Atlantic Subtropical 3. North Equatorial Current (W)
Gyres, and the Indian Ocean Subtropical Gyre. 4. Kuroshio Current/Japan Current (W)
2) South Pacific Gyre –
1. South Equatorial Current (W)
2. East Australian Current (W)
3. West Wind Drift/Antarctic Circum-Polar Current (C)
4. Peru/Humboldt Current (C)
3) Other Major Currents –
1. Equatorial Counter Current (W)
2. Alaskan Current (W)
3. Oyashio Current (C)

B. ATLANTIC OCEAN  ATLANTIC OCEAN CIRCULATION
1) North Atlantic Gyre –  S.E.C. (W) encounters the coast of Brazil and splits in two,
1. North Atlantic Drift/Current (W) and these waters feed the loops in the two hemispheres.
2. Canary Current (C)  Outside the gyre, the Falkland Current (C) is also called the
3. North Equatorial Current (W) Malvinas Current.
4. Gulf Stream (W)  The Gulf stream (W) is the best studied of all ocean currents.
2) South Atlantic Gyre – It moves along the east coast of the United States, warming
1. South Equatorial Current (W) coastal States and moderating winters in these and northern
2. Brazil Current (W) European regions.
3. West Wind Drift (C)  N.E.C. (W) splits into the Antilles Current (W), which passes
4. Benguela Current (C) along the Atlantic side of the West Indies, and the Caribbean
3) Other major Currents – Current (W), which passes through the Yucatan Channel into
1. Equatorial Counter Current (W) the Gulf of Mexico. These masses reconverge as the Florida
2. Florida Current (W) Current (W).
3. East Greenland Current (C)  The Sargasso Sea is the water that circulates around the
4. Labrador Current (C) rotation centre of the North Atlantic Gyre. Its name is derived
5. Falkland Current (C) from a type of floating marine alga called sargassum that
C. INDIAN OCEAN abounds its surface.
1) Indian Ocean Gyre –  Southeast of Newfoundland, the Gulf Stream continues in an
1. South Equatorial Current (W) easterly direction across the North Atlantic. Here the Gulf
2. Agulhas Current (W) Stream breaks into numerous branches, many of which
3. West Wind Drift (C) become cold dense enough to sink beneath the surface. One
4. West Australian Current (C) major branch combines the cold water of the Labrador
Current with the warm Gulf Stream (Fishing Zone and
2) Other Major Currents –
abundant Fog). This branch eventually breaks into the
1. Equatorial Counter Current (W)
Irminger Current (W), which flows along Iceland's west coast,
2. North Equatorial Current (W)
and the Norwegian Current (W), which moves along Norway's
3. Leeuwin Current (W)
coast. The other major branch crosses the North Atlantic as
4. Somali Current (W)
the North Atlantic Current/Drift (W), which turns southward
to become the cool Canary Current (C)
 Spain and Portugal have warm climates even though they are
at the same latitude as the New England States which are
known for severe winters.
 The warming that northern Europe experiences because of
the Gulf Stream is as much as 9 degrees C, which is enough to
keep high-latitude Baltic ports (along the shores of the Baltic
Sea/countries like Denmark, Finland, Poland, Sweden...) ice
free throughout the year,
 North Africa's coastal waters are cooled by the south-ward
Canary Current (C) and are much cooler than waters near
Florida and Gulf of Mexico

 INDIAN OCEAN CIRCULATION
 Subtropical Gyres-Nomenclature
 The North Atlantic Gyre-the Columbus Gyre
 The South Atlantic Gyre-the Navigator Gyre (after
Portugal's Prince Henry, the Navigator)
 The North Pacific Gyre-the Turtle Gyre
 The South Pacific Gyre-the Heyerdahl Gyre
 The Indian Ocean Gyre-the Majid Gyre
 DEEP-OCEAN CURRENTS
 Density differences create deep currents. Although the
density differences are usually small, they are large
enough to cause denser waters to sink. Deep- water
currents move larger volumes of water and are much
slower than surface currents. Typical speeds of deep
currents range from 10 to 20 km per year. Because the
density variations that cause deep ocean circulation
 During the winter time North East Monsoon, winds are caused by differences in temperature and salinity,
cause the N.E.C.(W) to flow from east to west and its deep ocean circulation is also referred to as
extension, the Somali Current (W). which flows along thermohaline circulation.
the coast of Africa. An Equatorial Counter Current (W)  Subs Polar Gyres-Northern and Southern boundary
is also established. currents of subtropical gyres that flow eastward as a
 During the summertime South West Monsoon, the result of the prevailing westerlies eventually move into
winds reverse, causing the N.E.C. (W) to be replaced by sub polar latitude. Here, they are driven in a westerly
the S. W. Monsoon Current (W) which flows in the direction by the Polar Easterlies, producing Subpolar
opposite direction. The winds cause the Somali Current Gyres that rotate opposite the adjacent subtropical
reverse as well, which flows rapidly northward and gyres, Sub polar gyres are smaller and fewer than
feeds the 5. W. Monsoon Current. subtropical gyres. Two examples-
 PACIFIC OCEAN CIRCULATION a) Viking Gyre-between Greenland and Europe
b) Gyre in the Weddel Sea off Antarctica
 Warm waters of the Kuroshio/Japan (W) make Japan's  One million cubic metres per second is a useful flow
climate warmer than would be expected for its rate for describing ocean currents, and it is used as a
latitude. standard unit, named the Sverdrup (Sv), after the
 Some North Pacific Current (W) water flows to the Norwegian meteorologist and physical oceanographer
north and merges into the Alaskan Current (W) in the Harald Sverdrup.
Gulf of Alaska.

 FACTOR AFFECTING (FORCES) THE latitudes, means more oceanic currents are from lower
to higher latitudes as compare to higher to lower
PATTERN OF OCEAN CURRENTS:- latitudes. {look map of oceanic currents}.because of
 Pattern of ocean currents as seen in world map is the two major reasons
combined effect of the following 4 sets (groups) of a) Higher temperature in lower latitudes, means
factors, Set of factors relating to - Water in lower latitudes is warmer and sea levels
a) Earth’s rotation gets higher
b) Oceans’ b) Higher amount of precipitation in lower latitudes
c) Atmosphere {precipitation rate > rate of evaporation, in lower
 Causative factors :- these a to c are together called latitudes despite high rates of evaporation the net
causative factors, are responsible for generation of result is positive}
ocean currents 2) Currents like Labrador and Oya siwo are primarily
d) Modifying factors (they may affect the direction, caused because of huge amount of melt water of
speed of ocean currents) higher latitudes
3) When air blows over ocean surface , it exerts a
A. MODIFYING FACTORS:- frictional drag, and tries to bring water with it.. like SEC
 Nature/configuration of the seacoast and ocean & NEC are result of trade wind.
bottom topography (MoR and Seamounts etc) don’t 4) Indian ocean indicates that wind is dominant factor
help the generation of ocean currents but they do because in S-Asia we have monsoon , in summer from
modify the already existing ocean currents. SW and in Winter from NE, so we have a seasonal
 Note for causative factors:- reversal of winds. So with reversal of winds, Indian
 All ocean currents seen in world map are the combined ocean currents also get reversed, Somali current gets
effect of a number of factors together. completely reversed in this. {note it}
 In general wind is the most dominant factor for 3. FACTORS RELATING TO ATMOSPHERE
causation of ocean currents  Atmospheric pressure difference, difference in amount
B. CAUSATIVE FACTORS:- of rainfall {coupled with rate of evaporation} and
amount of melt water:- all these affect ocean current.
1. FACTORS RELATING TO EARTH’S ROTATION
But the leading role if played by the frictional drag on
 As earth rotates from west to east, water near the
the water surface by planetary winds
equator tends to move from east to west means
 Most of the ocean currents of the world tend to follow
equatorial currents are generated from east to
the direction of the planetary winds. The Indian ocean
west.{related to NEC & SEC}
most clearly manifest the dominant role played by
 Note:-The major factor causing NEC & SEC is trade
planetary winds as we find that with the seasonal
wind, which is easterly.
reversal of winds (monsoon), the ocean currents also
 Earth rotation from west to east, leads to an apparent
get reversed {example:- Somali current}.
deflection to the moving waters. The deflection is th th
……..13 class ended,14 started…......
clockwise in north hemisphere & anti-clockwise in
southern hemisphere. 1. Procrastination is the art of keeping up with yesterday
2. There is only one happiness in the life:- to love and be
 CEC:- COUNTER EQUATORIAL CURRENT loved.
 NEC & SEC result in piling of water on the western side of
3. Difficult roads often lead to beautiful destinations
the ocean basin
 Out of this piled up water, there takes place the following
4. We cannot help everyone but everyone can help
two movements someone
a) A part of this water gets deflected (because of coriolis  EKMAN SPIRAL & EKMAN TRANSPORT
effect) to the North/right and to south/left and this
 The Ekman spiral, named after Swedish scientist Vagn
deflected water feeds the loops in both the
Walfrid Ekman (1874-1954) who first theorized it in
hemispheres
b) Another part of this piled water, moves back (because 1902, is a consequence of the Coriolis Effect. When
of gravity), from west to east , near the equator, surface water molecules move by the force of the
resulting in CEC . wind, they, in turn, drag deeper layers of water
2. FACTORS RELATING TO OCEANS molecules below them
 Any parameter creates Difference in sea levels , affects READ THIS DISCUSSION CAREFULLY
ocean currents  It is an addition to what we learnt about the ways the
 For example:- Temperature & salinity difference also water moves in the surface layers of the oceans. Ekman
plays role gives final details on it.
 Surface water tends to travel from areas of lower  Important:- Till now we learnt that ocean current is the
density to areas of higher density (density variations in horizontal movement of the water In the surface layer
ocean waters are caused by temperature & salinity of ocean (approx. 100 meters from top). This water
variations) which we call as ocean current we imagine it moves in
 NOTE FOR ATMOSPHERE EFFECT a single layer , approx. 100 meters in thickness, and
moving in a particular speed and direction. But this is
1) In the world ocean, there are more currents from
not true; this so-called surface layer of the ocean is
lower to higher latitudes than from higher to lower
not a one layer in reality. Ekman makes us understand
it is a system of sub-layers, means in ocean currents  Ekman, says in his model representation, assumes first layer
O
the water gets divided into many layers (under the 100 of water is moving at an angle of 45 to the wind direction.
meters from top) and water is moving in ocean current However, this angle is variable but for a modelled
representation Ekman assumed it as average.
with different speeds, and every next layer would be
 Now Ekman says when first (immediate) layer moves, it
moving with a little reduced speed as compared to the
exerts a frictional drag on the second layer down it and this
layer above it. Means as we go deeper from top to O
second layer gets deflected to the further right (45 + little
down within 100 meters, every next layer moving O
more like 10 ) with some reduced speed.
would be moving with a little reduced speed and with
a little different direction. And rule is , in Northern
hemisphere every next layer is moving to the right of
the layer above it, and in southern hemisphere it is
moving little left of the above layer of it.
 Ocean currents are caused by many factors, but in

general speed is the most dominant factor and ekman
also focused primarily on speed.
 Ekman also considers the coriolis effect (varies per
latitudinal location and as per speed of moving object
as faster objects experience more coriolis force. In
Northern hemisphere it is towards right and in
southern hemisphere it is towards the left}
 Ekman gives us the Model reality ,means a model
representation of the way the water moves in the so
called surface layer of ocean.
UNDERSTAND THE TOPIC IN DETAIL
 Ekman says, When wind blows on the ocean
surface , it exerts the frictional drag on the
immediate surface layer (not all the 100 meter
surface layer)
 So immediate surface layers comes into motion due to this

frictional drag (exerted by wind), but it will get deflected
because of coriolis effect towards the right in north
hemisphere, but how much right
a) it would depend upon location as like in lower latitudes
O
it is near to 10-20 and in higher latitudinal regions it
O
can be 60-70 . +  V. Walfrid Ekman, a Swedish physicist, developed a
b) it also depends upon the speed circulation model in 1905 called the Ekman spiral.
a) The Ekman Spiral - Ekman’s model assumes that a column
of water is set in motion by wind blowing across its surface.
Because of the Coriolis effect, the immediate surface water
moves in a direction 45 degrees to the right of the wind (in
the Northern Hemisphere). The surface water moves as a
thin “layer” on top of deeper layers of water. As the surface
layer moves, other layers beneath it are set in motion, thus
passing the energy of the wind down through the water
column. Current speed decreases with increasing depth. The
Coriolis effect increases curvature to the right (like a spiral).
Each successive layer of water is set in motion at a
progressively slower speed, and in a direction progressively
to the right of the one above it. At some depth, a layer of
water may move in a direction exactly opposite from the
wind direction. The Stillness of water occurs, on an average,
at a depth of about 100 metres.
b) Ekman Transport – It is the average water movement for
the entire column, and it is taken at a right angle to the wind
direction.
TOPIC:- THE UPWELLING:-
 Upwelling :- Upwelling is the vertical movement of
cold, deep, nutrient-rich water to the surface;
 Upwelling hoists chilled water to the surface. This cold
water, rich in nutrients creates high productivity. Down
welling, on the hand carries necessary dissolved oxygen
to those organisms living on the deep-sea floor.
 In simple words:- There are certain locations of the
world ocean, where the ocean bottom water rises
vertically onto the surface and this rise of the water is
called as upwelling.
 Upwelling can be seen in coastal areas, or can be open
oceans.
 Generally, upwelling takes place on a large scale on

that coastal locations where wind is moving
consistently away from the coast (it is possible when
we have consistently higher pressure coastal regions of
world ocean then on the other side, creating the water
vacancy of the surface water as due to pressure no
water replaces so upwelling happens to fill this
vacancy).
 Definition:- upwelling refers to the rise of cold,
nutrient rich ocean bottom water onto the surface.
Upwelling is caused as a result of a surface vacancy
being created in the ocean.
 The areas of prominent upwelling are western coast of
south America (Northern Chile and Peru, NW Mexico),
NW Africa and SW Africa
 Positive negative impact of upwelling:-
a) Positive impact:-
 Upwelling also does produce one important human benefit:-
it carries to the surface nutrients that support some of the
most productive fishing grounds in the world ocean.
 When bottom water rises up it is full of nutrients., and this
areas have more planktons  more fish  more sea birds 
birds excreta means Guano (acts as organic fertilizers)
More hydroponics
b) Negative Impact:- Desiccation-
 Upwelling can result In desiccation in nearby cost, some of
the driest coastal areas of the earth are associated with
upwelling, particularly latitudes under the influence of the
semi-permanent high pressure cell.
 In coastal areas like South America, when bottom water
comes up, it is very very cold, so local wind becomes also cold
and cannot pick up the moisture, so this air becomes dry
making the coastal area dry .Means coastal areas have
desiccation.
A. EASTERN PACIFIC OCEAN:-

 Waters are cold
 Of the west coast of south America, there is a consistent
movement of air away from the coast, surface water is
driven away and since this water is not replaced by some
other water , so the vacancy gets created and bottom water
rises (upwelling)
 More and more upwelling brings cold water to the surface of
eastern pacific ocean, water becomes further cold (means
peru current becomes further cold) and the higher pressure
gets standard because colder the conditions are, higher will
be the pressure.
 Due to high pressure due to upwelling, augmented high
pressure is there. So it is a positive feedback happening here.
B. WESTERN PACIFIC OCEAN:-
 Waters are warm
 TERM “FEEDBACK”
 Term feedback as used in system’s analysis refers to the
output (or the part of the output) that influences the
system’s operations.
 FEEDBACK IS OF TWO TYPES:-
a) Positive feedback:- it is one which enhances , amplifies the
change-
b) Negative feedback:- it is one which weakens, dampens the
change-
 Note:- Basis of an equilibrium of a system:- is negative
feedback (not positive because positive feedback accelerates
the change)
 (we have done till now the upwelling in coastal areas)
 EQUATORIAL UPWELLING:-
 We are going to discuss upwelling in areas near equator
 Divergence of surface currents along the geographical
equator causes upwelling and it results in areas of high
productivity that are some of the major fishing grounds in the  THE DOWN WELLING & DEEP
world.
 Trade winds at the Equator blow surface water both north OCEAN CURRENTS:-
and south, allowing upwelling of deeper water. The wind  Down welling is the vertical movement of surface
patterns generated during slow-moving cyclones can also water to deeper parts of the ocean.
blow surface water aside, causing upwelling directly beneath  Main reason:- Density difference, denser water always
the eye of the cyclone. The colder water eventually helps to sinks.
weaken the cyclone
 The Ecological significance of Downwelling:-
Downwelling carries necessary dissolved oxygen to
those organisms which live on the deep sea floor
 Some surface waters become high in density through
low temperature and/or high salinity and therefore
sink beneath the surface.
 Density differences creates deep currents, because the
density variation are caused by differences in
temperature and salinity, therefore deep ocean
circulation is also refer to as thermohaline circulations.
 Deep currents move larger volumes of water and are
much slower (10-20km/year) than surface currents.

 Downwelling is where surface water is forced 3. Power of imagination makes you ∞
downwards, where it may deliver oxygen to deeper 4. Comparables must be compared
water. Downwelling leads to reduced productivity, as it
extends the depth of the nutrient-limited layer.  CLOUDS AND PRECIPITATION
Upwelling occurs where surface currents are diverging,  FACTS OF CLOUD FORMATION :-
or moving away from each other
 Moisture holding capacity of air is a function of its
 Note:- Upwelling and Downwelling provide important temperature- warmer air holds more moisture
mixing mechanism b/w surface and deep waters.  Water on earth surface (liquid form)  latent heat
 DEEP OCEAN CURRENTS (DOC):- absorbed  vapour (gas)
 Deep ocean currents is Water which is moving on the  So every molecule of vapour holds energy in it, so
floor of the ocean , caused by Downwelling because of whenever this vapour gets again converted to ice
the density differences. crystals is called sublimation or into water droplets
 Deep currents, also known as thermohaline circulation called condensation. Clouds result of sublimation or
(thermo: - temp, Haline:- halogen (salts), result from condensation. And these water vapours release this
differences in water density. These currents occur holding energy while converting into ice crystals or
when cold, dense water at the poles sinks. Surface water droplets.
water flows to replace sinking water, causing a  Tropical areas have more release of latent heat as
conveyor belt-like effect of water circulating around warm air holds more pressure. It means holding
the globe on a 1000-year journey. Here water moves moisture of air depends upon the temperature.
very slow 10-15km/year.
 Deep ocean currents carry deep volumes of water
 DOC regulate the earth’s climate
 There are two main ingredients for clouds to

U:- Upwelling and D- Down welling form: condensation nuclei and water vapor
1) Clouds are the visible manifestations of condensation
and/or sublimation on a fairly large scale in nature.
2) Clouds forms when air happens to cool to dew point
and vapours condenses into water droplets
3) Two conditions requisites cloud formation:-
a) Air must be saturated air (means holding moisture
upto its capacity)
b) There must be a substantial quantity of small
particles called condensation nuclei around which
water droplets can form when vapour condenses
{Air must have sufficient condensation or
sublimation nuclei}.
4) Science upto cloud formation is all well understood but
what happens within a cloud to result in precipitation
is still not completely understood.
5) Clouds indicate the state of the atmosphere and give
hints about future weather
 SATURATION OF AIR & HUMIDITY
 Humidity :- means moisture in the air
a) Absolute humidity
b) Specific humidity
c) Relative humidity
 THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH)

th  It is the best known means of describing the content of
……..14 class ended, 15th started…...... water vapour in the atmosphere.
1. In the practice of tolerance, one’s enemy is the best  It is simply the ratio b/w the amount of water vapour
teacher. in air of a given temperature and the maximum
2. You did not come this far to come only this far
amount of vapour that the air could hold at that temperature and the moisture content of moisture-saturated
temperature. air at the same temperature. It is given as a percentage
 RH expresses how close or far the given air is to from 0 to 100. 100% RH means that the saturation with
saturation moisture, the dew point is reached
i.e:- RH:- {mt÷ Mt}

 SATURATION:- means when air of a given
temperature holds of its water vapour that it possibly
can (upto full holding capacity), it is said to be in state

of saturation.
Question:- In general for a given place at what time of
FORMATION OF CLOUDS:-
 Majority of the clouds form away from the earth’s surface
the day RH is expected to be maximum and at what
time of the day RH is expected to be minimum?  Two conditions requisites cloud formation:-
 Answer:- a) Air must be saturated air (means holding moisture upto
its capacity)
a) RH (Maximum):- in general at Dawn (just before
b) There must be a substantial quantity of small particles
the sunrise when condition are coldest) called condensation nuclei around which water droplets
b) RH (Minimum):-afternoon or late afternoon can form when vapour condenses {Air must have
 RH value reaches its maximum when the temperature sufficient condensation or sublimation nuclei}.
of the day is at its minimum.  Note:- the mechanism with which the air gets uplifted
 RH value reaches its minimum when the temperature resulting in condensation and precipitation is called type of
of the day is at its maximum precipitation, there are three major types of precipitation in
 Comparables must be compared, like here we are the world convectional. Orographic and frontal.
comparing different times (temperature of the day) of  What are the different ways of air upliftment (types of
the day precipitation) :-
 In general, for a given place, RH reaches its maximum a) Convectional:- Air rises if its gets warmer than the
value at dawn i.e. just before sunrise (when the temp surrounding air (convection)
for the day is least) b) Orographic:- Air raises also due to some physical barrier
 In general, for a given place, The RH reaches its like mountains (oro in greek called mountain)
minimum value at afternoon (late afternoon) (when c) Frontal:- In frontal situation:- air rises due to the
frontal mechanism like when fronts are formed.
the temperature for the day is the highest).
 Let us understand (assuming a given situation) by
 In general, Moisture content of the air of the desert is
comparing air packet of particular area by diagram
less than the Moisture content of a forest or a grass
below:-
land
 But possibility is there that Moisture content of the air  CASE-1 CLOUDS FAILS TO FORM
of the desert is more than the Moisture content of a  If the rising air of the given column of air cools faster and at a
forest or a grass land especially of Temperate grassland height h1 (where it is still unsaturated) becomes colder than
or forest the air in the adjoining column- it descends back without
resulting in condensation (cloud formation fails). Such a
 The moisture content in the air of a tropical desert like
parcel of air is called stable parcel of air. This implies that for
sahara may be more than the moisture content in the clouds to form , the air of a given region must have a reason
air of forest or grassland in temperate belt. to keep rising (i.e. instability must be there in the column of
RELATIVE HUMIDITY FROM INTERNET:- air)
 Is a ratio, expressed in percent, of the amount of
atmospheric moisture present relative to the amount that
would be present if the air were saturated. Since the latter
amount is dependent on temperature, relative humidity is a
function of both moisture content and temperature.
 For example, a relative humidity reading of 50 percent
means the water vapor present represents only half the
amount that would be present if the air were saturated at
that temperature
 The term relative humidity (RH) expresses the relationship  In simple words:- Nature fails making clouds when air
between the moisture content of air at a certain went up and becomes colder from surrounding air it
sinks back and nature fails to form clouds. It is called  Note:- For the clouds to form the air of a given area
stable parcels of air means stable parcels of air cannot must be sufficiently moist. The presence of moisture in
form clouds. So air must have to keep instability to rise air is essential but not sufficient in itself for clouds and
and form clouds precipitation
 CASE-2 CLOUDS GET FORMED
 When the rising air gets saturated at dew point , clouds
get formed.
 CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS:-
 Luke Howard gave this cloud classification (descriptive
 Dew point is a temperature at which air on cooling classification i.e. based on features).
gets saturated and below which condensation takes  The general classification of clouds was proposed by Luke
place Howard in 1803. Howard’s classification was a descriptive
 Once the condensation takes places the release of one based on shape and height (features)
latent heat becomes an additional and an independent  The clouds are divided into ten basic types based on slight
reason for the air to rise further up and result in Modifications to the scheme provided by Luke Howard, an
English naturalist in 1803.
vertical development of the cloud.
 These ten basic types are divided into four primary cloud
groups –
a) High Clouds –
1. Cirrus (Ci),
2. Cirrostratus (Cs),
3. Cirrocumulus (Cc);
b) Middle Clouds –
1. Altostratus (As),
2. Altocumulus (Ac);
c) Low Clouds –
1. Stratus (St),
2. Stratocumulus (Sc),
3. Nimbostratus (Ns);
d) Clouds with great vertical development –
1. Cumulus (Cu), and
2. Cumulonimbus (Cb)
 Note- the heights of the clouds in the three categories – low,
middle, and high may have their spatial and temporal
variations. The types overlap, and cloud development
frequently is in a state of change, so that one type may
evolve into another
th th
……..15 class ended, 16 started…......
1. The wisdom of wise is an uncommon degree of common-
sense
 CASE 3:- IF RH OF AN AREA IS 30,40%:- 2. You were always a better person inside, All you had to do was
 Nature has to lift up air upto much higher height , to peel away the layers.
so it drops the idea of cloud formation 3. The poor is forced to forego the needs of the future to meet
 Same happens in case of Sahara desert the needs of the present.
4. Child labour is both a cause and consequence of poverty.

