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Atkins Physical Chemistry 11E 11Th Edition Full Chapter
Atkins Physical Chemistry 11E 11Th Edition Full Chapter
Atkins Physical Chemistry 11E 11Th Edition Full Chapter
equation or conclusion that resolves the issue. These sections When only one phase is present (P = I), both p and T can be
varied independently, so F = 2. Now consider the case where
maintain the separation of the equation and its derivation
two phases a and jl are in equilibrium (P = 2). If the phases
so that you can find them easily for review, but at the same a re- in equilibrium al a g iven pressu re and temperature, the ir
time emphasize that mathematics is an essential feature of chemical potentials must be equal:
physical chemistry.
they are developed. An annotation can take you across the (/V/T
v dN, (£ v) v d I ( 8v )' e
equals sign: it is a reminder of the substitution used, an Cv.m= dT =R8 dT e•'1T - 1 =R T (e•'1T - 1)'
approximation made, the terms that have been assumed
constant, an integral used, and so on. An annotation can By noting that e•v,r = (e•' nr ), , this expression can be rearranged
also be a reminder of the significance of an individual term into
in an expression. We sometimes colour a collection of num-
bers or symbols to show how they carry from one line to the c : .m=Rf(T) f(T) =
(
~ V ) ' ( -8vl1T )'
l~e-•v1r
next. Many of the equations are labelled to highlight their
significance. Vibrational contribution toe,,,,. (13E.3)
Checklists of equations
A handy checklist at the end of each topic summarizes the Checklist of equations
most important equations and the conditions under which
they apply. Don't think, however, that you have to memorize Property Equation
every equation in these checklists. Gibbs energy o( mixing li.,,,.G = nRT(xAlnx" + x11 lnxJ
Entropy of mixing 6..,.S =-nR(x"lnx" +x8 lnx.J
VII I Using the book
Examples
\'\forked Exa"1ples are more detailed illustrations of the appli- i§fi::j,j@f;jf Using the perfect gas law
cation of the material, and typically require you to assemble In an industrial process, nitrogen gas is introduced into
and deploy the relevant concepts and equations. a vessel of consta nt volume at a pressure of IOOatm a nd a
We suggest how you should collect your thoughts (that is a temperature of 300 K. The gas is then heated to 500 K. What
new feature) and then proceed to a solution. All the worked pressure would the gas then exert, assuming that ii behaved
as a perfect gas'
Exa"1ples are accompanied by Self-tests to enable you to test
your grasp of the material after working through our solution Collect your thoughts 1be pressure is expected to be greater
as set out in the Example. on account of the increase in temperature. The perfect gas
.
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Integrated act ivities • '; A _,...,_.., tit.1•-.i ,...,..,.. - l < I MIJ l>f• ..... .... ....,,.
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At the end of every Focus you will find questions that span
--"r•...-·--·M..
- .....1.... , . . -.... {N...._ _ _,,
........ _lo.Oil_lo_,...___ .,.._ __ ,...
- -.... - ........,.....,_ .......i,:11, ...._ _ I<,• ..,.,.
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........... kl ....
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several Topics. They are designed to help you use your knowl- ~ - l < t . l O _ ..
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_ , , , ... _ . . , . - 1.... ,..., ......... i..l·... l.,ln ... .....
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edge creatively in a variety of ways. . . ...... - - i - v r · · - - 1 · 1 ~ ... - . .. -{ N-- _.
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TO THE INSTRUCTOR
Vve have designed the text to give you maximum flexibility in without charge (but not for commercial purposes without
the selection and sequence of Topics, while the grouping of specific permission).
Topics into Focuses helps to maintain the unity of the subject.
Additional resources are: Key equations
Supplied in \<\ford for mat so you can download and edit them.
Figures and tables from the book
Lecturer resources are available only to registered adopters of
Lecturers can find the artwork and tables from the book in the textbook. To register, simply visit www.oup.com/uk/pchemlle/
ready-to-download format. These may be used for lectures and follow the appropriate links.
Peter Atkins is a fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford, and was Professor of Physical Chemistry in the
University of Oxford. He is the author of over seventy books for students and a general aud ience. His
texts are market leaders around the globe. A frequent lecturer in the United States and throughout the
world, he has held visiting professorships in France, Israel, Japan, China, Russia, and New Zealand.
He was the founding chairman of the Committee on Chemistry Education of the International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry and was a member of IUPAC's Physical and Biophysical Chem istry
Division.
Photograph by Natasha
Ellis-Knight.