5. Thoughts become words, words become actions, actions  If there is a cloud which is more horizontally developed and
become habits, habits become character, And character cumulus in shape, presence of this cloud indicates the stable
becomes your Destiny. atmospheric conditions relatively in comparison to more
cumulus clouds having vertical
HOWARD CLOUDS CLASSIFICATION b) The cumulus cloud is the visible evidence of an unstable
A.SHAPE atmosphere – its base is the point where condensation has
He recognised the three standard shapes in clouds and used the begun in a column of air as it moves upward
following three latin words to indicate those three shapes
a) Cirrus:- like a lock of curly hair
b) Stratus :- like a layer/ sheet/ceiling of a room
c) Cumulus:- like a pile/ heap/ cauliflower shape
B.HEIGHT
He categorised cloud under height in two categories
1) On basis of height at which a cloud is formed
or found. so under this are
a. Low clouds (In general, clouds found below 2000meter).
Low clouds (according to Howard) are Stratus in general
b. High clouds (elevation >6000m). high clouds are mainly
Cirrus in shape
c. Medium or middle clouds:- (found b/w elevation of
2000m-6000m).
 NOTE:-
a) he used the world “Alto” as a prefix in the name of a
cloud to indicate a medium middle height cloud.
 We can use single term for a cloud and compound term
also like Alto-stratus (means alto is the height and
stratus is the shape)
b) For low clouds the prefix is strato
c) For high clouds we use the prefix cirro
2) On basis of clouds with a great vertical
extent
 Vertically more developed cloud (crossing through all
heights):- Howard took separate classification):- he used
clouds with a great vertical extent
 Such clouds grow from low bases to height as much as 15-
16Kms
 Such clouds usually have restricted horizontal spread (as such
clouds are the result of intense local convectional rising of
air).
 Such clouds are mainly cumulus
 Clouds names may (not always) consist of
two parts.
a) The first part of the cloud’s name is generally refers to the
clouds height (low middle and high)
b) And second part of cloud’s name is generally concerns the
“Shape” of the cloud
 Check the below table:-
HIGH MIDDLE LOW
STRATUS Cirro-stratus Alto-stratus Stratus
CUMULUS Cirro-cumulus Alto-cumulus Strato-
Cumulus
CIRRUS Cirrus × ×
As only found
mainly inn high
elevation
 Note:- there Cirrus clouds are mainly found in high
elevation so we simply named it “Cirrus” as the term
here cirro is not required.
 Howard used word “Nimbus” for a cloud to indicate a
rain bearing cloud
 OBSERVATIONS FROM THIS CLASSIFICATION
a) The horizontal configuration of stratus clouds indicates that
they form in relatively stable atmospheric conditions

 THE COLOURS OF CLOUDS:- appearance of these clouds on a warm, humid summer
morning often portends thunderstorms by late
 Colour is a symbol afternoon.
 Clouds appear white or in shades of grey, even deep grey
7. Altostratus (As) is a grey cloud composed of ice
(thin black).they differ in colour ending on depending on how
thick or dense they are, and if the sun is shining on the
crystals and water droplets; these often cover the
surface that we see entire sky across an area; in the thinner section of the
 The thicker a cloud is, the more sunlight it is able to absorb cloud, the sun/moon may be dimly visible as a round
and darker it appears. disk (“watery appearance”) (diffused kind of
 Clouds also seem dark when are seeing their shaded side appearance); these often form ahead of storms having
instead of sun-lit side widespread and relatively continuous precipitation; if
 Hand-out material for colour and clouds precipitation falls from an altostratus, its base usually
 When sunlight bounces off a surface at the same angle at lowers and if the precipitation reaches the ground, the
which it strikes the surface, we say that the light is reflected, cloud is then classified as nimbostratus.
and call this phenomenon reflection. There are various 8. Low Clouds – usually are below 2 km; they sometimes occur
constituents of the atmosphere, however, that tend to as individual clouds but more often appear as a general
deflect solar radiation from its path and send it out in all overcast; these clouds often are widespread and are
directions. The radiation reflected in this way is said to be associated with somber skies and drizzly rain; are almost
scattered. Scattered light is called diffuse light. When we look always composed of water droplets (however, in cold
at a cloud, it appears white because countless cloud droplets weather, they may contain ice particles and snow).
scatter all wavelengths of visible sunlight in all directions. As 9. Nimbostratus (Ns) – is a dark grey, “wet” – looking cloudy
a cloud grows larger and taller, more sunlight is reflected layer associated with more or less continuously falling rain or
from it and less light can penetrate all the way through it. In snow; the intensity of this precipitation is usually light or
fact, relatively little light penetrates a cloud whose thickness moderate; it is easily confused with the altostratus; since
is 1000 metres. Since little sunlight reaches the underside of these lower clouds drift rapidly with the wind, they form
the cloud, little light is scattered, and the cloud base appears irregular shreds with a ragged appearance that are called
dark. At the same time, if droplets near the cloud base grow stratus fractus, or scud.
larger, they become less effective scatterers and better
10. Stratocumulus (Sc) – are low lumpy clouds that appear in
absorbers. As a result, the little amount of visible light that
rows, in patches, or as rounded masses with blue sky visible
does reach this part of the cloud is absorbed rather than
between the individual cloud elements; often these appear
scattered, which makes the cloud appear even darker. These
near sunset as the spreading remains of a much larger
same cloud droplets may even grow large and heavy enough
cumulus cloud; occasionally, the sun will shine through the
to fall to earth as rain.
cloud breaks producing bands of light (called crepuscular
 Clouds are also important because of their influence on
rays) that appear to reach down to the ground.
radiant energy. They receive both insolation from both above
and terrestrial radiation from below, and then either absorb, 11. Stratus (St) – is a uniform greyish cloud that often covers
reflect, scatter, or reradiate this energy. The function of the entire sky; normally, no precipitation falls from the
clouds in the global energy budget is important. stratus, but sometimes it is accompanied by a light drizzle
HAND-OUT MATERIAL ON CLOUDS  THE CLOUDS WITH GREAT VERTICAL

1. High Clouds – are generally found above 6 km. Because DEVELOPMENT:-
of small amount of water vapour and low temperature  clouds of vertical development, grow upward from low bases
at such altitudes, these clouds are thin, white, and to heights of as much as 15 km; their horizontal spread is
composed of ice crystals; these high clouds often are usually very restricted; they indicate very active vertical
harbingers of an approaching weather system or movements in the air; the relevant types are cumulus,
storm. which usually indicate fair weather, and
2. Cirrus - the most common high clouds are the Cirrus cumulonimbus, which are storm clouds.
(Ci), which are thin, wispy clouds blown by high winds  the puffy cumulus (Cu) cloud takes on a variety of
into long streamers called mares’ tails (sometimes sky shapes, but most often it looks like a piece of floating
appears having number of tales of mare scattered cotton with sharp outlines and a flat base; cumulus
everywhere, this appearance is given by cirrus cloud); clouds that show only slight vertical growth are called
generally, point to fair, pleasant weather. cumulus humilis and are associated with fair weather;
3. Cirrocumulus (Cc) – appear as small, rounded, white therefore, these clouds are called “fair weather
puffs that may occur individually or in long rows; these cumulus”; raggededge cumulus clouds that are smaller
clouds give “mackerel sky” appearance. than cumulus humilis and scattered across the sky are
4. Cirrostratus (Cs) – the thin, sheet-like, high clouds that called cumulus fractus; when the growing cumulus
often cover the entire sky are cirrostratus; moon and resembles a head of cauliflower, it becomes a cumulus
sun can be clearly seen through them; these produce a congestus, or towering cumulus (T cu); precipitation
halo – a ring of light that encircles the sun or moon. that falls from a congestus is always showery.
(halo appearance:- there is cirro (higher) stratus (sheet  If a cumulus congestus continues to grow vertically, it
like) cloud gives halo appearance) develops into a huge cumulonimbus (Cb) – a
5. Middle Clouds - normally occur between 2 to 6 km; thunderstorm cloud; it grows from a low base (maybe
they may be either stratiform or cumuliform; these are 600m) and its top may extend upward to the
composed of water droplets and some ice crystals. Tropopause, over 12000 metres higher; it may occur as
6. Altocumulus (Ac) appear as grey, puffy masses, an isolated cloud or as part of a line or “wall” of clouds;
sometimes rolled out in waves or bands; the there is a tremendous amount of energy released by

condensation; these clouds have lightning and thunder.  Wind
APPROXIMATE HEIGHT OF CLOUD BASES ABOVE  How are Clouds Classified?
TE SURFACE FOR VARIOUS LOCATIONS  Clouds are classified based on 2 major factors.
Cloud Tropical Middle Polar a) Physical Form
group region Latitude region Region b) Height at which Clouds are formed
High 20000 to 16000 to 43000 10000 to  What are the 4 major classifications of clouds
Ci, Cs, Cc 60000 ft ft (5000 to 26000 ft based on their physical forms?
(6000 to 13000m) (3000 to  According to their altitude, stretch, density, and
18000m) 8000m) transparency or opaqueness clouds are classified into
Middle 6500 to 6500 to 23000 ft 6500 to four types which are given below.
As, Ac 26000 ft (2000 to 7000m) 13000 ft a) Cirrus
(2000 to (2000 to b) Cumulus
8000m) 4000m) c) Stratus
Low Surface to Surface to 6500 Surface to d) Nimbus
St, Sc, 6500 ft (0 to ft (0 to 2000m) 6500 ft (0 to  What are Cirrus Clouds?
Ns 2000m) 2000m)  Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes of 8,000 –
The distribution of ice and water in a cumulonimbus cloud 12,000m.
 They are detached thin clouds.
 They have a feathery appearance.
 They are always white.
 What are Cumulus Clouds?
 Cumulus clouds are generally formed at a height of
4,000 m – 7,000 m.
 They look like cotton wool.
 They exist in patches and can be seen dispersed here
and there.
 They have a flat base.
 What are Stratus Clouds?
 Stratus clouds are horizontal.
 Stratus clouds are stratified or layered clouds covering
big portions of the sky.
 These clouds are usually formed due to the mixing of
air masses with various temperatures or due to loss of
heat.
 The presence of stratus clouds means chilly, overcast
day.
 What are the Nimbus Clouds?
 INTERNET ADDITION ABOUT CLOUDS:-  Nimbus clouds are usually formed at lower altitudes.
 Clouds are an important part of the earth’s weather  The colour of Nimbus clouds is usually black or dark
and climate. Clouds form when water condenses in the grey.
sky. Clouds are visible accumulations of tiny water  Nimbus clouds block the sunlight
droplets or ice crystals in the Earth’s atmosphere.  These types of clouds usually cause heavy rainfall and
 How do Clouds form? thunderstorms.
 Clouds form from water in the sky. The water may  Which is the type of clouds that bring rainfall or
evaporate from the ground or move from other areas. snowfall?
Water vapour may be invisible but it is always in the  Clouds with the prefix “nimbo” or the suffix “nimbus” bring
sky in some amount. Clouds form when an area of air rainfall and snowfall. Nimbostratus clouds bring continuous
becomes cooler until the water vapour there rainfall or snowfall that may continue for a very long
condenses to liquid form. The water will condense duration.
 Cumulonimbus clouds are also called thunderheads.
around dust, ice, or sea salt.
Thunderheads produce rain, thunder, and lightning.
 Why are Clouds Important?  Classification based on the altitude of Clouds
 They are needed for rains or snow.
formation
 During the nights, clouds reflect heat to the earth and
 Clouds are classified based on their formation at different
keep the temperature warm. heights. The altitude at which certain categories of clouds
 During the day, clouds help in keeping the temperature form varies based on the polar region, tropical region, etc.
cooler by shielding the sunlight.  Below table gives the classification of clouds and the
 Researching and studying clouds helps in associated types of clouds
understanding weather and climate. Classification of clouds Types of clouds
 What are the 2 main factors that will determine  High clouds 1. Cirrus
the type of clouds formed? 2. Cirrostratus
 Temperature 3. Cirrocumulus

 Middle clouds 1. Altostratus occur between roughly 10,000 and 60,000 feet. Below
2. Altocumulus that is the home of mid-level clouds, which generally
 Low clods 1. Stratocumulus occur between 6,000 and 25,000 feet.
2. Nimbostratus  What kind of weather do cumulus clouds bring?
 Clouds with extensive 1. Cumulus
 Mostly, cumulus indicates fair weather, often popping
vertical development 2. Cumulonimbus
up on bright sunny days. Though if conditions allow,
1. High-Level Clouds
cumulus can grow into towering cumulus congestus or
 Polar Regions – they form at altitudes of 3000 m
cumulonimbus clouds, which can produce showers.
(10,000 ft) to 7600 m (25,000 ft).
 Is fog a liquid or gas?
 Temperate Regions – they form at altitudes of 5000 m
 Fog is like a cloud, but it is near the ground, not high in
(16,500 ft) to 12,200 m (40,000 ft).
the sky. Thick fog makes it difficult to see the
 Tropical Regions – they form at altitudes of 6,100 m
surrounding landscape. Fog forms from water vapor,
(20,000 ft) to 18,300 m (60,000 ft).
which is water in the form of a gas. Water vapor in the
2. Mid-Level Clouds
air condenses, or turns back into liquid, when the air
 Non-vertical clouds in the middle level are prefixed by
cools.
the alto.
 What are the 4 types of fog?
 At any latitude, these clouds are formed as low as 2000
 There are several different types of fog, including
m (6500 ft) above the surface.
radiation fog, advection fog, valley fog, and freezing
 These clouds can be formed as high as 4,000 m (13,000
fog. Radiation fog forms in the evening when heat
ft) near the poles
absorbed by the Earth’s surface during the day is
 These clouds are formed at an altitude of 7,600 m
radiated into the air. As heat is transferred from the
(25,000 ft) in the tropical region.
ground to the air, water droplets form.
3. Low-level Clouds
 What is fog over water called?
 These clouds are formed near the surface up to 2000 m
 Fog that forms over water is commonly referred to as
(6500 ft).
sea fog or lake fog. It forms when warm, moist air flows
 These types of clouds have no prefix.
over relatively colder waters. Sea or lake fog can occur
 WHAT IS NEPHOLOGY? over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Gulf of
 Nephology is the science of clouds, which is Mexico, the Great Lakes and other bodies of water
undertaken in the cloud physics branch of
meteorology.  TOPIC:- PRECIPITATION:-
 How do meteorologists measure cloud cover?  Great multitudes of clouds particles must join together
 Oktas is the measurement unit that is used to measure in order to form a drop (water) large enough to
the amount of visible sky that is covered by clouds. overcome both evaporation and turbulence and thus
 An okta estimates how many eighths of the sky is we able to fall to earth
covered in clouds.
 The clear sky is measured as 0 oktas.
 An overcast or grey sky is measured as 8 oktas
 What are the 3 main types of clouds?
 Cumulus, Stratus, and Cirrus. There are three main
cloud types. Cumulus clouds are the puffy clouds that
look like puffs of cotton. Cumulus clouds that do not
get very tall are indicators of fair weather..
 What is the highest type of cloud?
 Noctilucent clouds are the highest clouds in the sky,
however, they are not associated with weather like the
rest of the clouds in this table.
 Is fog a cloud?
 Clouds can form at many different altitudes. They can
be as high as 12 miles above sea level or as low as the
ground. Fog is a kind of cloud that touches the ground.
Fog forms when the air near the ground cools enough
to turn its water vapor into liquid water or ice.
 Why are clouds white? O
Warm cloud or warm part of cloud:- dew point > 0 C
 In a cloud, sunlight is scattered by much larger water O
Cold cloud or cold part of a cloud :- Dew point is <0 C
droplets. These scatter all colours almost equally
meaning that the sunlight continues to remain white  Two hypothesis help us understanding
and so making the clouds appear white against the process of precipitation and these are:
background of the blue sky.  It is still not well understood why most clouds do not
 How high can a cloud go? produce precipitation, but two mechanisms are
 At the upper reaches of the troposphere you’ll find believed to be principally responsible for producing
high clouds, which, depending on geographic location, precipitation particles –

a) Collision-coalescence hypothesis:-  Water vapour pressure is the atmospheric pressure
b) Ice-crystal formation hypothesis:- which is exerted by water vapour (water in its gaseous
a) Collision-coalescence hypothesis:- state). It is one way of measuring the humidity of the
 in many cases, particularly in the tropics, cloud air. At a given temperature, an increase of water
temperatures are too high for ice crystals to form vapour in the air corresponds to an increase in the
 in such clouds, rain is produced by the collision humidity of the air.
and coalescing (merging) of water droplets  SATURATED VAPOUR PRESSURE:-
 condensation alone cannot yield rain, because it  S.V.P on water surface is greater than the S.V.P on Ice
produces lots of small droplets, but no large drops surface, i.e. it takes more water vapour molecules to
 apparently, coalescence is assured only if saturate air above water than it does above ice
atmospheric electricity is favourable, that is, only if
a positively charged droplet collides with a
negatively charged one
 the larger they grow, the faster they grow
 collision-coalescence is the process most
responsible for precipitation in the tropics (and it
also produces much precipitation in the middle
latitudes
b) Ice-crystal formation hypothesis (Bergeron-
Findeisen Hypothesis):-
 many clouds or portions of the clouds extend high
enough to have temperatures well below the  Bergeron-Findeisen:- they say in our clouds we have
freezing point of liquid water a) Ice crystals
 up in the clouds, the ice crystal and supercooled b) Very large number of droplets (supper cold
water droplets often coexist in the cloud droplets, they are not freezing because of
 ice crystals and supercooled droplets are in direct microscopic size). In general up in the clouds ice
competition for the water vapour that is not yet crystals are seen in majority on at very low
O
condensed temperature i.e.-40 C and beyond
 there is a lower vapour pressure around the ice c) Vapour , yet to be condensed
crystals and therefore, the ice crystals attract most  TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
of the vapour, and the water droplets, in turn,  The mechanism with which air gets uplifted, resulting
evaporate to replenish the diminishing supply of in condensation and precipitation is called Type of
vapour - as a result, the ice crystals grow at the Precipitation. There are four principal types of
expense of the water droplets until the ice atmospheric li2ing as given below –
crystals are large enough to fall
 as ice crystals pass through the lower portions of 1. CONVECTIONAL PRECIPITATION
the cloud, they pick up more moisture and become a) In general it is more torrential/torrent in nature
still larger b) it is due to unequal heating of different surface areas
 they may then precipitate from the cloud as c) a parcel of air near the ground may be warmed more
snowflakes or melt and precipitate as raindrops than the air around it
 this process is believed to account for the majority d) this warm air rises and gets adiabatically cooled to the
of precipitation outside of tropical regions dew point, resulting in condensation and precipitation
e) convectional precipitation typically is showery, with
large raindrops falling fast and furiously but for only a
short duration
f) convectional precipitation is restricted in terms of
latitude (especially - lower latitudes) and season
(especially - summer) and time of the day
 The air on getting heated becomes light and rises in
convection currents.
 As the air rises, it expands and drops the temperature
and subsequently, condensation takes place and
cumulus clouds are formed.
 Note – the above mentioned two hypotheses together
 Heavy rainfall with lightning and thunder takes place
help us to understand the precipitation process more
which does not last long. {as cloud vertically develops ,
comprehensively
it has everything in intense}
 VAPOUR PRESSURE (V.P):-  Such rain is usually in the summer or the hotter part of
 It is the pressure exerted by a vapour of a substance. the day.
for example , the pressure exerted by water vapour in  This type of rainfall generally takes place in the
air equatorial regions and internal parts of the continents,
 If the air is saturated, it is referred to as saturation predominantly in the northern hemisphere.
vapour pressure (S.V.P)  This rainfall is usually associated with hail and graupel

characteristics depend upon what type of front is there
(type of front is decided by aggressor air-mass)
 in a front, warm air rises over the cold air
 the rising air may be cooled to the dew point, resulting
in condensation and precipitation
 frontal activity is characteristic of the mid-latitudes
 the nature of precipitation depends upon the type of
front formed
 the two main types of fronts are – cold and warm
 a cold front is one in which cold air mass is the
“aggressor” air mass, and in this front, the cold air
forcibly uplifts the warmer to great heights, in a narrow
zone, resulting in precipitation, which is more or less
similar to convectional precipitation
 a warm front is one in which warm air mass is the
“aggressor” air mass, and in this front, warm air rises
2. OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION gradually over the colder air, and as it rises it also
a) it is due to a topographic barrier (like a mountain) spreads horizontally, resulting in precipitation which is
b) on the windward side of the mountain, the air rises, and if it similar to orographic type
gets cooled to the dew point, may result in condensation and
precipitation
c) however, on the leeward side, the air descends, adiabatic
cooling is replaced by adiabatic warming, and
condensation/precipitation ceases – resulting in rain shadow
zone
d) an extreme example of the windward-leeward contrast in
orographic precipitation is found on the island of Kauai in
Hawaii, a small island consisting mostly of one prominent
mountain, Mt. Waialeale (1598m) - persistent north-eastern
trade winds bring enormous amounts of rain to the
windward slope (average 12090 mm of rain annually), and
only about 24 km away, on the leeward side of the mountain,
the average precipitation is only about 500 mm
e) orographic precipitation can occur at any latitude, any 4. CONVERGENT PRECIPITATION
season, anytime of the day – with a moist parcel of air and a  less common than the other three types mentioned
topographic barrier above
f) orographic precipitation is, in general, gentler (smaller drop  whenever air converges, the result is a general uplift
size), widespread, and prolonged because of the crowding
 When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is
 this forced uplift enhances instability and is likely to
forced to rise.
produce showery precipitation
 The rising air expands, eventually, the temperature falls, and
 it is frequently associated with cyclonic storm systems
the moisture gets condensed.
 The principal characteristic of this type of rain is that the and is particularly characteristic of the low latitudes
windward slopes get more rainfall.  it is common, for example, in the ITCZ, and is notable in
 After giving rain on the windward side, when these winds such tropical disturbances as hurricanes and easterly
reach the other slope, they drop away, and their temperature wave
increases. Then their ability to take in moisture increases and
hence, these leeward slopes remain dry and rainless.
 The region situated on the leeward side is known as the rain-
shadow area.
Mount Waialeale, on the Hawaiian island of Kauai, receives

3. FRONTAL PRECIPITATION an enormous amount of precipitation on its windward
 when unlike air masses meet, they do not mix, rather a (northeastern) slopes from the persistent trade winds that
zone of discontinuity is formed between them (called a blow upslope. On the leeward side of the island, the
front) downslope wind flow produces very little precipitation. The
 there are cold fronts, warm fronts, occluded fronts, isolines are isohyets, and the values given are aru1ual
stationary fronts, the frontal precipitation rainfall in inches.

3. SNOW –
 One of the solid forms of precipitation – ice crystals, small
pellets, or flakes. It is formed when water vapour is
converted directly to ice without an intermediate water
stage. Snow is usually dry and powdery. It appears white as
snow crystals reflect light in all Directions
 When ice crystals and snow-flakes fall from high cirrus
clouds they are called fall streaks. Fall streaks behave in
much the same way as virga. As the ice particles fall into
drier air, they usually sublimate (that is, change from ice
into vapour). Fall streaks when moved horizontally by
winds, appear as dangling white streamers.
 Blizzard is a weather condition characterized by low
temperatures and strong winds bearing large amounts
of fine, dry, powdery particles of snow, which can
reduce visibility to only a few metres
HAND-OUT MATERIAL OF PRECIPITATION

 FORMS OF PRECIPITATION:
 Several forms of precipitation may result from the
Collision-Coalescence and Ice Crystal formation
processes. The form that results depends primarily on  The dangling white streamers of ice crystals
– temperature of air and its degree of turbulence. The beneath these cirrus clouds are known as fall-
main forms of precipitation are: streaks. The bending of the streaks is due to the
1. RAIN – changing wind speed with height
 It consists of drops of liquid water (0.5 mm to 6 mm in 4. SLEET –
diameter). It is the most common and widespread form
 In general, the term is applied to a mixture of rain and
of precipitation. Most rain is the result of condensation
snow. In the US, sleet refers to small raindrops that
and precipitation in ascending air that has a
freeze during descent and reach the ground as small
temperature above freezing, but some results from the
pellets.
thawing of ice crystals as they descend through the
 Sleet and Freezing Rain – As snow falls into
warmer air.
warmer air, it begins to melt. As it falls through the
 Meteorologists often make a distinction among
deep subfreezing surface layer of air, the partially
“rain,” which goes on for a relatively long time;
melted snowflake or cold raindrops turn back into
“showers,” which are relatively brief and involve
ice, not as a snowflake, but as a tiny ice pellet
large drops; and “drizzle,” which consists of very
called sleet.
small drops and usually lasts for some time.
 When raindrops strike on a cold object, the drops
 Most of the rain that falls over middle latitudes
spread out and almost immediately freeze,
results from melted snow that formed from the
forming a thin veneer of ice. This form of
ice-crystal process.
precipitation is called freezing rain, or glaze. If the
 Virga – Occasionally, the rain falling from a cloud
drops are small (less than 0.5mm in diameter), the
never reaches the surface because the low
precipitation is called freezing drizzle.
humidity causes rapid evaporation. As the drops
 Glaze – Glaze is rain that turns to ice the instant it
become smaller, their rate of fall decreases, and
collides with a solid object. Raindrops fall through
they appear to hang in the air as a rain streamer.
a shallow layer of subfreezing air near the ground.
These evaporating streaks of precipitation are
Although the drops do not freeze in the air (i.e.
called virga.
they do not turn into sleet), they become
 The streaks of failing precipitation that evaporate
supercooled while in this cold layer and are
before reaching the ground are called virga
instantly converted to an icy surface when they
2. DRIZZLE – alight. This is a coating of ice which forms when
 a spray like rain (drops <0.5 mm in diameter). These fall at a rain falls on to a ground surface, the temperature
slow pace. It is generally associated with low and stratus
of which remains below freezing-point. This thick
clouds. It reduces visibility.
coating of ice makes both pedestrian and vehicular  CYCLONIC RAINFALL
travel hazardous as well as breaks tree limbs and  Cyclonic activity causes cyclonic rain and it occurs along
transmission lines. the fronts of the cyclone.
 When small supercooled cloud or fog droplets  When two masses of air of unlike density,
strike an object whose temperature is below temperature, and humidity meet then it is formed.
freezing, the tiny droplets freeze, forming an  The layer that separates them is known as the front.
accumulation of white or milky granular ice called  A warm front and the cold front are the two parts of
rime. the front.
 When a sheet of ice covering a road surface or  At the warm front, the warm lighter wind increases
pavement appears relatively dark, it is often slightly over the heavier cold air.
referred to as black ice. Black ice commonly forms  As the warm air rises, it cools, and the moisture
when light rain, drizzle, or supercooled fog present in it condenses to form clouds
droplets come in contact with surfaces that have  This rain falls gradually for a few hours to a few days.
cooled to a temperature below freezing. Black Ice
refers to the thin coating of transparent ice on
 TYPES OF RAINFALL BASED ON INTENSITY
 The types of rainfall based on intensity can be classified
roadways, sidewalks and parking lots – it is hard to
see, can build up quickly and is extremely as:
 Light rain – Rate of rain varies between 0 to 2.5
dangerous to both pedestrians and drivers.
millimeters
5. HAIL –  Moderate rain – Rate of rain varies between 2.6
 The precipitation form with the most complex origin is millimeters to 7.6 millimeters
hail. It consists of either small pellets or larger lumps of  Heavy rain – Rate of rain is beyond 7.6 millimeters
ice. Hailstones are usually composed of roughly th th
concentric layers of clear and cloudy ice. The cloudy 1. Yesterday is not ours to recover, but tomorrow is ours
portions contain numerous tiny air bubbles among to win or lose
crystals of ice, whereas the clear parts are made up of 2. To exist is to change, to change is to mature, to mature
large ice crystals. Hail is produced in cumulonimbus is to go on creating oneself endlessly
clouds as a result of vertical air currents. A hailstone 3. In the practice of tolerance, one’s enemy is the best
normally continues to grow whether it is rising or teacher
falling, providing it passes through portions of the 4. Let the people think they govern, and they will be
cloud that contain supercooled droplets. governed
 As the cumulonimbus cloud moves along, it may
deposit its hail in a long narrow band (often  TOPIC:- CLOUD BURST:-
several kilometres wide and about 10 kilometres SIR’s BASIC DISCUSSION IN WORDS
long). Known as hailstreak  Cloud burst is not a technical term as it is not
 Hailstones begin as embryos (usually ice particles) that technically correct term(as this term came from the
remain suspended in the cloud by violent updrafts. mouth of common people)
When the updrafts are tilted, the ice particles are  Cloudburst, a sudden, very heavy rainfall, Too much of
swept horizontally through the cloud, producing the rain in too short time usually local in nature and of
optimal trajectory for hailstone growth. Along their brief duration.
path, the ice particles collide with supercooled liquid  Places in India experience cloud bursting:- NE+ UK +
droplets, which freeze on contact. The ice particles HP + Western Ghats + Mumbai + Chennai
eventually grow large enough and heavy enough to fall  Cloud burst is more often connected/associated with
toward the ground as hailstones. the convectional type precipitation
 Vertical type of cloud has higher chances of cloud
bursting
 Mountains aid in the process of convection. Similarly,
Buildings in cities aid in or intensify the process of
convection as Mountains and buildings give much more
area and time to sun to heat up
 In urban areas we have done so many changes, so
highly transformed by mankind that general science of
atmosphere called climatology is no more applicable to
urban areas. So now we need new science for urban
areas called urban climatology
 Bigger areas therefore 5-10% more precipitation than the
nearest rural areas.
 For condensation to happen air must be saturated (means RH
must be 100%) and have condensation nuclei (in City like
Delhi we have abundance of Condensation nuclei due to
pollution)
 Let’s think of Uttrakhand tragedy
 Cumulonimbus cloud burst water + Glacial lakes loose

sediments and it water combined and due to  Silver iodide is much easier to handle than dry ice, since it can
mountainous slope their force was intense that no be supplied to the cloud from burners located either on the
human structure could face it, and it led to destruction ground or on the wing of a small aircraft
 Besides silver iodide, other chemicals used for seeding are
lead iodide and cupric sulphide
 Sometimes, clouds may get seeded naturally-ice crystal may
descend from the higher cloud and seed the cloud below
 In some projects, warm clouds with temperatures above
freezing have also been seeded in an attempt to produce
rain-by injecting tiny water drops and particles of hygroscopic
salt
 Results of cloud seeding projects are not reliable-all kinds of
results have been experienced-in some projects increase in
precipitation, in others, less precipitation and in still others,
no change
 In Karnataka farmers started it as “Government Rain” as
these projects were done there to bring more precipitation
 A cloudburst is an extreme amount of precipitation in a

short period of time, sometimes accompanied by hail
and thunder, which is capable of creating flood
conditions. Cloudbursts can quickly dump large
amounts of water, e.g. 25 mm of precipitation
corresponds to 25,000 metric tons per square
kilometre.
 Definition:- cloud burst is a fanciful term used for a
sudden, very concentrated down pour of water.
Generally the area affected is quite small - this is for
the reason that the cloud burst is caused by intense
local convection rising of air. INTERNET ADDITION ON CLOUD SEEDING
 THE CLOUD SEEDING:-  WHY IN NEWS?
 In simple words:- All interventions in the existing cloud  Recently, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) which is
To induce more precipitation out of the existing clouds. located in one of the hottest and driest regions on
 Cloud seeding is a type of weather modification that earth, has been leading the effort to seed clouds and
aims to change the amount or type of precipitation increase precipitation, which remains at less than 100
that falls from clouds by dispersing substances into the millimetres a year on average.
air that serve as cloud condensation or ice nuclei,  UAE combined shooting water-attracting salt flares
which alter the microphysical processes within the with releasing salt nanoparticles, a newer technology,
cloud into the clouds to stimulate and accelerate the
 The primary goal in many cloud seeding experiments is to condensation process and hopefully produce droplets
inject/seed a cloud with small particles {pellets of dry ice as it big enough to then fall as rain.
brings the temperature down, so dry ice works as cooling
agent + some chemical like silver iodide is also added to
 ABOUT:
provide more condensation nuclei (seeding agent)} that will  Cloud seeding is the process of spreading either dry ice
act as nuclei, so that the cloud particles will grow large or more commonly, silver iodide aerosols, into the
enough to fall to the surface as precipitation upper part of clouds to try to stimulate the
 Most of cloud seeding projects are based on the learnings precipitation process and form rain.
from BERGERON FINDEISEN Hypothesis (based on cold  Cloud seeding uses planes to spray clouds with
clouds) 1930s chemicals to condense smaller particles into larger rain
 some of the first experiments in cloud seeding were
droplets.
conducted by VINCENT SCHAEFER and IRVING LANGMUIR
 Cloud seeding increases rainfall rates by approximately
during the late 1940s
 In cloud seeding, dry ice (has a temperature of -78degrees c) 10% to 30% per year and cloud seeding operations cost
is used a cooling agent much less than the desalination process.
 As the extremely cold, dry ice pellets fall through the cloud,  CLOUD SEEDING METHODS:
they quickly cool the air around them-facilitating growth of
ice crystals a) Hygroscopic Cloud Seeding:
 In these projects silver iodide (Agt) is used as a cloud seeding  Disperses salts through flares or explosives in the lower
agent (since silver lodide has a crystalline structure similar to portions of clouds. The salt grows in size as water joins
an ice crystal, it acts as an effective ice nucleus at low with them.
temperatures) b) Static Cloud Seeding:
 It involves spreading a chemical like silver iodide into
clouds. The silver iodide provides a crystal around or salt will also fall. Residual silver discovered in places near
which moisture can condense. cloud-seeding projects is considered toxic. As for dry ice, it
 The moisture is already present in the clouds, but silver can also be a source of greenhouse gas that contributes
to global warming, as it is basically carbon dioxide.
iodide essentially makes rain clouds more effective at
dispensing their water.  Q. In the context of which of the following
c) Dynamic Cloud Seeding: do some scientists suggest the use of cirrus
 It aims to boost vertical air currents, which encourages cloud thinning technique and the injection of
more water to pass through the clouds, translating into sulphate aerosol into stratosphere? (2019)
more rain. (a) Creating the artificial rains in some regions
 The process is considered more complex than static (b) Reducing the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones
cloud seeding because it depends on a sequence of (c) Reducing the adverse effects of solar wind on the Earth
events working properly. (d) Reducing the global warming
 Ans: (d)
 APPLICATIONS OF CLOUD SEEDING:  Exp:
a) Agriculture:  Cirrus cloud thinning is a kind of technology that involves
 It creates rain, providing relief to drought-stricken thinning the wispy, elongated cirrus clouds of high altitudes.
areas. Cirrus clouds do not reflect a lot of solar radiation back into
 E.g.: ‘Project Varshadhari’ in Karnataka in 2017. space, but as these are formed at high altitudes and cold
temperatures, these clouds trap long-wave radiation and
b) Power Generation:
have a climate impact similar to greenhouse gases. Thinning
 Cloud seeding experiments have shown to augment cirrus clouds would be achieved by injecting ice nuclei (such
production of hydroelectricity during the last 40 years as dust) into regions where there are cirrus clouds, making
in Tasmania, Australia. the ice crystals bigger and reducing the cirrus optical depth.
c) Water Pollution Control: Thinning the clouds would allow more heat to escape into
 Cloud seeding can help to maintain minimum summer space and thereby cool the planet.
flows of the rivers and dilute the impact of treated  Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI) is a technique that
would involve spraying large quantities of inorganic particles
wastewater discharges from municipalities and
(e.g., Sulphur dioxide) into the stratosphere to act as a
industries.
reflective barrier against incoming sunlight, thus helping to
d) Fog Dispersal, Hail Suppression, and Cyclone reduce the global warming.
Modification:  Therefore, option (d) is the correct answer.
 During the winter the cloud seeding programme is
used to increase the mountain snowpack so that TEMPERATURE INVERSION
additional runoff is received during the spring melt  Temperature inversion in simple means Colder conditions lie
season. beneath the warmer conditions , so whenever in any area
 “Project Sky Water” of the U.S.A. in 1962 for weather there is a condition of temperature inversion it would
modification through cloud seeding aimed at fog discourage clouds ,hence precipitation an d hence storm
 Temperature inversion enhances urban pollution (as air
dispersal, hail suppression, and cyclone modification.
would not rise in condition of temperature inversion)
e) Tackle Air Pollution:  Definition:- Temperature inversion refers to An atmospheric
 Cloud seeding can potentially be used to settle down condition in which with increase height , there is an increase
toxic air pollutants through the rain. in temperature rather than the more usual relationship
 E.g.: Recently, the Central Pollution Control shown by the ELR (instead of ELR) (relates to troposphere not
Board along with other researchers mulled the use of other zone)
cloud seeding to tackle Delhi’s air pollution.  TWO TYPES OF INVERSIONS:-
f) Tourism: 1. SURFACE INVERSION:-
 Cloud seeding can transform typically dry areas much  These takes place 1-2 km above the surface of earth, where a
more hospitable to enhance tourism. layer of warmer air interrupts the normal decrease in
 WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES 
temperature with height
Such inversions tend to stabilise the air, causing less
INVOLVED IN CLOUD SEEDING? turbulence and discouraging clouds/precipitation and the
development of storms
a) Potential Side-effects:  Inversion in the lower troposphere prevents the vertical
 The chemicals used in cloud seeding might be potentially mixing of pollutants with the other atmospheric gases – thus
harmful to plants, animals, and people, or the environment. instead of being carried away, pollutants are trapped under
b) Abnormal Weather Patterns: the inversion layer
 It might ultimately change climatic patterns on the planet. 2. UPPER AIR INVERSIONS:-
Places that normally receive moisture might start  Generally related to anti-cyclonic conditions means high
experiencing drought due to the artificial process of adding pressure conditions. (High pressure is maintained by
chemicals to the atmosphere to stimulate rain. descending air currents) (descending air gets adiabatically
c) Costly: warmed and at such particular area this air gets warmer than
 It involves processes such as delivering chemicals to the sky the beneath air so there develops the inversion condition,
and releasing them into the air by flare shots or airplanes, but in rapid sinking this inversion does not happen means
which involves huge costs and logistic preparation. every anti-cyclonic conditions don’t give us upper air
d) Pollution: inversion)
 As artificial rain falls, seeding agents like silver iodide, dry ice
 Such inversions may occur when air settles slowly from the colder) , so it sinks down the valleys and pushes the existing warm air
upper atmosphere. Such air is compressed as it sinks & gets up (pushed aloft)
warmed
 Upper air inversions caused by descending air are common at
O O
about 30 /35 N/S (Sub tropical high pressure belt)
f) When a warm air mass passes over a colder land

surface, it will be cooled from below – resulting in a
 THE IMPORTANT TEMPERATURE INVERSION case of temperature inversion
CASES OR SITUATIONS:-
th
a) Across Tropopause :- done in 7 class
b) In a frontal situation of the atmosphere:- warm air
rises over the cold air –resulting in a case of
temperature inversion
c) Anti-cyclonic conditions :- as discussed above in upper
air inversion
d) On a clear night (no clouds), when heat is radiated from
the earth’s surface, the air near to the surface is cooled by
conduction of heat to the cold ground. The lower layer of the
atmosphere is therefore cooler then the air aloft resulting in
a case of temperature inversion
7TH CLASS MATERIAL OF TEMPERATURE
INVERSION WHERE DISCUSSED IN BRIEF
1) It refers to An atmospheric condition in which with
increase height , there is an increase in temperature
(instead of ELR) (relates to troposphere not any other
zone)
2) Temperature inversion is a phenomenon relates
primarily to troposphere
3) Lower latitudes have strongest convectional currents of

the world because lower latitudes are most heated
areas of world due to sun)
4) Since the lower latitudes are the most intensely heated
areas, these areas have stronger convectional currents
and have warmer air
5) Warmer air rises ,higher it rises, as it rises it gets
adiabatically cooled
6) As we go towards higher latitude, convection gets
weekend (heat less there) and warm air rises to low
e) At night the colder air On upper slopes of valley side descends into elevations
the valley bottom displacing warmer air aloft this produces a 7) This all explains the spatial variations in the height of
katabatic wind and can develop “frost hollows on valleys floor which tropo-pause (as shown in the diagram)
can affect sensitive crops”. {At night due to conduction of air , air
near earth’s surface gets cooled, Such cooling will be more along 8) Besides spatial variations , height of Tropopause also
steep slopes of mountains and this cold air is much dense (and varies temporally, summer is a time for stronger
convection & hence higher elevation of Tropopause at
a given place TOPIC:- FOG:-
9) It is apparently paradox that the lowest temperature  In the water budget and the hydrologic cycle, fog is a
in the Troposphere is vertically overhead at the minor form of condensation. Fog plays havoc with our
equator rather than at the poles modern transportation systems.
10) Coldest conditions of the atmosphere are generally 1. RADIATION FOG:
O O
found /seen at Mesopause (temp b/w -85 C to -90 C)  Radiational cooling can lead to radiation fog, also called
 RELEVANCE TO TROPOPAUSE & TROPOSPHERE:- temperature-inversion fog. This kind of fog is likely to
1) Across Tropopause there occurs a case of temperature occur on a cold, clear, calm night, usually in the middle
inversion latitudes. These conditions allow for maximum
2) Troposphere is the real weather sphere of nature outgoing radiation from the ground with no incoming
3) Most of what comprises weather (clouds (weather radiation. The ground gets colder during the night as it
elements)) remains confined within troposphere gives up more of the heat that it has received during
4) So Tropopause acts as a lid of troposphere and doesn’t the day. As time passes, the air directly above is cooled
let clouds go out Tropopause generally and doesn’t by conduction through contact with the cold ground.
allow the penetration of weather elements (clouds) This results in temperature inversion. If this cold layer
into stratosphere of air at the surface is cooled to a temperature below
5) This is so because there occurs a case of temperature its dew point, then condensation will occur, usually in
inversion across the Tropopause (i.e. colder conditions lie the form of a low-lying fog. The chances of a
beneath warmer conditions) temperature-inversion fog occurring are increased by
certain types of land formations.
 In valleys, cold air accumulates through air drainage.
During a cold night, this air can be cooled below its
dew point, and may result into fog. Radiation fog often
forms even more densely in industrial areas where the
high concentration of chemical particles in the air
provides abundant condensation nuclei.
2. ADVECTION FOG:
 This occurs through the movement of warm moist air
over a colder surface, either land or water. When the
warm air is cooled below its dew point through heat
loss by radiation and conduction from the colder
surface below, condensation occurs in the form of fog.
 Warm, moist air moving over the cold snow causes the
dense fog. Advection fog forms over land during the
winter months in middle latitudes.
 During summer months, advection fog may form over
large lakes or over the oceans.
 An advection fog also can be formed when a warm air
mass moves over a cold ocean current (this is called
sea fog).
 Advection fogs also occur when warm, moist air from
above the Gulf stream flows north over the colder
waters of the Labrador Current.
3. UPSLOPE FOG:
 Another type of fog clings to windward sides of
6) Air near earth surface gets warmed and warm air rises & gets mountain slopes and is known as upslope fog. During
adiabatically cooled. This cold air can’t go beyond early hours in middle latitude locations, a light, moist
Tropopause and sinks back breeze may ascend a slope and cool to the dew point,
leaving a blanket of fog behind. In tropical rainforest
regions, mountain slopes may be covered in a fog any
time of day. Because the atmosphere is much more
humid, reaching the dew point is easier.
4. EVAPORATION FOG:
 An evaporation fog results when water vapour is added
to the cold air that is already near saturation.
 Other Minor Forms of Condensation:
 Dew, which is made up of tiny droplets of water, is
7) As a result , troposphere becomes the zone of the formed by the condensation of water vapour at or near
atmosphere in which air keeps Turing itself (word tropos in
the surface of Earth. Dew also originates from
latin means a turn)
terrestrial radiation. Night-time radiation cools objects see Earth (sea surface) and sky are meeting with each
(grass, automobiles, etc.) at Earth’s surface, and the other}
adjacent air is in turn cooled by conduction. If it is 2. SUN’S ALTITUDE:-
cooled to the dew point, droplets of water will form on  Sun is about to rise or set , the angle b/w sun and
the surface. horizon is zero
 When the temperature of the air is below 0 degree C,  Sun's Altitude - the angle between the horizon and the
white frost forms. It is the result of sublimation. sun (at sunrise and sunset the altitude is 0 degree, as
 HUMIDITY the sun is at the horizon)
1. ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY:
 It is the measure of the mass of water vapour that
exists within a given volume of air (expressed as grams
per cubic metre).
2. SPECIFIC HUMIDITY:
 It is the mass of water vapour (given in grams) per
mass of air (given in kilograms). Both are measures of
the actual amount of water vapour in the air. Because
most water vapour gets into the air through the
evaporation of water from Earth’s surface, it stands to
reason that absolute and specific humidity will
decrease with height from Earth.
 Absolute Humidity can vary simply as a result of the
vertical movement of a parcel of air.
 Specific Humidity, on the other hand, changes only
as the quantity of the water vapour changes
 ADIABATIC COOLING & HEATING
 The rising parcel of air will expand as it encounters
decreasing atmospheric pressure with height. This is
known as adiabatic cooling and occurs at the constant
lapse rate of approximately 10 degrees C per 1000
metres. The descending air through the atmosphere is
compressed and undergoes adiabatic heating of the
same magnitude. However, the rising and cooling
parcel of air will eventually reach its dew point – the 3. SUB-SOLAR POINT –
temperature at which water vapour begins to  Sub-Solar Point is the point where the sun is directly
condense out, forming cloud droplets. overhead, here the insulation is maximum (as here
 DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE: 10 degrees C per 1000 the sun's rays strike the planet exactly perpendicular to
metres its surface)
 WET/SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE: averages 5  Note:- seasonality of the consequence of changing
degrees C per 1000 metres (but varies according to the relationship b/w earth and the sun
amount of water vapour that condenses out of the air.  A sub-solar point is a location on any planet which, at
 Note: Whereas the environmental lapse rate reflects some time of a year, comes directly under the sun or
nothing more than the vertical structure of the the the sun is at the zenith. The sun-light at the sub-
atmosphere, the adiabatic lapse rates are concerned solar point hits the surface, perpendicularly. The sub-
with temperature changes as a parcel of air moves solar point can also be perceived as the the location
through the atmospheric layers. closest to the sun.
th th
……..17 class ended, 18 started…......  SIGNIFICANCE OF SUB-SOLAR POINT:
1. Perseverance- the secret of all triumphs in life  The sub-solar pint defines the locations of Tropic of Cancer
2. In every walk with nature, one receives for more than and Tropic of Capricorn on Earth. The tropics are the two
he seeks latitudes which mark the extreme North and South
3. Worrying is like rocking chair, it gives you something movement of sub-solar point throughout the year. On
to do but gets you nowhere Summer Solstice (21 June) the sub-solar point is on the tropic
4. We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at of cancer whereas on winter solstice (22 December) the sub-
the stars solar point is on the tropic of Capricorn. Moreover the sub-
solar point always remains between the two tropics and
 TOPIC:-THE SEASONALITY:- reaches the equator, two times a year known as equinoxes.
The Tropics: The tropics are two latitudes on the surface of
 SOME IMPORTANT TERMS earth that correspond to the maximum and minimum solar
declination angle throughout the year.
1. HORIZON:- The maximum declination angle occurs on June 21 and is
 Term horizon refers to the apparent line at which equal to +23.4 degrees whereas the minimum declination
earth and sky seem to meet {when in open space we angle occurs on December 21 and is equal to -23.4 degrees.