Julio de Paula is Professor of Chemistry at Lewis & Clark College. A nat ive of Brazil, he received a
B.A. degree in chemistry from Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, and a Ph.D. in biophysical
chemistry from Yale University. His research activities encompass the areas of molecular spectroscopy,
photochemistry, and nanoscience. He has taught courses in general chemistry, physical chemistry, bio-
physical chemistry, inorganic chemistry, instrumental analysis, environmental chemistry, and writ-
ing. Among his professional honours are a Christian and Mary Lindback Award for Distinguished
Teaching, a Henry Dreyfus Teacher-Scholar Award, and a Cottrell Scholar Award from the Research
Corporation for Science Advancement.
Ja mes Keeler is a Senior Lecturer in Chemistry at the University of Cambridge, and \.Yalters Fellow in
Chemistry at Selwyn College, Cambridge. He took h is first degree at the University of Oxford and con-
tinued there for doctoral research in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Dr Keeler is Director of
Teaching for undergraduate chemistry, and teaches courses covering a range of topics in physical and
theoretical chemistry.
A book as extensive as this could not have been written with- Paul Marshall, University of North Texas
out significant input from many individuals. We would like to Laura R. McCunn, Marshall University
reiterate our thanks to the hundreds of people who contrib- Allan McKinley, University of Western Australia
uted to the first ten editions. Many people gave their advice Joshua Melko, University of North Florida
based on the tenth edition, and others, including students, Yirong Mo, Western Michigan University
reviewed the draft chapters for the eleventh edition as they Gareth Morris, University of Manchester
emerged. We wish to express our gratitude to the following Han J. Park, University ofTennessee at Chattanooga
colleagues: Rajeev Prabhakar, University of Mia,ni
Gavin Reid, University of Leeds
Andrew J. Alexander, University of Edinburgh Chad Risko, University of Kentucky
Stephen H. Ashworth, University of East Anglia Nessima Salhi, Uppsala University
Mark Berg, University of South Carolina Daniel Savin, University of Florida
Eric Bittner, University of Houston Richard Vv. Schwenz, University of Northern Colorado
Melanie Britton, University of Birrningha,n Douglas Strout, Alabarna State University
Eleanor Campbell, University of Edinburgh Steven Tait, Indiana University
Andrew P. Doherty, Queen's University of Belfast Jim Terner, Virginia Commonwealth University
Rob Evans, Aston University Timothy Vaden, Rowan University
J.G.E. Gardeniers, University of Twente Alfredo Vargas, University of Sussex
Ricardo Grau-Crespo, University of Reading Darren Walsh, University of Nottingharn
Alex Grushow, Rider University Collin \,Vick, Louisiana Tech University
Leonid Gurevich, Aalborg University Shoujun Xu, University of Houston
Ronald Haines, University of New South Wales Renwu Zhang, California State University
Patrick M. Hare, Northern Kentucky University Wuzong Zhou, St Andrews University
John Henry, University of Wolverha,npton
Karl Jackson, Virginia Union University We would also like to thank Michael Clugston for proofread-
Carey Johnson, University ofKansas ing the entire book, and Peter Bolgar, Haydn Lloyd, Aimee
George Kaminski, Worcester Polytechnic Institute North, Vladimiras Oleinikovas, Stephanie Smith, and James
Scott Kirkby, East Tennessee State University Keeler for writing a brand new set of solutions. Last, but by
Kathleen Knierim, University of Louisiana at Lafayette no means least, we acknowledge our two commissioning
Jeffry Madura, University of Pittsburgh editors, Jonathan Crowe of Oxford University Press and Jason
Dav id H. Magers, Mississippi College Noe ofOUP USA, and their teams for their assistance, advice,
Kristy Mardis, Chicago State University encouragement, and pat ience.
BRIEF CONT ENTS
TOPIC 13C Molecular energies 549 TOPIC 148 Interactions between molecules 593
13C.1 The basic equations 549 148.1 The interactions of dipoles 593
13C.2 Contributions of the fundamental modes of motion 550 (a} Charge-dip ole interactions 593
{a} The tran slational contribution sso (b) Dipole-dipole interactions 594
{b) The rotational contribu tion sso (c) Dipole- induced dipole interactions 597
{c} The vibrational contribution 551 (d) Induced dipole- indu ced dip ole interaction s 597
{d) The electronic contribution 552 148.2 Hydrogen bonding 598
{e) The spin contribution 552 148.3 The total interaction 599
Checklist of concepts 553 Checklist of concepts 601
Checklist of equations 553 Checklist of equations 601
TOPIC 130 The canonical ensemble 554 TOPIC 14C Liquids 602
130.1 The concept of ensemble 554 14C.1 Molecular interactions in liquids 602
{a} Dominating configurations SSS (a} The radial distrib ution fun ction 602
{b) Fluctuations from th e most probable distribution SSS (bl The calculation of g(r) 603
130.2 The mean energy of a system 556 (c) The thermodyn amic prop erties of liquids 604
130.3 Independent molecules revisited 556 14C.2 The liquid-vapour interface 605
130.4 The variation of the energy with volume 557 (a} Surface tension 605
Checklist of concepts 558 (b) Curved surfaces 606
Checklist of equations 558 (c) Capillary action 606
14C.3 Surface films 608
TOPIC 13E The internal energy and t he entropy 559 (a} Surface p tessure 608
13E.1 The internal energy 559 (b) The thermodynamics of surface laye,s 609
{a} The calculation of internal en ergy SS9 14C.4 Condensation 611
{b) Heat capacity 560 Checklist of concepts 612
13E.2 The entropy 561 Checklist of equations 612
{a} Entropy and the part ition function 561
{b) The translational contribution 563 TOPIC 14D Macromolecules 613
{c} The rotational contribution 563 140.1 Average molar masses 613
{d) The vibrational contribution 564 140.2 The different levels of structure 614
xxii Full Contents
140.3 Random coils 615 TOPIC lSD The mechanical properties of solids 666
{a) Measures of size 615 Checklist of concepts 667
{b) Constrained chains 618
Checklist of equations 668
{c} Partly rigid coils 618
140.4 Mechanical properties 619 TOPIC lSE The electrical properties of solids 669
{a) Conformational entropy 619 15E.1 Metallic conductors 669
{b) EJastomers 620
15E.2 Insulators and semiconductors 670
140.5 Thermal properties 621
15E.3 Superconductors 672
Checklist of concepts 622
Checklist of concepts 673
Checklist of equations 622 Checklist of equations 673
TOPIC 14E Self-assembly 623 TOPIC lSF The magnetic properties of solids 674
14E.1 Colloids 623 15F.1 Magnetic susceptibility 674
{a) Classification and preparation 623
15F.2 Permanent and induced magnetic moments 675
{b) Structure and stability 624
15F.3 Magnetic properties of superconductors 676
{c) The electrical double layer 624
14E.2 Micelles and b iological membranes Checklist of concepts 676
626
{a) The hydrophobic interaction 626 Checklist of equations 677
{b) Micelle format ion 627
{c} Bilayers, vesicles, and membranes 628
TOPIC lSG The optical properties of solids 678
15G.1 Excitons 678
Checklist of concepts 630
15G.2 Metals and semiconductors 679
Checklist of equations 630
{a) Light absorption 679
{b) LighN!mining diodes and diode lasers 680
FOC US 15 Solids 639 15G.3 Nonlinear optical phenomena 680
TOPIC 1SA Crystal structure 641 Checklist of concepts 681
15A.1 Periodic crystal lattices 641
15A.2 The identification of lattice planes 643 FOC US 16 Molecules in motion 689
{a) The Miller indices 643
{b) The separation of neighbouring planes 644
TOPIC 16A Transport properties of a
Checklist of concepts 645
perfect gas 690
16A.1 The phenomenological equations 690
Checklist of equations 645
16A.2 The transport parameters 692
TOPIC 158 Diffraction techniques 646 {a) The diffusion coefficient 693
158.1 X-ray crystallography 646 {b) Thermal conduct ivity 694
{c) Viscosity 696
{a) X·ray diffraction 646
{d) Effusion 697
{b) Bragg's law 648
{c) Scattering factors 649 Checklist of concepts 697
{d) The electron density 649 Checklist of equations 698
{e) The determination of structure 652
158.2 Neutron and electron diffraction 654