c) Variation in Sun’s altitude
 The above-mentioned variations are created by the
following five physical factors that operate together-
(Reasons/causes of Seasonality):-
a) Earth's Revolution;
b) Earth's Rotation;
c) Earth's Tilted Axis;
d) Axial Parallelism (the unchanging orientation of
the earth's axis);
e) Earth's Spherical Shape
 NOTE:-
 Note that the Earth’s elliptical orbit – is not a reason
for seasonality.
rd
a) On about 3 January, Earth is 147million Km from
the Sun, closer than at any other time, this
position is called Perihelion (The term helion in
greek refers to Sun and peri in greek implies
about or around)
th
b) On about 4 July, earth is 152million Km away
from sun, Farther away than at any other time, this
position is called Aphelion (Ap in greek implies
away)
c) Although earth is closest to the sun and does
4. SUN'S DECLINATION- receive more energy in January than in July –this
 is the latitude of the sub-solar point. Declination difference does not manifest as a reason for
annually migrates through 47degrees (23.5 + 23.5) of seasonality
latitude between the two tropics d) Proof:- {as a proof consider that earth is closest to
 The solar altitude angle measured at noon will differ the Sun, during the cold N-hemispheric winter
from the corresponding equinocial angle by an angle of (where it should have been summer but not so).
up to ± 23° 17' (or 23.5). This angle is called the solar with earth being closest to the Sun but The
declination. It is defined as the angular distance from summer in S-hemisphere is not found to be more
the zenith of the observer at the equator and the sun severe than summer of N-Hemisphere(which is
at solar noon. with earth being farthest from the Sun}
 Before writing about reasons of seasonality , always
keep in remember what are consequences of
seasonality (don’t write consequences as reasons)
 HEAT BUDGET OF EARTH:-
 It refers to the balance b/w the amount of Sun’s
energy reaching earth’s surface and the amount of
energy sent back by earth’s to space (in a long term
perspective)
 Because of this earth’s heat budget, There is a
constancy of the average temperature of the earth’s
surface
 A heat budget is a perfect balance between incoming
heat (insolation) absorbed by the earth and outgoing
heat (terrestrial radiation) escaping it in the form of
radiation. If the incoming heat and the outgoing heat
5. SEASONALITY are not balanced, then Earth would be getting either
 Seasonality refers to both the seasonal variations of too warmer or cooler.
the sun's position above the horizon and the changing
day lengths during the year  CLIMATE CHANGE
 In simple words Seasonality describes cyclic and  In simple words, it is the change in average
largely predictable fluctuations in the environment. temperature of earth’s surface due to the disturbance
Such variations in day length, temperature, rainfall, of heath budget of earth. Earth’s history is a history of
and resource availability are ubiquitous and can exert climate change.
strong selection pressure on organisms to adapt to  In the geological past climate change was because of
seasonal environments. nature’s own reasons but at present it is because of
 Seasons result from variations in the following both the sets of reasons- Natural reasons +
a) Variations in Length of a day Anthropogenic reasons
b) Variation in sun’s declination  Climate change is both Global warming as well as global
cooling also.
A. EARTH'S REVOLUTION- XIII created the Gregorian calendar, coined the term
 At an average distance from the sun of 150 million km, “leap year” and established February 29 as the official
earth completes its annual orbit in 365.24 days (one date to add to a leap year. He also introduced a rule to
solar year) at a speed averaging 107280 kmph in take into account the discrepancy in the Julian
counter clockwise direction when viewed from above calendar. Now, a leap year occurs in every year that
the earth's North Pole. is divisible by four, but only in century years that
 Note:- From N-Pole perspective (when seen from are evenly divided by 400
 Therefore, 800, 1200 and 2000 were leap years - but
North Pole) earth’s rotation and revolution is anti-
clockwise + Moon’s rotation and revolution is also anti- 1700 and 1900 were not, because even though they are
clockwise divisible by four, they are not divisible by 400.
 So that fixes everything. Well, not entirely. The solar
year is approximately 26 seconds shorter than the
Gregorian year at the moment – but that’s a problem
for another day
 The solar year is approximately 26 seconds shorter than
the Gregorian year at the moment – but that’s a
problem for another day.
B. EARTH'S ROTATION-
a) The earth's west to east rotation causes the apparent daily
journey of the sun from east to west;
b) Earth's rotation produces the diurnal pattern of day and
night;
c) The dividing line between day and night is called the Circle of
Illumination;
d) Circle of illumination bisects the equator, daylength at the
 Earth revolves in orbit around the sun in 365 days, 6 equator is always evenly divided-12 hours of day and 12
hours, 9 minutes with reference to the stars, at a hours of night;
speed ranging from 29.29 to 30.29 km/s. The 6 hours, 9 e) All other parallels experience, uneven daylength through the
minutes adds up to about an extra day every fourth seasons, except for 2 days a year (on the equinoxes). Equator
year, which is designated a leap year, with the extra is only evenly divided sun’s light so throughout the year
th equator has equal day/nights.
day added as February 29
 CALENDAR SYSTEM FACTS
 Note:- The tradition of Leap Year began more than
2,000 years ago to "leap" the 365-day calendar year
ahead one day almost every four years to keep up with
the solar year, which is actually 365.2425 days
long. Roman Emperor Julius Caesar is considered the
father of Leap Year, according to the History Channel,
he took help from SOSIGENES who gave concept of
leap year
 Sosigenes was an ancient astronomer. According
to Pliny the Elder's Natural History 18.210–212, Julius
Caesar consulted him while he was designing the Julian
calendar.
 However this calendar has errors so then Gregory XIII
came and made corrections
 Our calendar has 365 days in a year, because that’s
pretty much how long it takes the Earth to orbit the
Sun. The problem is that in reality it takes the Earth
around 365 ¼ days (actually 365.24219 days) to circle
the Sun (that’s a solar year), which means our calendar
is out by around a quarter of a day a year.
 That discrepancy was spotted a while back.
 In 45 B.C. a decree by Julius Caesar began the practice
of adding an extra day every four years, with the
creation of the Julian calendar – making up for those
quarter days.
 That would be perfect if a solar year were exactly 365 ¼
days – but 365.242 is a teeny bit less than that, and
over time that teeny bit adds up.
 By 1582 A.D. that slight discrepancy in the Julian
calendar added up to 10 days. So Pope Gregory
C. TILT OF THE EARTH'S AXIS-
 Earth's rotation ads forms an angle of 66.5 degrees
with the plane of the ecliptic (Ecliptic plane is the
imaginary plane in which lies the earth's orbit around
the sun), and this tilt is called the inclination of the
axis. It is commonly described as being 23.5 degrees
from a line perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic.
E. EARTH'S SPHERICITY-
 Earth's curved surface presents a continually varied
angle to the incoming parallel rays of sun. The
latitudinal variation in the angle of solar rays results in
an uneven global distribution of insolation.
 Note:- So seasons are the combined effect of all A to E

(five) reasons.
 ANNUAL MARCH OF SEASONS

Approximate N-Hemisphere Sun’s
D. AXIAL PARALLELISM- Date Name Declination
 Throughout our annual journey around the Sun, Earth's Dec 21-22 Winter 23.5 degree
axis maintains the same alignment (tilt) relative to the Solstice south
plane of the ecliptic and to Polaris, In each position the March 20-21 Spring equinox/ 0 degree
earth is revolving with the axis oriented identically or Vernal equinox
parallel to itself. This condition is known as axial June 20-21 Sumer 23.5 degrees
parallelism. solstice North

Sept 22-23 Autumnal 0 degrees  As earth goes dec to march days become longer in N-
Equinox hemisphere and opposite in S-hemisphere. Length of
day is different in change for all latitudes
1. Winter solstice (December 21-22)
 The Circle of Illumination excludes the North Polar
region from sunlight and includes the South Pole
region
 From 66.5 degrees north to the 90 degrees north, the
sun remains below the horizon the entire day (24 hours
of darkness) The latitude 66.5 degrees marks the Arctic
Circle
 During the following three month, day length and solar
angles gradually increase in the northern hemisphere
as earth completes one-fourth of its orbit
2. Spring equinox/vernal equinox (march
20-21)
 Circle of Illumination passes through both the poles so
that all locations on earth experience a 12 hours' day
and a 12 hours night
 At the north pole, the sun peeks above the horizon for
the first time since the previous September, and at the
South Pole, the sun is setting
 From march to September N-pole is included with Sun
light (6 month day and for S-Pole it is 6 month of night)
3. Summer solstice (june 20-21)
 Circle of illumination now includes the North Pole
region, everything north of the Arctic Circle receives 24
hours of daylight-the "midnight sun" In contrast, the
region from the Antarctic Circle to the South Pole (66.5
degrees
 South to 90 degrees South) is in darkness, the entire
day
4. Autumnal equinox (September 22-23)
 Circle of illumination again passes through both poles, so that
all parts of the globe receive a 12 hours' day and 12 hours  Earth Sun configuration during the whiter and summer
night solstices. At these times, the Sun's noon rays strike directly at
 Sun rises at the South Pole, ending the six months of night 23.5° of latitude. During the June solstice (Northern
Hemisphere summer), sunlight is concentrated in the
Northern Hemisphere. During the December solstice
(Northern Hemisphere winter), sunlight is concentrated in
the Southern Hemisphere. Direct rays never get any farther
south than 23.5° south latitude or any farther north than
23.5° north latitude. After June 21 they begin striking farther
and farther south of the Tropic of Cancer, and after
December 21 they begin striking farther and farther north of
the Tropic of Capricorn
 One-half of Earth is illuminated at any time during the

day and during the year. Here light blue is the
illuminated half and dark blue is the unilluminated half.
As noted earlier, the line between the two halves is
called the circle of illumination. Note its position
relative to the polar circles on June 21, date of the
summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, and
December 21, date of the winter solstice in the
Northern Hemisphere
 June 21:- Look how sun rays cut the earth
 Summer in N-Hemisphere ,Days are longer
 Winter in S-Hemisphere , Days are shorter
 December 21:- Sun is overhead tropic of Capricorn
 Farthest reach of sunlight is upto Artic circle in N-
Hemisphere

 Earth-Sun configuration during the spring and fall equinoxes,
which usually occur on March 20 and September 22,
 ANALEMMA:- SCALE:-
respectively, in the Northern Hemisphere. On these two days  It shaped like the figure of 8 eight which shows the
the direct noon rays of the sun fall on the equator latitude of direct overhead noon sunshine for everyday
6. TROPIC- of the year. Knowing the latitude (overhead position)
 the term tropic is from the Latin word 'tropicus' which means one can find out the angle of the noon sun for any
'turn-and refers to the parallel from where the sun appears place on earth , for any day of the year, as per the
to take a turn following rules:-
O
7. SOLSTICE –  Required NSA = {90 – (the latitudinal distance
 The term solstice implies-"sun standing still"/sun reaching its b/w sun’s overhead position and the given place
farthest position in the given hemisphere /parallel)}
th th  Solar noon is defined as when the sun is at the local
1. Nature does not hurry yet everything is accomplished meridian and is highest in the sky.
2.
3.
Guilt- the gift that keeps on giving
The power of imagination makes us infinite  THE DAWN AND TWILIGHT :-
4. Nothing shows a man’s character more than he laughs at  Reason:- Scattering and refraction of sun light
5. The only thing we have to fear is fear itself  Twilight and dawn are times when the sky is dark and
 THE NOON SUN ANGLE:- 
little light is visible.
Twilight is the period between light and darkness when
 In terms of sun’s position, if we compare two places, the the sun is below the horizon. Dawn is the period
noon-sun position is best to compare.
between the beginning of morning twilight and sun
 What is Noon Sun angle at 40ON latitude (New rise. The main difference between dawn and twilight is
York) or on 21st December that dawn occurs in the morning whereas twilight
occurs during both sunset and sunrise
st
 Sun is overhead on tropic of Capricorn on 21 Dec
O  Twilight is the illumination of the lower atmosphere
means sun is 90 if tangent is drawn at tropic of
when the Sun is below the horizon and not directly
Capricorn. so if we know the overhead position, so
visible. Twilight is caused by sunlight scattering in the
whatever place for which the noon-sun angle is asked,
high atmosphere, illuminating the lower atmosphere
we see how many degrees it is away from overhead
and preventing the Earth's surface from being entirely
position
lighted or dark. When the sun rises and sets, it
 If we know where is the sun overhead of the day, we
distributes light through the atmosphere, resulting in
can find out Noon Sun Angle.
dusk and dawn
 Required NSA is that angle is found by subtracting
your latitude from 90 degrees. At the equator, 0
degrees latitude, the sun angle at noon at the equinox
is 90 -- 0 = 90 degrees, or directly overhead
O
 Required NSA = {90 – (the latitudinal distance b/w
sun’s overhead position and the given place /parallel)}
 As you travel southward in the northern hemisphere,
the noon sun gets higher and higher. The first
qualitative change occurs at 23.5° latitude, where the
noon sun on the June solstice passes directly overhead.
This latitude is called the Tropic of Cancer.
O
 What is Noon Sun angle at 40 N (New York) or 25th
January
th
 We don’t know where is the sun on 25 January, so
there is a scale available named as “Analemma”

 The twilight grows darker as the Sun descends below
the horizon (other factors such as atmospheric
O
conditions being equal). When the Sun is 18 below the
horizon, the brightness of twilight is virtually zero, and
evening twilight turns into night time. Night time turns
O
into morning twilight as the Sun gets 18 below the
horizon again
 Astronomical dawn begins when the Sun is 18 degrees

below the horizon in the morning. Astronomical
twilight follows instantly until the Sun is 12 degrees
below the horizon
 From equator to poles :- duration of dawn and twilight
increases
 THE UPPER TROPOSPHERE

 Observations from the diagram:-
AIR CIRCULATIONS:- a) Air always moves down the pressure gradient (means
 Upper air circulation refers to streams of air that flow from high to low pressure)
at the higher altitudes of the atmosphere. They flow b) For every low pressure at the surface there must be a
at the top of the troposphere and generally blow in high pressure in the air above it in atmosphere
westerly direction. The Ferrel. Hadley and Polar c) In upper troposphere air moves from lower latitudes to
circulation are associated with upper air circulation. higher latitudes
 G. Hadley 1735:- gave us first model of tropospheric d) Pressure gradient is from warmer air column to colder
air column
circulations (but didn’t consider earth’s rotation in his
e) In UT there is PGF and Coriolis forces only
model). He had a limitation of direct observations of
Upper troposphere
 After Hadley, we have W. Ferrel (1856) model , which
has become base model for air circulations. He had
also a limitation of direct observations of Upper
troposphere and his model so is also not clear about
the concept of complexicity of Upper Troposphere
circulations
 Then we have Gilbert Walker (1920) model, says there
are east-west circulations (walker circulations )along
with Meridional circulations
th
 In 20 century, Scientist have direct and indirect
observations of Upper troposphere, says upper
troposphere circulations are complex.
 UPPER TROPOSPHERIC AIR CIRCULATIONS
 UT Air circulations are much more complex then what
as suggested by William Ferrels model
 Scientists say that UT Air circulations are An idealized depiction of how convergence and
predominantly westerly in character (means for divergence aloft support anticyclonic and cyclonic
almost the whole word UT Air circulations come from circulation at ground level. (After Frederick K Lutgens
west as a result of PGF and coriolis force except in and Edward J. Tarbuck, The Atmosphere: An
O O
lower latitude where they are easterly in 15 -20 ) Introduction to Meteorology, 6th ed. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989, p. 233.)

b) PGF amount would be decided by the contrast of warm and
cold column (this is basis of Jet streams)
c) PGF tries to take air from equatorial region to polar region
(means from warm column to cold column) but the coriolis
force gives this air the rightward deflection, making air to
move in westward direction (westerlies in UT). It means if
PGF is towards cold column and coriolis gives it rightward
direction, so air is westerly in character
d) Jet streams (high velocity winds) are some parts/ some
particular portions (inner cores) of upper air circulations
 JET STREAMS:-
a) Jet streams are very swift winds and these are the inner
cores of upper troposphere westerlies
variation in pressure surfaces with height. note that the b) They are technically referred as “Geostrophic winds” {Geo
horizontal pressure gradient is from cold to warm air at the means these are global winds, strophic means balance b/w
surface and in the opposite direction at higher elevations PGF and coriolis force)
(such as 400m) c) Jet streams are relatively narrow bands of strong wind in
 Why UT Air circulations are predominantly the upper levels of the atmosphere. The winds blow from
westerly in character? west to east in jet streams but the flow often shifts to the
a) We know in UT, Pressure gradient is from warmer air column north and south. Jet streams follow the boundaries between
to colder air column hot and cold air.
d) The jet stream is mainly found in the tropopause, at the
transition between the troposphere (where temperature
decreases with height) and the stratosphere (where
temperature increases with height).
The upper air westerlies form a broad circumpolar flow

throughout most of the upper atmosphere. Somewhere in
lower latitudes they become easterlies may be because of
the significant shift of ITCZ
HANDOUT MATERIAL FOR JET STREAMS
 Jet Streams are very strong air currents embedded within the
upper air westerlies. These are swift winds making the inner
cores of upper air circulations - the flow of air at altitudes
above 5000 metres, in the upper troposphere. The upper air
westerlies form as a response to the temperature difference
between warm tropical air and cold polar air.
 The formation, movement, and decay of surface cyclones and
anticyclones in the middle latitudes depend to a great extent

on the flow of air, high above Earth’s surface. These also October, after the withdrawal of the Summer Monsoon and
influence the weather phenomena in the tropical regions – shifts progressively southwards with the advance of the
monsoon, etc. winter season. Thereafter, it shifts backwards, weakens, and
 In the upper troposphere, an average westerly flow, the disappears from the South Asian origin with the
upper air westerlies, is maintained poleward of about 15 establishment of the South West Monsoon. The shift in the
degrees to 20 degrees latitude in both hemispheres. position of the ITCZ is also related to the phenomenon of the
 Because of the reduced frictional drag, the upper air withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from its position over
westerlies move much more rapidly than their surface the north Indian plain, south of the Himalayas.
counterparts. These are predominantly westerlies. The two b) Tropical Easterly Jet Stream: This Jet is a prominent
major Jet Streams are 1. Polar Front Jet Stream (PFJS), 2. feature of the upper-air circulation during the Indian summer
Tropical/Sub-tropical Westerly Jest Stream (TWJS). Between monsoon (June to September), appearing as a band of strong
15 degrees and 20 degrees N and S latitudes are the upper air easterlies extending from southeast Asia across the Indian
easterlies – Tropical/Equatorial Easterly Jet Stream. Ocean, and Africa to the Atlantic, generally at a height of
 The flow of the upper air winds became very apparent during about 14 km. Its axis remains close to about 14 degrees
World War II when high-altitude bombers moving eastward North. The easterly jet stream sets in along 15 degrees N
were found to cover similar distances faster than those flying latitude only after the western jet stream has withdrawn itself
westward. Pilots had encountered the upper air westerlies, or from the region.
perhaps even the jet streams.  It is present over the south Indian peninsula from June to
 As the upper air winds flow from the equator toward the August in the latitudinal belts between 12 degrees North and
poles (down the pressure gradient), they are turned eastward 15 degrees North, and it disappears by September. The
because of the Coriolis effect. The net result is a broad position and speed of the Jet have appreciable spatial and
circumpolar flow of westerly winds throughout most of the temporal fluctuations.
upper atmosphere. Because the upper air westerlies form in
response to the thermal gradient between tropical and polar
 What are inner cores of upper troposphere
areas, it is not surprising that they are strongest in winter Westerlies:-
when the thermal contrast is greatest.  Those portions of the Upper tropospheric bands which
 This thermal contrast is concentrated where the warm are towards the earths’ axis , and are moving with high
tropical air meets cold polar air. This boundary, called the speed
polar front, with its stronger pressure gradient, marks the
location of the polar front jet stream. Ranging from 40 to 160
 What is the origin/reason for the existence
km in width and up to 2 or 3 km in depth, the PFJS can be of jet streams in Upper troposphere
thought of as a faster, internal current of air within the upper a) Jet streams are Thermal winds i.e. Jet streams are
air westerlies. the result of Thermal contrast b/w lower and
 Another westerly subtropical jet stream flows above the higher latitude atmosphere
sinking air of the subtropical highs in the lower middle b) It means contrast b/w cold column and warm
latitudes. Like the upper air westerlies, both jets are best
column, larger is the contrast, stronger will be the
developed in winter when hemispherical temperatures
exhibit their steepest gradient.
PGF, resulting strong wind systems in Upper
 During the summer, both jets weaken in intensity. The troposphere and in inner cores of it the jet streams
subtropical jet stream frequently disappears completely, and also be stronger.
the polar front jet tends to migrate northward.  WHERE IN THE UT WE HAVE JET STREAMS
 In general, the upper air westerlies and the associated polar a) In Northern hemisphere the Thermal contrast b/w
jet stream flow in a fairly smooth pattern. At times, however, lower and higher latitude atmosphere is at its peak
the upper air westerlies develop oscillations, termed long
at polar front {at temperate low pressure belt
waves, or Rossby Waves, after the Swedish meteorologist Carl O
Rossby who first proposed and then proved their existence.
{middle latitudes (30 )}. There is a front being
Rossby waves result in cold polar air pushing into the lower formed here. }
latitudes and forming troughs of low pressure, while warm  In winter this contrast is stronger and is at peak
tropical air moves into higher latitudes, forming ridges of high than summer, means jet streams (Polar front jet
pressure. It is when the upper air circulation is in this streams are stronger in winter). So intensity of jet
configuration that surface weather is most influenced. streams depends upon the seasons. This is also the
 Eventually, the upper air oscillations become so extreme that reason that due to weakening of contrast (reason
the “tongues” of displaced air are cut off, forming upper air for existence of jet streams) one jet stream gets
cells of warm and cold air. This process helps maintain a net
disappeared in India during summer
poleward flow of energy from equatorial and tropical areas.
The cells eventually dissipate, and the pattern returns to
 Norwegian scientists were studying these air
normal. The complete cycle takes from less than 4-8 weeks. circulations during world war-I , they said there is a
a) Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream: This Jet dominates polar front formed where the polar and tropical air
the wintertime upper tropospheric circulation of the northern is getting mixed
hemispheric low latitudes. It has a circumglobal extent  This polar front has Polar Front Jet streams, (PFJS)
between latitudes 25 degrees and 30 degrees North and can associated with position of polar fronts. As if polar
be located over South Asia at an elevation of about 12 km fronts shifts , Jet streams position also shifts in
during October to May. The mean position of this Jet is about summer and winters (means shift with season as
27 degrees North. This Jet is split owing to the presence of the the shift in position of the sun)
Himalayan massif in its path. A single stream is seen upto  In winter this contrast is stronger and is at peak
Afghanistan where it splits into two branches, one to the
than summer, because in summers the sun is
south and another to the north of the Himalayas, recombining
into a strong single stream over China. The Jet first appears
towards the tropic of cancer, so both lower and
over the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent in higher latitudes places are hot, but in winter sun
goes to south but still lower latitudes are hot but and scientists had a some clues that in Upper
higher latitudes in northern hemisphere becomes troposphere winds are moving with great speed
cold, so contrast becomes more in winter. (cirrus cloud moving fast can be seen due to high
 So contrast of lower and higher latitudes of velocity of winds)
atmosphere is at its peak is in winter seasons, so  So pilots when now move plane for west to east,
jet streams become intense in winter season he/she intentionally takes plane to zone of high
(speed even +400Km/hr). velocity wind to get a free push , so that time
 So season wise , Position and speed of Jet streams taken for journey would be less. On contrary,
are decided, in summer Jet streams shift towards when they move from east to west they avoid to
north and speed gets weakened even sometimes take plane on such height
some jet streams get disappeared as of weak/no  Jet streams also have energy transfer mechanism
contrast formed in summers, opposite happens in
winters.
 THE ROSSBY WAVES:-
 C.G. Rossby 1940s (Swedish Scientist):- also worked on
 But this weakening of thermal contrast of lower
and higher latitudes of atmosphere is not same in learning Jet streams.
 Rossby discovered that generally, jet streams are
different parts of the world, so in some areas this
weakening of thermal contrast is more, this moving in a narrow zone (means it remains over the
happens in India in summers when one jet stream same latitudes )but sometimes these jet streams start
gets disappeared.so In India there is jet stream meandering like a river or start oscillating or start
from Oct to May but not from June to September making waves (and amplitude of these waves keeps
increasing with time) means they lose their narrow
 C.G. Rossby 1940s (Swedish Scientist):- also
worked on learning Jet streams. zonation
 Remember
 PFJS is the most important jet stream of the world
over the position of polar front (sun’s position
decides the position).
 Another important jet stream of the world is over
O
the 30 North and South, this is also a global jet
stream, known as Sub-tropical westerly jet stream
(STWJS) or only Tropical westerly jet stream
(TEJS).
 All jet streams shift their position with respect to
season (means sun’s position)
 Third Jet stream would be there over India is a
seasonal jet stream and regional jet stream (only
for 4 months during monsoon in India) and is
written as Tropical easterly jet stream or
equatorial easterly jet stream (EEJS).
 When jet streams move in a narrow zone scientist say in this

particular stage or time there is least transfer of energy b/w
higher latitude atmosphere and lower latitude atmosphere
means this jet clearly divides territory b/w higher and lower
latitude atmosphere, but when meandering happens higher
latitude atmosphere has reached to lower latitude
atmosphere, so this area will now have colder conditions and
the area of lower latitude atmosphere becomes higher
latitude atmosphere making it warmer. Finally this jet stream
 What is the [possible reason , means why are gets dissected into pieces means pools of warm and cold air
these high velocity winds been called as Jet and this would lead
streams?
 Because their presence was confirmed by jet pilots
of USA at time of WW-II, so name was given Jet
streams.
 These pilots discovered when they were flying
from west to east they were pushed by great
force and when they were coming back they had
some retardation. These Jet pilots of USA reported

Development and dissipation of Rossby waves in the upper
air westerlies. (a) A fairly smooth flow prevails. (b) Rossby
waves form, with a ridge of warm air extending into Canada
and a trough of cold air extending down to Texas. (c) The
trough and ridge are cut off and will eventually dissipate.
The flow will then return to a pattern similar to (a)
 These all jet streams are the result of thermal contrast,

so they meander when thermal contrast b/w higher
latitudes and lower latitudes atmosphere gets As jet streams would meander, will have locations for zones
disturbed. of convergence and divergence getting changed.
 Lower tropospheric weather phenomenon or
circulations get influenced the most then upper air
circulations when jet streams are meandering.
The upper air wind pattern, such as that depicted here, can
have a significant influence on temperatures and
precipitation on Earth's surface

 IN NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
TOPIC:THE CYCLONES:-  All cyclones in Northern hemisphere:- have anti-
 Cyclone:- a wind system with a low pressure at the clockwise circulation of air
centre. means the defining feature of this system is  All anti-cyclones in Northern hemisphere:- have
that there is clearing defined low pressure at centre clockwise circulation of air
means isobars are closed  IN SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
 All cyclones in Southern hemisphere:- have clockwise
circulation of air
 All Anti-cyclones in Southern hemisphere:- have Anti-
clockwise circulation of air
th th
1. Seek respect, not attention. It lasts longer
2. Every reasonable human being should be a moderate
socialist
3. Every right is married to a duty, every freedom owes a
corresponding responsibility
4. Life is like a mirror smile at it and it smiles back at you
 Note:-
a) Trough is an elongated low pressure system
where there is no clearly defined low at the centre
b) In tropical cyclones, isobars are circular means
there is clearing defined low pressure at centre
(isobars are closed) because there is only one air
mass i.e. warmer air mass making no change in
isobars whereas in case of temperate cyclones
isobars are closed but they are elliptical in shape
because they are frontal in origin means two
airmasses are present making abrupt change in
 Cyclone:- a wind system with a low pressure at the
isobars
centre. means the defining feature of this system is
 Cyclone needs energy  energy is provided by vapours
that there is clearing defined low pressure at centre
means when surface is warm  greater and more
means isobars are closed. Pressure increases away
energy can be provided so by the oceans as compare to
from center
land  so most cyclones develop over the ocean
 Trough is an elongated low pressure system where
surfaces (where sea surface is warmers)
there is no clearly defined low at the centre
 For tropical cyclones we don’t have any good theory as
cyclones are much more complex, it is more explained
on the basis of observed reality
 Most of the tropical cyclones originate from a low
pressure system which is called as easterly wave,
means easterly waves generally gives rise to tropical
cyclones under favourable conditions. Easterly wave is
a trough means elongated low pressure systems
(isobars are not closed)
 DIFFERENCE IN TROPICAL AND
TEMPERATE CYCLONE:-
1. TROPICAL CYCLONES
a) Tropical cyclones are thermal in origin
 Thermal means need enormous amount of
atmospheric energy (in terms of latent heat that comes
from vapours and vapours are supplied by water
bodies majorly ocean, so ocean is a reservoir of energy
and a cyclone is a wind system which has to sustain for
a number of days, so ocean supply energy to sustain
them with energy for few days)

b) Therefore tropical cyclones mostly origin over the  cyclones in the Bay of Bengal.
oceans and die when reaches the land (as source of d) Whatever, the name, these are intense, revolving, rain
energy gets cut off and land offers friction to air drenched (means it has too much of rain in it),
circulations, it depends on the energy of cyclones when migratory (means tropical cyclones are secondary
they die) circulations of easterlies), destructive storms that
c) Tropical cyclones are much intense (as low pressure at occur in certain regions of the tropics and the sub-
center is intensely low may be 980millibars or even low tropics.
+ pressure gradient is very steep making wind stronger  Why it is destructive In coastal regions, because
and increasing wind speed) tropical cyclone has intense low pressure at center
d) Isobars are almost circular in nature (showing this where sea level tends to rise , so when a cyclone is
system prevails on uniform surface of ocean) moving there is also a movement of raised sea
e) These cyclones are ,much Compact systems (in terms along with it towards the land with strong winds
of diameter of size from low to high pressure, mostly in due to strong pressure gradient +As raised water
range of 160km-300km but can extend upto 1000km) moving towards a land there is a storm surge
f) Generally average lifespan is one week means coastal waters are rising reaching cyclones
g) Every tropical cyclone has a distinct feature called + in coastal areas there are also tides occurrence
“eye” of the cyclone and if there is co-incidence of high tide with
Term depression in Indian context would refer to a weak cyclone it makes storm surge more intense +
low pressure system, in europe context it refers to a heavy rain is also there in coastal area becoming
temperate cyclone reason of floods = all make the tropical cyclones
2. TEMPERATE CYCLONE destructive in coastal areas
e) These are THERMAL in origin, form over tropical
a) Temperate cyclone are frontal in origin
oceans - formed from a single air mass. These consist
b) Can be formed over land , over ocean or partly over
of prominent low-pressure centres that are essentially
land as well as partly over ocean
circular (isobars are circular) and have steep pressure
c) Comparatively much gentler (as low pressure generally
gradient outward from the centre. As a result, strong
b/w 990-1000mb and pressure gradient is also not
winds spiral inward. Winds must reach a speed of 33
such steep) than tropical cyclones
metres per second (119 km per hour) in order for the
d) Isobars are almost elliptical in nature
storm to be officially a hurricane (speed of minimum
e) These are much more extensive (size goes upto
110km/hour is needed), but winds in a well-developed
1600km in diameter or even more)
hurricane often double that speed and occasionally
f) Temperate cyclones will take 3 to 6 days to become
triple it.
mature and another 3-6 days to decay , so it lasts upto
f) Size: typically, a diameter 160 to 1000 km (mostly they are
12-13 days (longer than tropical cyclones) compact 160-300km but can go upto1000km in diameter)
g) There is no such “eye” or distinct feature g) A remarkable feature: in the centre of the hurricane lies the
 TOPIC:- TROPICAL CYCLONE EYE of the storm – an area of calm, clear, usually warm and
humid but rainless air. (there is no rise of air here)
a) Many low-pressure systems of varying stages of
development form in the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea and move west or north-westwards,
sometimes recurving north or northeast at a later
stage. Recurvature usually occurs when the cyclones
are between latitudes 16 degrees and 18 degrees N.
Only a few of them develop fully into the mature stage
and the majority remain as depressions. The systems
reach their maximum intensity before or after the
southwest monsoon period.
b) Cyclones generally form in a lower latitude belt (10 to
14 degrees N) before and after the southwest
monsoon season. They are intense and are responsible
for the major portion of the rainfall over the peninsula.
The maximum incidence of cyclones is from April to
June and October to December. Some of the typhoons
of the China Seas travel westwards across the Indo-
China peninsula, enter the Bay of Bengal and revive as
cyclones.
c) Tropical cyclones are known by different names in
different places:
 hurricanes in North and Central America;
 typhoons in the western North Pacific/East Asia;
 Baguios in the Philippines;
 tropical cyclones in Australia (the associated winds
are called willy-willies) and the South Pacific;
h) At its base, its air is sucked in by the very low pressure clouds, and scattered high clouds may part to let in
at the centre and then spirals inward. Once within the intermittent sunlight.
hurricane structure, air rises rapidly to the top and l) The weather pattern within a hurricane is relatively
spirals outward. This rapid upward movement of symmetrical around the eye. Bands of dense cumulus
moisture-laden air produces enormous amounts of and cumulonimbus clouds spiral in from the edge of
rain. The release of latent heat energy provides the the storm to the eye wall, producing heavy rains that
power to drive the storm. generally increase in intensity inward. The clouds of
i) The winds do not converge to a central point rather the eye wall tower to heights that may exceed 16 km.
reach their highest speed at the EYE-WALL (edge of the m) The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale provides a means
eye). The eye has a diameter of from 16 to 40 km and a of classifying hurricane intensity and potential damage
singular area of calmness. (at eye wall we have the by assigning a number from 1 to 5 based on a
tallest cloud and maximum wind speed) combination of central pressure, wind speed, and the
height of the storm surge.
n) Its mechanism is still not fully understood, for ex., it is
not yet possible to predict the path of a hurricane,
even though it can be tracked with radar and studied
by planes and weather satellites.
o) Its origin is also not completely understood –
meteorologists can list factors favourable for the
development of a hurricane. Easterly waves, provide
low-level convergence and lifting that catalyze the
development of many hurricanes.
p) Factors favourable for the origin:
a) A warm ocean surface of about 25 degrees C; (sea
surface temperature is more than or equal to 25
degrees C)
b) Warm, moist overlying air (perhaps that is why,
these occur most often in the late summer and
early fall/autumn);
c) The Coriolis effect must be sufficient to support
the rapid spiralling of the hurricane – the low
pressure should be about 8 degrees away from the
O O
equator; {ITCZ should be 8 to 10 away from the
equator}
d) Hurricanes begin as weak tropical disturbances
such as the easterly wave and in fact will not
develop without the impetus of such a
disturbance;
e) It is further speculated that some sort of
turbulence in the upper air may play a part in a
hurricane’s initial development;
f) Hurricanes can evolve only when there are no
significant wind changes with height (a wind shear
situation is there), which implies that temperature
at low altitudes, are reasonably uniform over a
wide area.
 Wind shear:- Wind shear, sometimes referred to as
wind gradient, is a difference or significant change in
wind speed and/or direction over a relatively short
Note:- easterly waves are the most occurring distance in the atmosphere (means with increase in
disturbance in tropical areas. Easterly wave is a trough height n atmosphere). Atmospheric wind shear is
, a trough means where isobars don’t close. So it is normally described as either vertical or horizontal wind
believed that easterly wave gives rise to tropical shear
cyclones means a system of closed isobars in q) A specific path is very difficult to predict in advance, but the
favourable conditions. general pattern of movement is highly predictable. In
j) Updrafts are common throughout the hurricane general, they move east to west and then curve prominently
(except in the eye), becoming most prominent around polewards, where they dissipate over the adjacent continent
or become enmeshed in the general flow of the midlatitude
the eye wall.
westerlies.
k) Near the top of the storm, outward flow dominates
r) The average hurricane exists for only about a week. As
except in the eye, where a downdraft inhibits cloud
soon as a hurricane leaves the ocean and moves over
formation. Within the eye, there is no rain and no low
land, it begins to die, for its energy source (warm,

th th
moist air) is cut off and also, friction with the land ……..20 class ended, 21 started…......
surface produces a drag on the whole system! 1. A warm smile is the universal language of kindness
s) If it enters the ocean in the temperate region, it dies as 2. Guilt:- the gift that keeps on giving
it penetrates the cooler environment. It is not unusual 3. We are all humans until race disconnected us, religion
for a tropical hurricane that moves into the separated us, politics divided us , and wealth classified
midlatitudes to diminish in intensity but grow in areal us
size until it develops into a midlatitude cyclone that 4. Humanity should be our race. Love should be our
travels with westerlies. religion
t) Landfall refers to the location where the EYE of the  EASTERLY WAVE
storm encounters the coastline.  The best known of the weak tropical disturbance is the
u) Hurricanes are best known for their destructive easterly wave. It is a trough-shaped, weak low-pressure
capabilities. Some of the destruction comes from high region that is generally aligned on an approximate
winds and torrential rain, but the overwhelming cause north-south axis.
of damage and loss of life is high seas. The low  These are usually several hundred kilometres long.
pressure in the centre of the storm allows the ocean Travelling slowly in the trade winds belt from east to
surface to bulge as much as 1 metre. To this is added west, it is preceded by fair, dry weather and followed
a storm surge of wind-driven water as much as 7.5 by cloudy, showery weather. This occurs because air
metres above normal tide level when the hurricane tends to converge into the low from its rear, or the
pounds into a shoreline. Storm surges present the east, causing lifting and convectional showers.
most dangerous hazard associated with hurricanes,  The resulting divergence and subsidence to the west
where the ocean violently washes over and floods low- (ahead of the wave) account for the fair weather.
lying coastal areas. Thus, a low-lying coastal area can Meteorologists believe that this type of disturbance
be severely inundated, and most hurricane-related can on occasion develop into a tropical hurricane.
deaths are drownings.
v) Computer models, developed from maps of the  INTERNET ADDITION ABOUT FRONTS
behaviour of past storms, are used to indicate a  FRONTS
hurricane’s most likely path and landfall location, as  Fronts are boundaries between air masses of different
well as the chance that it may strike the coast at other temperatures. Fronts are actually zones of transition, but
locations. sometimes the transition zone, called a frontal zone, can be
w) Names are assigned to storms once they reach tropical quite sharp.
storm status, with wind speeds between 17 and 33  Fronts are the typical features of midlatitudes
metre per second (62 km/hour to 119km/hour). Each weather (temperate region: 30° – 65° N and S). They are
year the names are selected from a different uncommon (unusual) in tropical and polar regions.
 Front is a three-dimensional boundary zone formed between
alphabetical list of alternating female and male
two converging air masses with different physical properties
names/something relating to cultural features. If a
(temperature, humidity, density, etc.).
hurricane is especially destructive and becomes a part  When unlike air masses meet, the two air masses don’t
of recorded history, its name is retired and never used merge readily due to the effect of the converging
again. atmospheric circulation, relatively low diffusion coefficient,
x) Hurricanes can occur over most subtropical and tropical and low thermal conductivity.
oceans and seas. The south Atlantic is generally an exception  The frontal concept was developed by Norwegian
– perhaps because, meteorologists during World War I, and the term front was
a) waters are not warm (means are cooler at surface)and coined because these scientists considered the clash
b) ITCZ seldom shifts far enough from equator. between unlike air masses to be analogous to a confrontation
y) Some people have suggested that we seek ways to between opposing armies along a battlefront.
control these destructive storms; on the other hand,  As the more “aggressive” air mass advances at the expense of
hurricanes are a major source of rainfall and an the other, some mixing of the two occurs within the frontal
important means of transferring energy within Earth’s zone, but for the most part, the air masses retain their
separate identities as one is displaced by the other.
system away from the tropics; eliminating them might
cause unwanted and unforeseen climate changes.  FRONT FORMATION
 The process of formation of a front is known as
Frontogenesis (war between two air masses), and
dissipation of a front is known as Frontolysis (one of
the air masses win against the other).
 Frontogenesis involves convergence of two distinct air
masses. Frontolysis involves overriding of one of the air
mass by another.
 In northern hemisphere Frontogenesis (convergence of
air masses) happens in anticlockwise direction and in
southern hemisphere, clockwise direction. This is due
to Coriolis effect.
 Mid-latitude cyclones or temperate cyclones or extra-
tropical cyclones occur due to frontogenesis.

 CHARACTERISTICS OF FRONTS  WEATHER ALONG A STATIONARY FRONT
 The temperature contrast influences the thickness of frontal  Cumulonimbus clouds are formed. Overrunning of
zone in an inversely proportional manner, i.e., two air masses warm air along such a front causes frontal
with higher temperature difference do not merge readily. So precipitation.
the front formed is less thick.  Cyclones migrating along a stationary front can dump
 With a sudden change in temperature through a front, there heavy amounts of precipitation, resulting in significant
is a change in pressure also. flooding along the front.
 Front experiences wind shift, since the wind motion is a
function of pressure gradient and Coriolis force. Wind Shift: A 2. COLD FRONT
change in wind direction of 45 degrees or more in less than  Such a front is formed when a cold air mass replaces a
15 minutes with sustained wind speeds of 10 knots or more warm air mass by advancing into it or that the warm air
throughout the wind shift. mass retreats and cold air mass advances (cold air mass
 The frontal activity is invariably associated with cloudiness is the clear winner).
and precipitation because of ascent of warm air which cools  In such a situation, the transition zone between the
down adiabatically, condenses and causes rainfall. Adiabatic
two is a cold front.
Lapse Rate – Latent Heat of Condensation
 Cold front moves up to twice as quickly as warm fronts.
 The intensity of precipitation depends on the slope of
 Frontolysis begin when the warm air mass is
ascent and amount of water vapour present in
completely uplifted by the cold air mass.
ascending air.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FRONTS
 Based on the mechanism of frontogenesis and the
associated weather, the fronts can be studied under
the following types.
 WEATHER ALONG A COLD FRONT

 The weather along such a front depends on a narrow
band of cloudiness and precipitation.
 Severe storms can occur. During the summer months
thunderstorms are common in warm sector.
 In some regions like USA tornadoes occur in warm
sector.
 Produce sharper changes in weather. Temperatures
can drop more than 15 degrees within the first hour.
1. STATIONARY FRONT
 When the surface position of a front does not change
(when two air masses are unable to push against each
other; a draw), a stationary front is formed.
 The wind motion on both sides of the front is parallel
to the front.
 Warm or cold front stops moving, so the name
stationary front.
 Once this boundary resumes its forward motion,
becomes a warm front or cold front.
 CLOUD FORMATION ALONG A COLD FRONT

 The approach of a cold front is marked by increased
wind activity in warm sector and the appearance of
cirrus clouds, followed by lower, denser altocumulous
and
 At actual front, dark nimbus and cumulonimbus clouds
cause heavy showers. A cold front passes off rapidly,
but the weather along it is violent.

3. WARM FRONT  WEATHER ALONG AN OCCLUDED FRONT
 It is a sloping frontal surface along which active  Weather along an occluded front is complex—a
movement of warm air over cold air takes place (warm mixture of cold front type and warm front type
air mass is too weak to beat the cold air mass). weather. Such fronts are common in west Europe.
 Frontolysis (front dissipation) begin when the warm air  The formation Mid-latitude cyclones [temperate
mass makes way for cold air mass on the ground, i.e. cyclones or extra-tropical cyclones] involve the
when the warm air mass completely sits over the cold formation of occluded front.
air mass.
 WEATHER ALONG A WARM FRONT

 As the warm air moves up the slope, it condenses and
causes precipitation but, unlike a cold front, the
temperature and wind direction changes are gradual.
 Such fronts cause moderate to gentle precipitation
over a large area, over several hours.  CLOUDS ALONG AN OCCLUDED FRONT
 The passage of warm front is marked by rise in  A combination of clouds formed at cold front and
temperature, pressure and change in weather. warm front.
 CLOUDS ALONG A WARM FRONT  Warm front clouds and cold front clouds are on
 With the approach, the hierarchy of clouds is—-cirrus, opposite side of the occlusion.
stratus and nimbus. [No cumulonimbus clouds as the  AIR MASSES, FRONTS, AND MAJOR
gradient is gentle]
 Cirrostratus clouds ahead of the warm front create a ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES
halo around sun and moon.  We will now turn our attention to the major kinds of
atmospheric disturbances that occur within the
4. OCCLUDED FRONT general circulation. Most of these disturbances
 Occlusion: Meteorology a process by which the cold front of
involve unsettled and sometimes violent atmospheric
a rotating low-pressure system catches up the warm front, so
that the warm air between them is forced upwards. conditions and are referred to as storms.
 Such a front is formed when a cold air mass overtakes a  Some, however, produce calm, clear, quiet weather
warm air mass and goes underneath it. that is quite the opposite of stormy. Some of these
 Frontolysis begin when warm sector diminishes and the cold disturbances involve air mass contrasts or fronts, and
air mass completely undertakes the warm sector on ground. many are associated with migrating pressure cells. The
 Thus, a long and backward swinging occluded front is formed following are common characteristics of atmospheric
which could be a warm front type or cold front type disturbances in general:-
occlusion.  They are smaller than the components of the general
circulation, although they are extremely variable in
size.
 They are migratory.
 They have a relatively brief duration, persisting for
only a few minutes, a few hours, or a few days.
 They produce characteristic and relatively predictable
weather conditions.
 Midlatitude Disturbances: The midlatitudes are the
principal “battleground” of tropospheric phenomena:
where polar and tropical air masses meet, where most
fronts occur, and where weather is most dynamic and
changeable from season to season and from day to
day. Many kinds of atmospheric disturbances are
associated with the midlatitudes, but two of these –
midlatitude cyclones and mid latitude anticyclones –
are much more important than the others because of
their size and prevalence.
 Tropical Disturbances: The low latitudes are
characterized by monotony – the same weather day
after day, week after week, month after month. Almost
the only breaks are provided by transient atmospheric

disturbances, of which by far the most significant are h) Warm air mass (of tropical region) and cold air masses
tropical cyclones (locally known as hurricanes when meet at the polar front (point “a” in the diagram)
they intensify), but also less dramatic disturbances where most cyclones develop. These two contrasting
known as easterly waves. air masses do not merge but may move in opposite
 Localized Severe Weather: Other localized directions along the frontal zone.
atmospheric disturbances occur in many parts of the
world. Short-lived but sometimes severe atmospheric
disturbances such as thunderstorms and tornadoes
often develop in conjunction with other kinds of
storms.
 TEMPERATE CYCLONES / EXTRA-
TROPICAL CYCLONES
a) Shortly after World War I, Norwegian meteorologists
Jacob Bjerknes and Halvor Solberg put forth the Polar
Front Theory, which provided insight into the
development, movement, and dissipation of middle-
latitude storms.
b) They recognized the middle latitudes as an area of
convergence where unlike airmasses, such as cold
polar air and warm subtropical air, commonly meet at  Note:- Occlusion means warm air getting cut off from
a boundary called the Polar Front. Furthermore, the the ground
polar front tends to move north and south with the
seasons and is apt to be stronger in winter than in
summer. It is along this wavy polar front that the upper
air westerlies, also known as the Polar Front Jet
Stream, develop and flow.
c) Middle latitude storms develop at the front and then
travel along it. These migrating storms with their
opposing cold, dry polar air and warm, humid tropical
air, can cause significant variation in the day-to-day
weather of the locations over which they pass.
d) Throughout the midlatitudes they dominate weather
maps, are basically responsible for most day-to-day
weather changes, and bring lot of precipitation. These
are usually called Depressions in Europe and
sometimes referred to as either Lows or Wave
Cyclones in the United States. These are associated
primarily with air mass convergence and conflict in
regions between 35 degrees and 70 degrees of
latitude. They are found almost entirely within the
zone of westerly winds. Their general path of
movement is toward the east.
e) A typical mature midlatitude cyclone has a diameter of
1600 km (gentler and extensive in size) or so. It is
essentially a vast cell of low-pressure air, with ground-
level pressure in the centre typically between 990-
1000 millibars. The system shown by closed isobars on
a weather map usually tends toward an oval shape.
f) At any given time from 6 to 15 midlatitude, cyclones
exist in the Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes, and an
equal number in the Southern Hemisphere. In each
hemisphere, these migratory disturbances are more i) For reasons not completely understood but certainly
numerous, better developed, and faster moving in related to the wind flow in the upper troposphere, a
winter (because of frontal origin) than in summer. wave-like kink may develop along the polar front
Also, they follow much more equatorward tracks in (other factors may be – topographic irregularities,
winter. temperature contrasts between sea and land, or the
g) A typical midlatitude cyclone develops from origin to influence of ocean currents).
maturity in 3 to 6 days, and from maturity to j) This is the initial step in the formation of a fully grown
dissipation in about the same length of time (another middle-latitude cyclone. At this bend in the polar front,
3-6 days). we now have warm air pushing poleward (a warm

front) and cold air pushing equatorward (a cold front), This upper air convergence and divergence greatly
with a centre of low pressure at the location where the influence the surface storms below.
two fronts are joined.
 TOPIC:- THE OSCILLATIONS

 William ferrel made us understood that tropospheric
air circulations comprise three cells Hedley, ferrel and
polar and these circulations are Meridional circulation
k) As the contrasting air masses jockey for position, the
means North-south orientation (or N-S in character)
clouds and precipitation that exist along the fronts are
 Sir. G. Walker then made us understood that these
greatly intensified, and the area affected by the storm
Meridional circulations are complicated many times by
is much greater. Along the warm front, precipitation
presence of numerous East-West Pressure differences
will be more widespread but less intense than along
and their associated air circulations
the cold front. One factor that can vary the kind of
 G. walker discovered that when the pressure of
precipitation occurring at the warm front is the stability
atmosphere is higher in Pacific Ocean, it is seemed to
of the warm air mass. If it is stable, then its uplifting
be lower in Indian Ocean and vice a versa. This sea-saw
over the cold air mass may cause only a fine drizzle or a
arrangement of atmospheric pressure conditions
light, powdery snow if the temperatures are cold
between Indian and pacific ocean is referred as
enough. On the other hand, if the warm air is moist
Southern oscillation
and unstable, the uplifting may set off heavier
precipitation. 1. SOUTHERN OSCILLATION INDEX
l) Because a cold front usually moves faster, it will  The cold currents along west coasts in subtropical
eventually overtake the warm front. This produces the latitudes are frequently reinforced by upwelling. As the
situation identified as an occluded front. Because trade winds in these latitudes drive the surface waters
additional warm, moist air will not lifted after offshore, the wind’s frictional drag on the ocean’s
occlusion, condensation and the release of latent surface displaces the waters on the west. As surface
energy will diminish, and the system will soon die. waters are dragged away, deeper, colder water rises to
Occlusions are usually accompanied by rain and are the the surface to replace them.
major process by which middle-latitude cyclones  When the Peru/Humboldt current approaches the
dissipate. equator, the westward-flowing trade winds cause
m) Different parts of a middle-latitude cyclone exhibit upwelling of nutrient-rich cold water along the coast.
different weather. Therefore, the weather that a Fishing, especially, for the anchovies, is a major local
location experiences at a particular time depends on industry.
which portion of the middle-latitude cyclone is over the  Every year during the months of November and
location. December, upwelling weakens, resulting in adverse
n) In addition to storm development or dissipation, upper impact on fishing industry. Surface waters along the
air flow will have an impact on temperatures as well. If west coast become warmer than average. Fishermen of
we assume that our “average” upper air flow is from this region have known of the phenomenon for
west to east, then any deviation from that pattern will hundreds of years. They have given this phenomenon
cause either colder air from the north or warmer from the name El Nino, which is Spanish for “The Child,”
the south to be advected into an area. Thus, after the because it occurs about the time of the celebration of
atmosphere has been in a wavelike pattern for a few the birth of the Christ Child.
days, the area in the vicinity of a trough (area B in the  In some particular year, this disruption becomes
figure) will be colder than normal as polar air from intense and lasts for many months. In these situations,
higher latitudes is brought into that area. Just the water temperatures are raised not just along the coast
opposite occurs at locations near a ridge (area C in the but for thousands of kilometres offshore. The term El
figure). In this case, warmer air from more southerly Nino in international news refers to this strong
latitudes than would be the case with west-to-east episode. The strong and intense episodes of El Nino
flow is advected into the area near the ridge. impact worldwide weather.
o) Cyclones and the Upper Air Flow: The upper air wind  Southern Oscillation: Sir Gilbert Walker, a British
flow greatly influences our surface weather. As the scientist, discovered a connection between surface-
upper air moves its way through undulating waves, it pressure readings at weather stations on the eastern
undergoes divergence or convergence because of the and western sides of the Pacific Ocean. He noted that a
atmospheric dynamics associated with curved flow. rise in pressure in the eastern Pacific is usually
accompanied by a fall in pressure in the western Pacific upwelling would weakens. This weakening has
and vice versa. He called this seesaw pattern the been called by south American people as El-Nino
Southern Oscillation. The link between El Nino and for centuries (El-Nino in Spanish means “the Male
Southern Oscillation is so great that they are often child”), (as they found this weakening normally
referred to jointly as ENSO (El Nino – Southern takes place in month of November and December
Oscillation). at times of charismas celebrations , so they used
 For S.O., popular representative stations are – Darwin, name El-Nino for jesus like male child.
Australia for Western Pacific and Tahiti Island, for  In some particular year, scientists found the
Eastern Pacific. During a normal, typical year, the pressure conditions start changing and after
eastern Pacific has a higher pressure than the western months of gradual change , the pressure gradient
Pacific. This east-to-west pressure gradient enhances becomes reversed (means HP becomes LP, and LP
the trade winds over the equatorial Pacific waters. This becomes HP), this becomes news of El-Nino
results in a warm surface current that moves from east
to west at the equator. The western Pacific develops a
thick, warm layer of water while the eastern Pacific has
the cold Humboldt Current enhanced by upwelling.
A. EL NINO
 In simple words:- It is the abnormal event which is
related to the pacific ocean and atmosphere over it
What is normal event then?
 Normal is that in the eastern pacific ocean side ,
pressure of atmosphere is higher and on western
pacific side is lower , reason is that the surface is
not same
 Eastern pacific ocean side has
 peru current i.e. cold current
 Western pacific side has
 warm waters , making air warmer resulting
lower in pressure
 so air moves from eastern pacific to western pacific
from High pressure to lower pressure for 10-11 months
a year after year. As a result of this (as air moving
consistently away from coast of South America) there is
a vacancy created in eastern pacific ocean , so there is
 THERMOCLINE:-
large scale upwelling for 10-11 months a year after year  thermocline is that zone of transition In ocean
bringing cold waters (reason for cold peru current) where you are moving from warmer temperatures
 this upwelling further makes the water more colder , to very cold temperatures
therefore the high pressure tends to get augmented ,  thermocline, oceanic water layer in which water
this is a case of Positive feedback temperature decreases rapidly with increasing
 air rises in western pacific side (in Indonesia region) depth. A widespread permanent thermocline
forming clouds and gets diverged in upper troposphere exists beneath the relatively warm, well-mixed
and then gets sink
surface layer, from depths of about 200 m (660
feet) to about 1,000 m (3,000 feet), in which
interval temperatures diminish steadily
 For unknown reasons, the Southern Oscillation swings
in the opposite direction, with pressure increasing in
the western Pacific and decreasing in the eastern
Pacific. This causes the warm water in the western
Pacific to flow eastward, increasing sea-surface
temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific. This
eastward shift signals the beginning of El Nino.
 Under Normal conditions, there gets created a wedge
of warm water on the western side of the Pacific
Ocean, called the Pacific warm pool. The thermocline
(vertical zone of ocean water where there is a sharp
change in temperature with depth) beneath the warm
pool in the western equatorial Pacific occurs below 100
metres depth. In the eastern Pacific, however, the
thermocline is within 30 metres of the surface.
What is Ab-normal event then?  During El Nino event, the Pacific Warm Pool that has
 for 1 to 2 months every year for the reasons not built up on the western side of the Pacific begins to
understood, the pressure gradient weakens means flow back across the ocean toward South America.
high gets little low and low gets little higher ,
During strong to very strong El Ninos, the water Southeast Asia and northern Australia are wetter.
temperature off Peru can be upto 10 degrees C higher Indian Ocean monsoons are typically wetter than usual
than normal. In addition, the average sea level can in La Nina years. However, La Nina conditions are not
increase as much as 20 centimetres, simply due to as prominent or as predictable as those of El Nino.
thermal expansion of the warm water along the coast.
 The thermocline lowers (deepens) off South America,
2. NORTH ATLANTIC OSCILLATION
 The NAO is an irregular “seesaw” of pressure
causing thermocline to even out across the Pacific
Ocean. differences between two regional components of the
 As the warm water increases sea surface temperatures general atmospheric circulation in the North Atlantic
across the equatorial Pacific, temperature-sensitive Ocean basin: the Icelandic Low and the subtropical
corals are decimated in Tahiti, the Galapagos, and high (the Azores High).
 A strengthening of the subtropical (in the Azores) high
other tropical Pacific islands.
 Kelvin Waves: The trade winds pile up warm water in and subpolar (in Iceland) low over the Atlantic Ocean
the western Pacific, near Indonesia. The bulge of warm will render a positive index for the NAO. During such a
equatorial water then begins to move to the east positive phase, winter storms tend to take a more
across the Pacific toward South America. The slowly northerly track across the Atlantic, bringing mild, wet
moving bulges of warm water are known as Kelvin winters to Europe and the eastern US but colder, drier
Waves. conditions in Greenland and Northern Canada.
 In the “negative” phase of the NAO, both the Azores
 EL NINO AND GLOBAL WEATHER High and Icelandic Low are weaker. During such a
a) During an El Nino, high altitude clouds form over the negative phase, winter storms tend to bring higher
entire equatorial region of the Pacific. These clouds than average precipitation to the Mediterranean and
affect the upper tropospheric circulations, which in colder winters in northern Europe and the eastern US,
turn, result in alterations to surface weather. while Greenland experiences milder conditions.
b) The studies based on historical evidence, it is found
that the El Nino events have become more frequent 3. ARCTIC OSCILLATION
(every 2.2 years) and are getting stronger.  The Arctic Oscillation alternates between warm and
 The following world-wide events seem to correlate well cold phases that are closely associated with the NAO.
with a strong El Nino event. Such coupling of weather During the Arctic Oscillation “warm” phase (associated
and oceanic events in one part of the world with those with the NAO positive phase), the polar high is weaker,
in another, are termed teleconnections. Adding to the so cold air masses do not move as far south and sea
complexity of these teleconnections is growing surface temperatures tend to be warmer in Arctic
evidence that long term ENSO patterns may be waters – although Greenland tends to be colder than
influenced by other ocean-atmosphere cycles, such as usual. During the arctic Oscillation “cold” phase
the Pacific Decadal Oscillation. (associated with the NAO negative phase), the polar
a) Copious and damaging rainfall to the southwestern high is strengthened, bringing cold air masses farther
United States south and leaving Arctic waters colder – although
b) More frequent and stronger snowstorms in the Greenland tends to be warmer than usual.
northeast portions of the US 4. PACIFIC DECADAL OSCILLATION
c) Drought strikes northern Australia and Indonesia  It is a long-term pattern of sea surface temperature
d) Increase in the number of tropical hurricanes change between the northern/west tropical and
formed in the eastern Pacific Ocean eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. Approximately every 20
e) The subtropical jet stream over the eastern Pacific to 30 years the sea surface temperatures in these
shifts its path, guiding winter storms into the zones abruptly shift. From the late 1940s to late 1970s,
southwestern US – California and Arizona the northern/west tropical Pacific was relatively warm
experience more powerful winter storms than while the eastern tropical Pacific was relatively cool
usual, resulting in high precipitation and flooding (the PDO “negative” or “cool” phase); from the late
f) South Asian monsoon may fail or develop weakly 1970s through the mid-1990s, the pattern switched,
g) Cold winters in the southeastern US with cooler sea surface temperatures in the
h) High temperatures in the Sahel northern/west tropical Pacific and the tropical Pacific
i) Tornadoes in Florida (the PDO “positive” or “warm” phase). In the late
j) Fewer hurricanes in the North Atlantic 1990s the switch back to the negative phase was
B. LA NINA underway.
 In contrast, in some particular year, the trade winds  Although the cause of the PDO are not well
intensify, resulting in stronger upwelling than usual. As understood, the pattern of relatively warm and
a result, sea-surface temperatures will be even colder relatively cool ocean water seems to influence the
than normal. This condition is known as La Nina (in locations of the jet stream (and so storm tracks across
Spanish, “Little Girl,” but scientifically simply the North America) as well as the intensity of El Nino
opposite of El Nino). Generally, La Nina episodes bring events. For example, when the PDO is in a positive
about the opposite effects of an El Nino episode. phase with warmer water in the eastern tropical
During La Nina, the waters off Indonesia are unusually Pacific, the influence of El Nino on regional weather
warm; the southwestern US is drier than usual while patterns appears to be more significant.

are in phase, the impacts of El Nino and La Nina events
5. MADDEN-JULIAN OSCILLATION are often most extreme over Australia, while they are
 The MJO is the main intra-annual/intra-seasonal out of phase the impacts of El Nino and La Nina events
fluctuation that explains weather variations in the can be diminished.
tropics. The MJO affects the entire tropical  Temperatures in the eastern part of the ocean oscillate
troposphere but is most evident in the Indian and between warm and cold compared with the western
western Pacific Oceans. part, cycling through phases referred to as “positive”,
 It is named after American atmospheric scientists “neutral” and “negative”.
Roland Madden and Paul Julian in 1971. This  The dipole’s positive phase means warmer-than-
phenomenon comes in the form of alternating cyclonic normal sea surface temperatures in the western Indian
and anticyclonic regions that enhance and suppress Ocean region, with the opposite in the east i.e. cooler-
rainfall, than-average sea surface temperatures. This eastwest
 respectively, and flow eastward along the Equator. The contrast in ocean conditions (a “dipole”) alters the
MJO occurs every 40-50 or 30-60 days. Unlike ENSO, wind, temperature, and rainfall pattern in the region.
which is stationary, the MJO is an eastward moving  When an Indian Ocean dipole event occurs, the rainfall
disturbance of clouds, rainfall, winds, and pressure that tends to move with the warm waters, so you get more
traverses the planet in the tropics and returns to its rainfall than normal over the East African countries. A
initial starting point in 30 to 60 days, on an average. positive phase correlates with floods in eastern Africa
There can be multiple MJO events within a season, and and bushfires in Australia. The positive phase gives a
so the MJO is best described as intra-seasonal tropical boost to monsoon winds. A negative dipole phase
climate variability (i.e. varies on a week-to-week basis). would bring about the opposite conditions - warmer
 It is understood that MJO can modulate the timing and water and greater precipitation in the eastern Indian
strength of monsoons, influence tropical cyclone Ocean, and cooler and drier conditions in the west. A
numbers and strength in nearly all ocean basins, and neutral phase would mean sea temperatures were
result in jet stream changes that can lead to cold air close to average across the Indian Ocean.
outbreaks, extreme heat events, and flooding in certain  Extreme climate and weather events caused by the
areas. dipole are predicted to become more common in the
 The MJO can produce impacts similar to those of ENSO, future as greenhouse gas emissions increase.
but which appear only in weekly averages before  Despite 1994 and 2006 being El Nino years, India did
changing, rather than persisting and therefore not witness a drought as IOD was significantly positive.
appearing in seasonal averages as is the case for ENSO. Thus, in some ways a strong positive phase of IOD tries
 The MJO affects the intensity and break periods of the to encounter the negative effects of El Nino. But the
Asian and Australian monsoons and interacts with El relation between IOD and monsoon rainfall is still being
Nino. The MJO has the ability to influence monsoonal debated and has not been fully comprehended.
circulation and rainfall by adding moisture during its  IOD and Tropical Cyclones in Indian Ocean – Positive
cyclonic (wet) phase and reducing convection during its IOD phase (Arabian Sea warmer than Bay of Bengal)
anticyclonic (dry) phase. At the surface in monsoon generally results in more cyclones in Arabian Sea.
regions, both dry and wet spells result. These periods During the negative IOD phase, there is a more
may alternate locally on the order of two or more likelihood of cyclones originating in the Bay of Bengal
weeks per phase. (and cyclogenesis getting suppressed in the Arabian
6. INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE Sea).
 It is defined by the difference in sea surface  Typically, the strength of the IOD is monitored with the
temperature between two areas (or poles, hence a so-called Dipole Mode Index, which is a measure of the
dipole) – a western pole in the Arabian Sea (western surface temperature difference between the western
India Ocean) and an eastern pole in the eastern Indian and eastern tropical Indian Ocean.
Ocean south of Indonesia. The IOD affects the climate  ENSO is seen as one of the main triggers of IOD events.
of Australia, India, and other countries that surround During El Nino, the anomalous surface winds near
the Indian Ocean Basin, and is a significant contributor Indonesia blow from southeast to northwest, helping
to rainfall variability in this region. to bring cold water to the surface near Java and
 Like ENSO, the change in temperature gradients across Sumatra and initiating a positive IOD event. Similarly,
the Indian Ocean results in changes in the preferred La Nina tends to trigger negative IOD events.
regions of rising and descending moisture and air.  Because of the close connections, it becomes
 In scientific terms, the IOD (often called the “Indian challenging to determine how much IOD variability is
Nino” is a coupled ocean and atmosphere separate from ENSO variability.
phenomenon, similar to ENSO but in the equatorial 7. POLAR VORTEX
Indian Ocean. It is thought that the IOD has a link with  Polar Vortex (also called circumpolar vortex, polar low,
ENSO events through an extension of the Walker or polar cyclone) – It is the large area of persistent low
Circulation to the west and associated Indonesian pressure generally located above each of Earth’s polar
through flow (the flow of warm tropical ocean water regions and containing a mass of extremely cold air.
from the Pacific into the Indian Ocean). Hence, positive The altitude of this cyclone extends from the middle of
IOD events are often associated with El Nino and the troposphere into the stratosphere.
negative events with La Nina. When the IOD and ENSO
 Cold air is contained within the polar vortex by the  The polar vortex over Antarctica and its adjacent areas
Polar Front Jet Stream (PFJS). PFJS separates warm is isolated from air outside the region by the polar-
tropical air from cold polar air in the mid-latitudes. front jet stream in the Southern Hemisphere, which
 The strength of the polar vortex varies with the season, circulates between approximately 50 degrees S and 65
but it is strongest during the winter season in each degrees S over the Southern Ocean. The Antarctic
hemisphere, when the temperature contrast between Polar-Front Jet Stream is more uniform and constant
the pole and equator is the greatest. It may weaken or than its Arctic counterpart, because Antarctica is
disappear entirely during the warmer months of the surrounded by ocean rather than a mix of land and
year. water. As a result, land-ocean temperature contrasts
 The interaction between disruption to the stratosphere underneath the jet stream in the Antarctic are not as
and weather in the troposphere is still not precisely great as those in the Arctic. In addition, mountains
understood. But when the vortex in the stratosphere is capable of deflecting energy into the jet stream are
disrupted – split, displaced, or elongated – it can push fewer and distant, so the development of large Rossby
the jet stream below it south, bringing Arctic air into Waves is less frequent than in the Northern
cities in the US, Europe, and Asia. That’s why, in 2019, Hemisphere. As a result, the Antarctic polar vortex is
Chicago was briefly colder than the North Pole. more resistant than the Arctic polar vortex to
 In the past 30 years, the Arctic has warmed about incursions made by outside air masses, and it tends to
twice as fast as the rest of the world, a phenomenon break up only during the onset of spring. Cold-air
known as arctic amplification. The warming has led to outbreaks, however, do occur in the Southern
retreating glaciers and a loss of sea ice in the region, Hemisphere, but they are less frequent and strike
and it may also make the stratospheric polar vortex heavily populated areas less frequently.
less stable, though that connection is not yet clear to  Cold air trapped within the Antarctic polar vortex
scientists. The kinks in the jet stream that destabilized contributes to the development of nacreous clouds (a
the polar vortex may also be made stronger by less type of Polar Stratospheric Cloud (PSC)) during the
Arctic sea ice. Losing all that ice allowed a great deal of winter months, which last through the whole of the
extra heat from the sun to warm the Arctic waters, polar night (the period in which Antarctica experiences
which is now being released back into the atmosphere, several months of total darkness). During the long dark
creating bulges of warm air in those key regions. These Antarctic winter, temperatures inside the vortex can
bulges can make northward swings in the jet stream drop to - 85 degrees C. This frigid air allows for the
larger, stronger, and more persistent, which in turn can formation of PSCs. These ice clouds are critical in
disrupt the polar vortex. facilitating chemical interactions among nitrogen,
 2020 was tied with 2016 as one of the hottest years on hydrogen, and chlorine atoms, the end product of
record, capping off what was the hottest decade to which is the destruction of ozone. PSCs convert less-
date. There was also record low sea ice cover over the reactive chlorine-containing molecules to more-
Arctic. Still, more research is needed to understand reactive forms, such as molecular chlorine (Cl2), which
exactly how warming is changing the weather patterns contributes to the ozone hole. In August and
that flow down from the Arctic year every year. September/October, these clouds are exposed to
 Over the Northern Hemisphere in the winter season, sunlight, which breaks chlorine molecules into single
the Polar-Front Jet Stream (PFJS) is located above the chlorine atoms that react with and destroy
midlatitudes (areas located between 30 degrees N and stratospheric ozone (O3) molecules. Nacreous clouds
60 degrees N), with wind speeds varying between 190 may form naturally or may be associated with
to 400 km/hour. increased methane concentrations in the atmosphere,
 If PFJS’s circulation is strong, the polar vortex maintains some of which may result from human activity.
a roughly circular shape with a centre at or very near to
the North Pole. Undulations in the circulation of the
 SOME UNUSUAL CLOUDS
PFJS (called Rossby Waves) can result from incursions a) Lenticular Clouds: Moist air crossing a mountain
of energy generated by land-ocean contrasts in barrier often forms into waves. The clouds that form in
temperature and air deflected by large mountain the wave crest usually have a lens shape and are,
ranges into the path of the jet stream in the therefore, called lenticular clouds.
stratosphere. These waves can weaken the circulation b) Banner Cloud: When a cloud forms over and extends
around the polar vortex and make the polar vortex downwind of an isolated mountain peak, it is called a
more susceptible to disruptions by northward-moving banner cloud.
warm air masses and high-pressure systems. c) Pileus or Cap Cloud: Similar to the lenticular cloud, that
 Disruptions in the polar vortex can push part of the resembles a silken scarf capping the top of a sprouting
main region of frigid arctic air southward thousands of cumulus cloud.
kilometres, which produce wideranging “cold-air d) Mammatus Cloud: Most clouds form in rising air, but
outbreaks” or “cold waves” that can decrease air the mammatus forms in sinking air. These are bag like
temperatures to dangerous levels over populated areas sacs that hang beneath the cloud and resemble a cow’s
of Eurasia or North America. Such cold waves often udder.
result in losses of crops and livestock and even human e) Contrail: Jet aircraft flying at high altitudes often
fatalities. produce a cirrus-like trail of condensed vapour called a
condensation trail or contrail. The condensation may

come directly from the water vapour added to the air  INDIA:-
from engine exhaust. a) In Summer, June to September:- massive and
f) Nacreous Clouds: aside from the cumulonimbus cloud consistent system of winds from Southwest
that sometimes penetrates into the stratosphere, all of direction ,however heat and pressure conditions
the clouds described are observed in the lower are changing BUT there is a complex system of
atmosphere – troposphere. Occasionally, however, monsoon as no other area has ever such
clouds may be seen above the troposphere. For consistent winds for 4 months
example, soft pearly looking clouds called nacreous b) In winter- From North-east , winds come
clouds, or mother-of-pearl clouds form in the  All this makes India’s monsoon very unique and there
stratosphere at altitudes above 30 km. They are best are many reasons of this reversal , some are identified
viewed in polar latitudes during the winter months and some are being identified, one of these is shifting
when the sun, being just below the horizon, is able to O O
of pressure cells , in general b/w 2 to 20 , and in India
illuminate them because of their high altitude. O
it is more than 20 , as
g) Noctilucent Clouds: Wavy bluish-white clouds, so thin a) In summer when the sun is at peak there is shift of
that stars shine brightly through them, may sometimes equatorial low pressure cell at equator (ITCZ) to
be seen in the upper mesosphere, at altitudes above the plains of India and generally extends from
75 kilometres. The best place to view these clouds is in Calcutta in east to Karachi in west and this is called
polar regions at twilight. To a ground observer, they Monsoon trough (Extensive low pressure
appear bright against a dark background and, for this area=trough) or ITCZ
reason, they are called noctilucent clouds, meaning b) In winter it shifts few degrees down of equator
“luminous night clouds”. upto Madagascar island
st nd
…….21 class ended, 22 starts………….. 4. Dr, Flohn (1950s) suggested that the exceptional shift
1. Vision without action is a daydream, action without of ITCZ in S-Asia during summer season is one major
vision is a nightmare reason for the origin of south-west monsoon
2. The empires of the futures are the empires of the mind 5. Monsoons are primarily restricted to tropical belts as
3. Success is getting what you want, happiness is wanting these areas experience the maximum shift of pressure
what you get conditions with the apparent movement of Sun in the
4. The difference between technology and slavery is that sky.
slaves are fully aware that they are not free Note:- result of shifting of pressure conditions is
5. If you give up on your dreams what is left ? Mediterrarian climate, without shifting of pressure
TOPIC: MONSOON:- conditions we would not have Mediterrarian climate

 MONSOON TROUGH/ITCZ
 Monsoon:- seasonal reversal of winds
 During the summer season, at the surface (lower
 The word monsoon derives from Arabic mausim, which
troposphere), there extends a trough from Calcutta in
means season, and by monsoon we mean the seasonal
the east to Karachi in the west. This semi-permanent,
reversal of winds. A monsoon wind system is one that
lower atmosphere feature exerts considerable
changes direction seasonally – the seasonal reversal of
influence in the summer monsoon circulation in south
winds is especially well developed in eastern and
Asia. The trough axis experiences considerable day to
southern Asia.
day variation in its position, which has a vital bearing
 Associated with the monsoon wind pattern is a
upon the monsoon rainfall distribution in the region.
distinctive seasonal precipitation regime – heavy
During the break monsoon periods, when there is a
summer rains derived from the moist maritime air of
temporary ‘lull’ in monsoon activity, the trough line
the onshore flow and a pronounced winter dry season
shifts to the foot hills of the Himalaya, rainfall over the
when continental air moving seaward dominates the
central parts of India decreases considerably, and there
circulation.
is an increase in rainfall over north India along the
 There are two major monsoonal systems (South Asia
Himalayan foothills.
and East Asia (China, Korea and Japan)), two minor
systems (Australia and West Africa), and several other  THE MASCARENE HIGH
regions where monsoonal tendencies develop  This is high pressure area at sea level south of the
(especially in Central America and the southeastern equator in the Indian Ocean near Mascarene island.
US). The position and intensity of this High are considered
1. The term monsoon Comes from Arabic word “Mausim” to be closely linked to the S. W. Monsoon activity.
means season, by monsoon we mean seasonal
reversal of winds.
 MONSOON DEPRESSIONS
2. It means those areas where there is a reversal of winds  These are weak low-pressure systems formed during
from one season to another are called monsoonal monsoon season. The easterly jet stream steers the
areas example S-Asia tropical depressions into India.
3. Principle monsoonal area S-Asia, E-Asia, N-Australia,  These depressions play a significant role in the
W-Africa and all are tropical locations as well and are distribution of monsoon rainfall over the Indian
the monsoonal areas, so monsoon is primarily subcontinent. The tracks of these depressions are the
restricted to topical areas areas of higher rainfall in India.

 The frequency at which these depressions visit India, pressure areas. Thus, the first model ever prepared
their direction and intensity, all go a long way in about the mechanism of the Indian monsoon was
determining the rainfall pattern during the southwest Halley’s planetary scale sea breeze- land-breeze system
monsoon period. The frequency of the tropical in 1690s.
depressions originating from the Bay of Bengal varies  As moisture laden air reaches north India it results in
from year to year. condensation and there is a release of latent heat in
 Their paths over India correlate with the position of atmosphere. This latent heat helps augmenting the low
ITCZ which is generally termed as the monsoon trough. pressure –effects reinforces its cause
As the axis of monsoon trough oscillates, there are  Hadley, later, argued that Halley’s model was lacking in
fluctuations in the track and direction of these the physical ingredient of the effect of earth’s rotation.
depressions, and the intensity and the amount of Hadley reasoned that the monsoon originates in the
rainfall vary from year to year. South East Trades of the Southern Hemisphere and as
 MONSOON SYSTEM IN SEQUENCE IN INDIA it flows across the equator towards the heated
1. The South west monsoon (Summer monsoon) landmass, the Coriolis Force causes it turn to the right,
2. Withdrawal of S-W Monsoon thereby forming the South West Monsoon. (Passing
3. Onset of the N-E Monsoon over the equatorial warm currents, they bring with
 Retreating monsoon:- Withdrawal of S-W Monsoon+ them moisture in abundance).
Onset of the N-E Monsoon 2. Shifting of the Inter Tropical Convergence
 MECHANISM OF SOUTH-WEST zone (I.T.C.Z.): According to Dr. Flohn (1950s), the
existence of Asian Monsoon is not due to the
MONSOON/SUMMER MONSOON temperature contrasts between land and sea, but
 June to September India gets covered with this monsoon primarily due to the annual migration of thermally
 During summer in south Asia, the equatorial low pressure induced planetary wind and pressure belts. For him,
O
(ITCZ) would shift 20 North of the equator the Winter Monsoon is nothing but the tropical
 At peak of summer season, the low pressure of equator shifts easterlies or the northern trade winds. In summer, the
to north of equator and generally place over northern plains
equatorial westerlies, which have been displaced
this is what technically we call as ITCZ and in topic of
monsoon it is referred as Monsoon trough. So when there is
northward, result in S. W. Monsoon. (By the middle of
low pressure over northern plains of India , at that time we July, the ITCZ shifts northwards, roughly parallel to the
have high pressure in south Indian ocean. Himalayas between 20 degrees N and 25 degrees N.
 So in south Indian ocean little east of Madagascar, there is The ITCZ being a zone of low pressure, attracts inflow
small island with name mascarene and over this island we of winds from different directions).
have high pressure called as mascarene high 3. Tibetan Anticyclone: A remarkable aspect of the
 So what drives India’s south-west monsoon consistently for
large-scale circulation during the summer monsoon
4-months is the pressure gradient b/w mascarene high and
low pressure over northern plains of India , and this pressure
season over South Asia is the upper-tropospheric
gradient remains strong for 4-months anticyclone situated over the Tibetan Plateau. The
Tibetan Plateau, located more than 4500 metres amsl
with a length of about 2000 km and width of 600 km in
the west and 1000 km in the east, is considered to be
one of the key factors in the development of monsoon
circulation in the region. The Tibetan Plateau exerts its
influence as a mechanical barrier in the atmospheric
flow as well as a high-level heat source. An anticyclone
appears in the upper troposphere over Tibet during the
Indian summer monsoon season, primarily due to
latent and sensible heating over the plateau. It appears
over southeast Asia in May, and then moves
northwestwards, reaching the Tibetan plateau around
the height of the summer monsoon season. From
 onset of south west monsoon along the coast of Kerala about September, the anticyclone migrates south-
is very sudden and drastic phenomenon and therefore eastwards (towards Indonesia) and loses definition
it is called as Burst Of Monsoon after October. Variations in the intensity and position
 from Kerala coast monsoon gets divided into may of this High and its orientation are closely related to
branches mainly Arabian sea branch and other is bay of the monsoon circulation over South Asia.
Bengal Branch
4. Jet Streams:
1. The Classical Model (Halley and Hadley):  Jet Streams are very strong air currents embedded
Halley (1690s) hypothesized that the primary cause of within the upper air westerlies. These are swift winds
the annual cycle of the Indian monsoon circulation was making the inner cores of upper air circulations - the
the differential heating effects between the ocean and flow of air at altitudes above 5000 metres, in the upper
land in South Asia. Differential heating would cause the troposphere. The upper air westerlies form as a
pressure differences in the atmosphere that could only response to the temperature difference between warm
be equalized by winds from the high pressure to low tropical air and cold polar air.

 The formation, movement, and decay of surface forming upper air cells of warm and cold air. This
cyclones and anticyclones in the middle latitudes process helps maintain a net poleward flow of energy
depend to a great extent on the flow of air, high above from equatorial and tropical areas. The cells eventually
Earth’s surface. These also influence the weather dissipate, and the pattern returns to normal. The
phenomena in the tropical regions – monsoon, etc. complete cycle takes from less than 4-8 weeks.
 In the upper troposphere, an average westerly flow, a) Subtropical Westerly Jet Stream: This Jet
the upper air westerlies, is maintained poleward of dominates the wintertime upper tropospheric
about 15 degrees to 20 degrees latitude in both circulation of the northern hemispheric low latitudes. It
hemispheres. has a circumglobal extent between latitudes 25
 Because of the reduced frictional drag, the upper air degrees and 30 degrees North and can be located over
westerlies move much more rapidly than their surface South Asia at an elevation of about 12 km during
counterparts. These are predominantly westerlies. The October to May. The mean position of this Jet is about
two major Jet Streams are 1. Polar Front Jet Stream 27 degrees North. This Jet is split owing to the
(PFJS), 2. Tropical/Sub-tropical Westerly Jest Stream presence of the Himalayan massif in its path. A single
(TWJS). Between 15 degrees and 20 degrees N and S stream is seen upto Afghanistan where it splits into
latitudes are the upper air easterlies – two branches, one to the south and another to the
Tropical/Equatorial Easterly Jet Stream. north of the Himalayas, recombining into a strong
 The flow of the upper air winds became very apparent single stream over China. The Jet first appears over the
during World War II when high-altitude bombers northern parts of the Indian subcontinent in October,
moving eastward were found to cover similar distances after the withdrawal of the Summer Monsoon and
faster than those flying westward. Pilots had shifts progressively southwards with the advance of
encountered the upper air westerlies, or perhaps even the winter season. Thereafter, it shifts backwards,
the jet streams. weakens, and disappears from the South Asian origin
 As the upper air winds flow from the equator toward with the establishment of the South West Monsoon.
the poles (down the pressure gradient), they are The shift in the position of the ITCZ is also related to
turned eastward because of the Coriolis effect. The net the phenomenon of the withdrawal of the westerly jet
result is a broad circumpolar flow of westerly winds stream from its position over the north Indian plain,
throughout most of the upper atmosphere. Because south of the Himalayas.
the upper air westerlies form in response to the b) Tropical Easterly Jet Stream: This Jet is a prominent
thermal gradient between tropical and polar areas, it is feature of the upper-air circulation during the Indian
not surprising that they are strongest in winter when summer monsoon (June to September), appearing as a
the thermal contrast is greatest. band of strong easterlies extending from southeast
 This thermal contrast is concentrated where the warm Asia across the Indian Ocean, and Africa to the Atlantic,
tropical air meets cold polar air. This boundary, called generally at a height of about 14 km. Its axis remains
the polar front, with its stronger pressure gradient, close to about 14 degrees North. The easterly jet
marks the location of the polar front jet stream. stream sets in along 15 degrees N latitude only after
Ranging from 40 to 160 km in width and up to 2 or 3 the western jet stream has withdrawn itself from the
km in depth, the PFJS can be thought of as a faster, region.
internal current of air within the upper air westerlies.  It is present over the south Indian peninsula from June
 Another westerly subtropical jet stream flows above to August in the latitudinal belts between 12 degrees
the sinking air of the subtropical highs in the lower North and 15 degrees North, and it disappears by
middle latitudes. Like the upper air westerlies, both September. The position and speed of the Jet have
jets are best developed in winter when hemispherical appreciable spatial and temporal fluctuations.
temperatures exhibit their steepest gradient. 5. Southern Oscillations Index (S.O.I.): The see-saw
 During the summer, both jets weaken in intensity. The relationship in sea level pressure between the tropical
subtropical jet stream frequently disappears Pacific and the tropical Indian Ocean has led to the
completely, and the polar front jet tends to migrate development of the S.O.I., based on the pressure data
northward. at certain representative stations (for ex., S.O.I.
 In general, the upper air westerlies and the associated between Tahiti island and Darwin is the most widely
polar jet stream flow in a fairly smooth pattern. At used).
times, however, the upper air westerlies develop  El-Nino (Spanish for “the Child”): It is an anomalous
oscillations, termed long waves, or Rossby Waves, after warming of the eastern and central Pacific Ocean that
the Swedish meteorologist Carl Rossby who first occurs 2 to 10 years’ intervals, and is frequently
proposed and then proved their existence. Rossby associated with farreaching climatic and oceanic
waves result in cold polar air pushing into the lower impacts around the world.
latitudes and forming troughs of low pressure, while  These two are believed to be connected, and are
warm tropical air moves into higher latitudes, forming together referred as ENSO. During the high southern
ridges of high pressure. It is when the upper air oscillation phase, precipitation tends to abundant in
circulation is in this configuration that surface weather the Indonesian-Australian region, most of south Asian
is most influenced. region, southeastern Africa. Relatively dry conditions
 Eventually, the upper air oscillations become so prevail over the equatorial Pacific, east central Africa,
extreme that the “tongues” of displaced air are cut off, and northern Mexico. During the low phase of the
S.O.I., the patterns of rainfall anomalies are the southeast towards the northwest over the North
approximately opposite. Indian Plain and the northern part of the Peninsula.
 La Nina (Spanish for “the female child”) – In some c) The sudden onset of the moisture-laden winds
instances, conditions opposite of El Nino prevail in the associated with violent thunder and lightning is often
equatorial South Pacific; these events are known as termed as the burst of the monsoons.
ENSO cool phase or La Nina. La Nina conditions are d) The southwest monsoon sets in over the Kerala coast
similar to normal conditions but more intensified by 1st June and moves swiftly to reach Mumbai and
because there is a larger pressure difference across the Kolkata between 10th and 13th June. By mid-July,
equatorial South Pacific. Indian Monsoons are typically southwest monsoon engulfs the entire subcontinent.
drier than usual in El Nino years but wetter than usual
in La Nina years
Diagram (a) Non EL-Nino Phase (Neutral ENSO)
e) There seem to be two rain bearing systems in India.

First originates in the Bay of Bengal causing rainfall
 In diagram (a), under ordinary conditions higher
over the plains of north India. Second is the Arabian
pressure over the southeastern Pacific and lower
Sea current of the S W Monsoon which brings rain to
pressure near Indonesia produce easterly trade winds
the west coast of India.
along the equator. These winds promote upwelling and
f) The intensity of rainfall over the west coast of India is
cooler ocean water in the eastern Pacific, while
related to two factors:
warmer water prevails in the western Pacific. The
 The offshore meteorological conditions;
trades are part of a circulation (called the Walker
 The position of the equatorial jet stream along the
circulation) that typically finds rising air and heavy rain
eastern coast of Africa.
over the western Pacific and sinking air and generally
g) Break in the Monsoon: During the S W Monsoon period
dry weather over the eastern Pacific. When the trades
after having rains for a few days, if rain fails to occur
are exceptionally strong, water along the equator in
for one or more weeks, it is known as break in the
the eastern Pacific becomes quite cool. This cool event
monsoon. These dry spells are quite common – two
is called La Niña. During El Niño conditions- diagram (b)
reasons being:
atmospheric pressure decreases over the eastern
 In northern plains – if the rain bearing storms are
Pacific and rises over the western Pacific. This change
not very frequent along monsoon trough/ITCZ;
in pressure causes the trades to weaken or reverse
 Along west coast – when winds blow parallel to
direction. This situation enhances the countercurrent
the coast.
that carries warm water from the west over a vast
h) The rain in the southwest monsoon season begins
region of the eastern tropical Pacific. The thermocline,
rather abruptly. One result of the first rain is that it
which separates the warm water of the upper ocean
brings down the temperature substantially,
from the cold water below, changes as the ocean
i) The monsoon may burst in the first week of June in the
conditions change from non-El Niño to El Niño.
coastal areas of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, and
 S W MONSOON SEASON Maharashtra while in the interior parts of the country,
a) The monsoon regime emphasizes the unity of India it may be delayed to the first week of July. The day
with the rest of southeast Asian region. temperature registers a decline of 5 degrees C to 8
b) The rain which comes in spells, displays a declining degrees C between mid-June and mid-July.
trend from west to east over the west coast, and from

j) As these winds approach the land, their southwesterly  The rains sometimes end considerably earlier than
direction is modified by the relief and thermal low usual, causing great damage to standing crops and
pressure over the northwest India. making the sowing of winter crops difficult.
k) The monsoon approaches the landmass in two
branches:
 THE ASIAN WINTER MONSOON
 In the northern hemispheric winter, a high-pressure
 The Arabian Sea branch centre of great intensity, called the “Siberian
 The Bay of Bengal branch Anticyclone” forms over the northern parts of Asia
l) Arabian Sea Branch: splits into 3 sub-branches: between 40 degrees and 60 degrees North. The
 One which climbs the Western Ghats – causes outflow of cold continental air from this anticyclone in
heavy rainfall between 250 cm and 400 cm in the Asiatic heartland proceeds towards the south and
western Coastal Plain and windward side of southeast over Korea, China, and Japan, constituting
Western Ghats (rain-shadow zone on the eastern the Winter Monsoon. The north easterlies, during their
side of Western Ghats); travel over the Indian region, give winter rain to the
 Branch striking the coast north of Mumbai – eastern side of southern parts of the Indian peninsula
moving along the Narmada and Tapi river valleys, in the state of Tamil Nadu and to Sri Lanka.
these winds cause rainfall in extensive areas of  Winter Monsoons do not cause rainfall as they move
central India. They enter the Ganga Plains and from land to the sea. It is because, firstly, they have
mingle with the Bay of Bengal branch. little humidity; and secondly, due to anticyclonic
 A third branch strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula and circulation on land, the possibility of rainfall from them
the Kachchh. It then passes over west Rajasthan reduces. So, most parts of India do not have rainfall in
and along the Aravallis, causing only a scanty winter season.
rainfall. In Punjab and Haryana, it joins the Bay of  During October and November, northeast monsoon
Bengal branch. while crossing over the Bay of Bengal, picks up
m) Monsoon winds of the Bay of Bengal: The Bay of moisture and causes torrential rainfall over the Tamil
Bengal branch strikes the coast of Myanmar and part of Nadu coast, southern Andhra Pradesh, southeast
southeast Bangladesh. But the Arakan Hills along coast Karnataka and southeast Kerala.
of Myanmar deflect a big portion of this branch  The weather in winter season is characterized by feeble
towards the Indian subcontinent. The monsoon, high-pressure conditions over the northern plain. In
therefore enters West Bengal and Bangladesh from south India, the air pressure is slightly lower. The
south and southeast instead of from the south- isobars of 1019 mb and 1013 mb pass through
westerly direction. From here, this branch splits into northwest India and far south, respectively. As a result,
two under the influence of the Himalayas and the winds start blowing from northwestern high-pressure
thermal low in northwest India. It’s one branch moves zone over the Indian Ocean in the south. Due to low
westward along the ganga Plains reaching as far as the pressure gradient, the light winds with a low velocity of
Punjab Plains. The other branch moves up the about 3 – 5 km per hour begin to blow outwards. By
Brahmaputra valley in the north and the northeast, and large, the topography of the region influences the
causing widespread rains. Its sub-branch strikes the wind direction. They are westerly or northwesterly
Garo and Khasi hills of Meghalaya. Mawsynram, down the Ganga Valley. They become northerly in the
located on the crest of Khasi hills, receives the highest Ganga-Brahmputra delta. Free from the influence of
average annual rainfall in the world. topography, they are clearly north-easterly over the
n) Why Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during this season – Bay of Bengal.
 T.N. is situated parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch
of S W Monsoon;
 RETREATING MONSOON: The months of October
 It lies in the rain-shadow area of the Arabian Sea and November are known for retreating monsoons. By
branch. the end of September, the S W Monsoon becomes
weak as the low-pressure trough of the Ganga plain
o) Characteristics of Monsoonal Rainfall: starts moving southward in response to the southward
 Seasonal Rainfall; march of the sun. The monsoon retreats from the
 Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by relief or western Rajasthan by the first week of September. It
topography; withdraws from Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western Ganga
 Rainfall declines with increasing distance from the Plain and the Central Highlands by the end of the
sea (Kolkata – 119cm; Patna – 105 cm; Allahabad – month. By the beginning of October, the low pressure
76 cm and Delhi – 56 cm); covers northern parts of the Bay of Bengal and by early
 Characterized by breaks; November, it moves over Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
 Heavy downpour resulting in considerable runoff By the middle of December, the centre of low pressure
and soil erosion; is completely removed from the Peninsula.
 Constitutes about 75% of total annual rainfall –
 The retreating southwest monsoon season is
vital for agrarian economy;
 Spatial uneven distribution;
marked by clear skies and rise in temperature.
 The beginning of the rains sometimes is The land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high
considerably delayed over the whole or a part of temperature and humidity, the weather becomes
the country; rather oppressive. This is commonly known as the
“October Heat”. In the second half of October, the

mercury begins to fall rapidly, particularly in northern  PRE-MONSOON SUMMER SEASON:-
India. The weather in the retreating monsoon is dry in  The atmospheric pressure is low all over the country
north India but it is associated with rain in the eastern due to the high temperature. In May and June, high
part of the Peninsula. Here, October and November are temperature in northwest India builds steep pressure
the rainiest months of the year. gradient. Under such conditions, hot, dust laden, and
 The widespread rain in this season is associated strong winds, known as Loo blow in the Northern
with the passage of cyclonic depressions which Plains from Punjab to Bihar. The intensity increases in
originate over the Andaman Sea and manage to the afternoon and the strong dust storms result from
cross the eastern coast of the southern the convective phenomenon and are locally known as
Peninsula. These tropical cyclones are very Aandhis (blinding storms). These are essentially short-
destructive. The thickly populated deltas of the lived thunderstorms, which move like a solid wall of
Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are their preferred sand and dust, and are common in Rajasthan, Haryana,
targets. A few cyclonic storms also strike the coast of Punjab, Jammu region, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and
West Bengal, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. A bulk of the Madhya Pradesh. These bring little rainfall and give
rainfall of the Coromandal coast is derived from these much needed relief from scorching heat, but
depressions and cyclones. Such cyclonic storms are less temporarily only.
frequent in the Arabian Sea.  Occasionally, the moisture-laden winds are attracted
towards the periphery of the trough. A sudden contact
between dry and moist air masses gives rise to local
storms of great intensity. These local storms are
associated with violent winds, torrential rains and even
hailstorms.
 The thunderstorms which originate over Chhota Nagpur
Plateau, are carried eastwards by westerly winds. The areas
with highest incidence of thunderstorms are Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura,
Meghalaya, West Bengal, and the adjoining areas of Orissa
and Jharkhand. In West Bengal and the adjoining areas of
Assam, Orissa and Jharkhand, the direction of squalls (a
sudden violent gust of wind or localized storm, especially one
bringing rain, snow, or hail) is mainly from the north-west,
and they are called Norwesters. The rainfall brought by the
norwesters is called spring storm showers. They are often
very violent with squall speeds of 60 to 80 km/h. Hailstones,
sometimes accompany showers and occasionally attain large
sizes, causing damage to standing crops and animals. The
period of maximum occurrence of these storms is the month
of Baisakh. And hence, are locally called Kalbaisakh (kal: evil).
In Assam, these storms are known as “Bardoli Chheerha”.
 In the south, the thunderstorms occur in Kerala and adjoining
parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, particularly in the
evenings and nights. The maximum frequency is in the south
western tip of India.
 The pre-monsoonal showers are called by various names –
Tea showers in Assam (good for tea, rice, and Jute); Mango
showers in Tamil Nadu, coastal Karnataka, and Andhra
Pradesh (help in the early ripening of mangoes) and Cherry
Blossoms in Karnataka and Kerala (good for coffee
plantations).

 WESTERN DISTURBANCES
 During the winters, the weather in India is pleasant.
The pleasant weather conditions, however, get
disturbed by shallow cyclonic depressions originating
over the east Mediterranean Sea and travelling
eastwards across West Asia, Iran, Afghanistan and
Pakistan before they reach the northwestern parts of
India. On their way, the moisture content gets
augmented from the Caspian Sea in the north and the
Persian Gulf in the south. These temperate cyclonic
systems are referred to as western disturbances.
 The western cyclonic disturbances which enter the
Indian subcontinent from the west and the northwest
during the winter months, generally originate over the
Mediterranean Sea and are brought into India by the
westerly jet stream. An increase in the prevailing
night temperature (cloud cover traps the outgoing
long wave radiation) generally indicates an advance in
the arrival of these cyclonic disturbances.
 These weak temperate cyclones cause rainfall in
Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh.
Summer Monsoon Winds : Surface Circulation Although the amount is meagre, it is highly beneficial
for rabi crops. The precipitation is in the form of
snowfall in the lower Himalayas. It is this snow that
sustains the flow of water in the Himalayan rivers
during the summer months. The precipitation goes on
decreasing from west to east in the plains and from
north to south in the mountains.
 Western disturbances are usually associated with
cloudy sky, higher night temperatures and unusual
rain. Excessive precipitation due to western
disturbance can cause crop damage, landslides, floods
and avalanches. Over the Indo-Gangetic plains, they
occasionally bring cold wave conditions and dense fog.
 DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL IN INDIA
a) The average annual rainfall in India is about 110cm/125cm,
but it has great spatial variations.
b) Areas of High Rainfall: more than 200 cm: a. In some parts of
Khasi and Jaintia Hills, the rainfall exceeds 1000 cm; b. west
coast and Western Ghats, sub-Himalayan areas in the
northeast and the hills of Meghalaya – more than 200 cm
c) Areas of Medium Rainfall: 100 to 200 cm: southern parts of
Gujarat, east Tamil Nadu, northeastern Peninsula covering
Orissa, Jharkhand, Bihar, eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern
Ganga Plain along the sub-Himalayas and the Cachar Valley
and Manipur.
d) Areas of Low Rainfall: 50 to 100 cm: Western UP, Delhi,
Haryana, Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, eastern Rajasthan,
Gujarat and Deccan Plateau.
e) Areas of Inadequate Rainfall: below 50 cm: Parts of Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra, Ladakh and most of
western Rajasthan.
f) A characteristic feature of rainfall in India is its variability.
g) The values of coefficient of variation (cv) show the change
from the mean values of rainfall. (cv = (SD/M) x 100).
h) A variability of less than 25% exists on the western coasts,
Western Ghats, northeastern Peninsula, eastern plains of the
Ganga, northeastern India, UK and Himachal Pradesh and
south-western part of J and K. These areas have an annual
rainfall of over 100 cm.
i) A variability of over 50% exists in the western part of
Rajasthan, northern part of J & K, and interior parts of the
Deccan Plateau. These areas have annual rainfall of less than
50 cm.
j) Rest of India have a variability of 25 to 50% and these areas
receive an annual rainfall between 50 to 100 cm.
HAND-OUT MATERIAL
 LOCALIZED WIND SYSTEMS:-
 Besides the primary and secondary atmospheric
circulations, there are many kinds of lesser winds,
that are of considerable significance to weather and
climate at a more localized scale. Such winds are the
result of local pressure gradients that develop in
response to topographic configurations in the
immediate area, sometimes in conjunction with
broad-scale circulation conditions.
1. SEA AND LAND BREEZES
 A common local wind system along tropical coastlines
and to a lesser extent during the summer in
midlatitude coastal areas is the cycle of sea breezes
during the day and land breezes at night. This is
essentially a convectional circulation caused by the
differential heating of land and water surfaces. The
land warms up rapidly during the day, heating the air
above by conduction and reradiation. This heating
causes the air to expand and rise, creating low
pressure that attracts surface breezes from over the
adjacent water body. Because the onshore flow is
relatively cool and moist, it holds down daytime
temperatures in the coastal zone and provides
moisture for afternoon showers. Sea breezes are
sometimes, but they rarely are influential for more
than 15 to 30 kilometres inland. The reverse flow at
night is normally considerably weaker than the
daytime wind. The land and the air above it, cool
more quickly than the adjacent water body,
producing relatively higher pressure over land. Thus,
air flows offshore in a land breeze.
2. ANABATIC WIND
 An upslope wind formed when air on hill-sides is heated by
insolation conduction to a greater extent than air at the
same horizontal level but vertically above the valley floor.
This causes convectional rising of the heated air, which is
replaced by cooler air from the valley floor.

Columbia Gorge wind (called the coho) is often the
3. VALLEY & MOUNTAIN BREEZES harbinger of a prolonged cold spell.
 Another notable daily cycle of airflow is characteristic
of many hill and mountain areas. During the day, 5. FOEHN/CHINOOK WINDS
conduction and reradiation from the land surface  Another downslope wind is called a foehn in the
cause air near the mountain slopes to heat up more northern Alps (particularly in Switzerland) , and a
than air near the valley floor. The heated air rises, chinook in the Rocky Mountains (eastern slopes in
creating a low-pressure area, and then cooler air USA and Canada). It originates only when a steep
from the valley floor flows upslope from the high- pressure gradient develops with high pressure on the
pressure area to the low-pressure area. The upslope windward side of a mountain and a low-pressure
flow is called a valley breeze. The rising air often trough on the leeward side. Air moves down the
cause clouds to form around the peaks, and pressure gradient, which means from the windward
afternoon showers are common in the high country side to the leeward side. The down-flowing air on the
as a result. After dark, the pattern is reversed. The leeward side is dry and relatively warm: it has lost its
mountain slopes lose heat rapidly through radiation, moisture through precipitation on the windward side,
which chills the adjacent air, causing it to slip and it is warm relative to the air on the windward
downslope as a mountain breeze. side because it contains all the latent heat of
 Valley breezes are particularly prominent in summer, condensation given up by the condensing of the snow
when solar heating is most intense. Mountain or rain that fell at the peak. As the wind blows down
breezes are often weakly developed in summer and the leeward slope, it is further warmed adiabatically,
are likely to be more prominent in winter. Indeed, a and so it arrives at the base of the range as a
frequent winter phenomenon in areas of even gentle warming, drying wind. It can produce a remarkable
slope is cold air drainage, which is simply the night- rise of temperature leeward of the mountains in just
time sliding of cold air downslope to collect in the a few minutes. It is known along the Rocky Mountains
lowest spots; this is a modified form of mountain front as a “snow-eater” because it not only melts the
breeze. snow rapidly but also quickly dries the resulting mud.
Foehn melts snow and causes avalanches. In
4. KATABATIC WIND Argentina, such a wind is called a zonda. When these
 Related to simple air drainage is the more general winds move through an area, the temperature rises
and powerful spilling of air downslope in the form of sharply, sometimes over 20 degrees C or more in an
katabatic winds (from the Greek katabatic, which hour, and a corresponding sharp drop in the relative
means “descending”). These winds originate in cold humidity occurs. The main source of warmth for such
upland areas and cascade toward lower elevations a wind is compressional heating, as potentially
under the influence of gravity, they are sometimes warmer (and drier) air is brought down from aloft.
referred to as gravityflow winds. The air in them is
dense and cold, and although warmed adiabatically 6. SANTA ANA WINDS
as it descends, it is usually colder than the air it  A warm, dry wind that blows from the east or
displaces in its downslope flow. northeast into southern California is called Santa Ana
 Katabatic winds are particularly common in wind. It develops when a cell of high pressure persists
Greenland and Antarctica, especially where they over the interior of the western United States for
come whipping off the edge of the high, cold ice several days. The air descends from the elevated
sheets. Sometimes a katabatic wind will become desert plateau. The wind diverges clockwise out of
channeled through a narrow valley where it may the high, bringing dry, warm northerly or easterly
develop high speed and considerable destructive winds to the coast (instead of the more typical cool,
power. Worldwide, a variety of terrains produce such moist air from the westerlies). A strong, dry wind is
winds and bear many local names. An infamous produced that flows out across the desert to
example of this phenomenon is the mistral, which southern California coastal areas. The air is heated by
sometimes surges down France’s Rhone Valley from compression as it flows from higher to lower
the Alps to the Mediterranean Sea. The mistral of the elevations and with increasing speed it moves
Rhone Valley in southern France can cause frost through constricting valleys to the southwest. These
damage to vineyards as the cold north winds move winds irritate the population with their dust, dryness
over the region to the Gulf of Lions and the and heat. The Santa Anas are noted for high speed,
Mediterranean Sea. The frequently stronger bora, high temperature, and extreme dryness. Their
driven by the cold air of winter-high pressure systems presence provides ideal conditions for wildfires.
inland, flows across the Adriatic Coast to the west Virtually every year they make headlines by fanning
and south. In Alaska such winds are called the taku. large brush fires that destroy dozens of homes in late
 In North America, when cold air accumulates over the summer and fall and occasionally in spring.
Columbia plateau, it may flow westward through the
Columbia river Gorge as a strong, gusty, and
7. DESERT WINDS
 In some hot deserts there are violent convection
sometimes violent wind. Even though the sinking air
warms by compression, it is so cold to begin with that currents, caused by intense heating, and these
it reaches the ocean side of the Cascade Mountains produce convection winds which give rise to dust and
much colder than the marine air it replaces. The sand storms. In desert areas where loose sand is

more prevalent, sandstorms develop, as high winds c) Pampero: A cold wind blowing from the south over
enhanced by surface heating rapidly carry sand Argentina, Uruguay, and into the Amazon Basin.
particles close to the ground. A spectacular example d) Burga: A cold northeasterly wind in Alaska usually
of a storm composed of dust or sand is the haboob accompanied by snow; similar to the buran and purge
(from Arabic hebbe: blown). Haboobs are most of Russia.
common in the African Sudan and in the desert e) Southerly Burster: A cold wind of New South Wales
southwest of the United States, especially in southern in Australia.
Arizona. The spinning vortices so commonly seen on f) Brickfielder: A warm wind in Victoria, Australia.
hot days in dry areas are called dust devils or g) Levanter: A mild, humid, and often rainy east or
whirlwinds. The dust devils of the Sahara, which also northeast wind that blows across southern Spain.
affect parts of West Africa, are caused by convection h) Leste: A hot, dry, and dusty easterly or southeasterly
winds. wind from Saha
 Sirocco: This is a hot, dry dusty wind which originates 22ND CLASS ENDED, ALL CLASSES DONE
in the Sahara Desert. Though it may occur at any time
of the year, it is most frequent in spring and normally
lasts for only a few days. The Sirocco blows (from
south) outwards from the desert interiors into the
cooler Mediterranean Sea. It is usually associated
with depressions from the Atlantic passing from the
coast eastwards inland. After crossing the
Mediterranean Sea, the Sirocco is slightly cooled by
the absorption of the water vapour. Even then, it is
still hot and dry. Its scorching breath withers
vegetation and crops. The damage is particularly
serious when it comes at the times during which
vines and olives are in blossom. The Sirocco is so
prominent that it is called by many other local names,
such as Chili in Tunisia, Ghibli in Libya, Leveche in
Spain,
 Khamsin in Egypt and Malta, Sharav in Israel. In the
Adriatic and Aegean Sea, this hot wind, better known
as Gharbi, gathers much moisture causing fog, heavy
dew and rain. This may be ‘blood rain’ because the
wind is carrying the red dust of the Sahara Desert.
These winds are exceedingly hot and can raise the air
temperature to 50 degrees C, while lowering the
relative humidity to less than 10 per cent. Because
storm systems are not common over the
Mediterranean in summer, scorching breezes such as
these occur in spring or fall.
 Harmattan: A dry, dusty but mild wind from the
northeast or east that originates over the cool Sahara
in winter and blows over the west coast of Africa;
brings relief from the hot, humid weather along the
coastal region (it is called “Dr. Wind”). It is so dry that
its relative humidity seldom exceeds 30 per cent. ‘The
doctor’ provides welcome relief from the damp air of
the Guinea lands by increasing the rate of
evaporation with resultant cooling effects, but it is
such a dry wind that, besides ruining the crops, it also
stirs up a thick dusty haze.
 Simoom: A strong, dry, and dusty desert wind that
blows over the African and Arabian deserts; name
means “poison wind” because it is often
accompanied by temperatures in excess of 52
degrees C, which may cause heat stroke.
8. SOME MORE LOCAL WINDS
a) Buran: A strong, cool wind that blows over Russia and
central Asia
b) Purga: A buran accompanied by strong winds and
blowing snow.


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NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022

Bunge) means science kills uniqueness (makes life N/prime meridian)

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 They Are not parallel to one another, except where they

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 IMPORTANCE OF EQUATOR, TROPICS

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 4

 Why much of variability in weather?

 West to east by crossing IDL= gain of day in date

1. FROM BERING SEA

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 9

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 10

3) Lower latitudes have strongest convectional

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 12

4) In this zone , with increase in height, temperature

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 For every zone of divergence in lower troposphere

 So, maximum speed as compare to poles where

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a) Steep pressure gradient

spin in 24 hours decreases from equator to poles , direction

 PGF acts at right angle to the isobars in the direction of

B. Since earth is spherical in shape  earth gets

c. Magnitude of coriolis force (variation, how)

 AIR CIRCULATION TROPOSPHERE

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 17

 PRIMARY CIRCULATION WINDS:-

 All these winds are result of PGF(pressure gradient

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1. Hadley and polar cells both are driven directly by different

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 Let us suppose in diagram we have a tropical continent, trade

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CURRENT TYPE OCEAN

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Major gyres are sub-tropical gyres . note the latitudes

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NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 28

 INDIAN OCEAN CIRCULATION

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 Ocean currents are caused by many factors, but in

 So immediate surface layers comes into motion due to this

 Generally, upwelling takes place on a large scale on

A. EASTERN PACIFIC OCEAN:-

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 33

 There are two main ingredients for clouds to

 THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH)

i.e:- RH:- {mt÷ Mt}

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 36

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 37

HAND-OUT MATERIAL ON CLOUDS  THE CLOUDS WITH GREAT VERTICAL

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 38

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 39

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 40

NOTES MADE BY AKASH 7589157201 E-5 BATCH STUDENT 2022 41

Mount Waialeale, on the Hawaiian island of Kauai, receives

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HAND-OUT MATERIAL OF PRECIPITATION

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 A cloudburst is an extreme amount of precipitation in a

f) When a warm air mass passes over a colder land