TOPIC 168 Motion in liquids 699
168.1 Experimental results 699
Checklist of concepts 655
{a) Liquid viscosity 699
Checklist of equations 655
{b) Electrolyte solutions 700
TOPIC lSC Bonding in solids 656 168.2 The mobilities of ions 701
{a) The drift speed 701
15C.1 Metals 656
{al Close packing 656
{b) Mobility and conductivity 703
{c) The Einstein relations 704
{b) Electronic structure of metals 658
15C.2 Ionic solids Checklist of concepts 705
660
{a) Structure 660 Checklist of equations 705
{b) Energetics 661
FOCUS 16C Diffusion 706
15C.3 Covalent and molecular solids 663
16C.1 The thermodynamic view 706
Checklist of concepts 664
16C.2 The diffusion equation 708
Checklist of equations 665
{a) Simple diffusion 708
Full Contents xxiii
{b) State-to-state reaction dyn amics 804 {d) The Temkin and Freun dlich isotherms 837
180 .3 Potential energy surfaces 805 198.2 The rates of adsorption and desorption 837
180 .4 Some results from experiments and calculations 806 {a) Th e precursor state 837
{a) The direction o f attack an d separation 807 {b) Adsorption and desorption at the molecular level 838
{b) Attract ive an d repulsive surfaces 808 {c) Mobility on surfaces 839
{c} Quantu m mech anical scattering theory 808 Checkli st of concepts 840
Checklist of concepts 809 Checkli st of equations 840
Checklist of equations 809
TOPIC 19C Heterogeneous catalysis 841
TOPIC 18E Electron transfer in homogeneous 19C.1 Mechani sms of heterogeneous catalysis 841
systems 810 {a) Unimolecu lar reactions 841
18E.1 The rate law 810 {b) The Lan gmuir- Hin shelwood mechanism 842
{c) The Eley- Rideal mechanism 843
18E.2 The role of electron tunnelling 811
19C.2 Catalytic activity at surfaces 843
18E.3 The rate constant 812
18E.4 Experimental tests of the theory 813 Checkli st of concepts 844
Laivan pääisäntä, joka ensi vuosina, noina levinä aikoina, aina oli
sitä vastaan ottamassa ja piti pienet kemut jokaisen ulkomaamatkan
jälkeen, tuli tylyksi laivaa kohtaan ja ani harvoin kävi sitä
katsomassa. Ja yhtiökokouksissa osakkaat murisivat, joku kiroilikin
laivaa, kun se niin vähän tuotti. Kapteeniin se koski kipeästi. Hän oli
alati tehtävänsä tunnollisesti täyttänyt, vaan kiitoslauseita ei nyt
muistanut kukaan. Nuo osakkaat ne eivät pitäneet mistään muusta
kuin voitosta, jako-osuuksista.
Vaan sepä se oli, kun ei ollut rahoja. Hänelläkin tosin oli pääomaa,
vaan se ei ollut pankeissa eikä obligatsiooneissa, se oli pienten
kasvavien kapteenin alkujen muodossa. Se kyllä oli "liikkuvaa"
pääomaa, vaan sangen hankala sitä olisi ollut käyttää liikkeessä.
Eivät ainakaan laivayhtiöt semmoiselle suurta arvoa antaneet.
Raukka.
— Soipihan se.
— Onko se Tiina?
— On.
Minä selitin.
— Vai niin!
— Kolmannella kymmenellä.
— Eikö se koske?
Pikku Aaro.
Viimein tuli pohjalta esiin rutikuiva kanto, joka oli täynnä koloja.
Hän väänsi sen ylös ja rikkoi sen, jolloin siitä pelmahti maahan paljo
pieniä valkeita kappaleita. Aaro vähän säpsähti. Mitähän ne olivat?
Hän kumartui lähemmin katsomaan ja näki niiden olevan aivan
pieniä munan muotoisia kappaleita: Hän ei tiennyt mitä ne olivat ja
jäi uteliaana katsomaan, sydän läpättäen kiihkeästi.
Hän käsitti nyt, että nuo valkeat munat olivat kai niiden
muonavarastoa, niin kuin hänen kotonaan oli aitoissa jyviä, ja että
tässä tehtiin nyt majanmuuttoa. Hänen mieleensä muistui, kuinka,
kun naapurissa oli tulipalo, sieltä asukkaat yöllä pakenivat heille,
sylissään kantaen vaatteita, ruokatavaroita ynnä muuta, mitä olivat
ehtineet pelastaa kauheasta palosta. Se oli hirveä yö, hän muisti
vielä sen hyvästi! Tämä muurahaisten majan muutto alkoi hänestä
nyt tuntua samanlaiselta ja hän tunsi tehneensä pahan teon. Nuo
pienet raukat! Kuinka hän sääli niitä! Jos hän olisi tiennyt edeltä päin,
ei hän toki olisi tehnyt niille tätä. Mitenkä ne nyt mahtuvat asumaan
yhdessä pesässä entisten asukasten kanssa?
Aaro tuli uteliaaksi ja pani sen uudestaan veteen. Hän tahtoi antaa
sen oikein kastua. Vaan sitä lähti nyt ilman henki viemään ja se meni
avutonna, pää veden sisässä, takaruumis yläällä. Aaro haki
karahkan, jolla hän onki sen lähelle. Se tarttui erääseen karahkan
oksaan. Aaro antoi sen olla siinä ja asetti karahkan veteen, niin että
tuon oksan nenä oli vaan vähän yläällä vedestä ja karahkan tyven
hän laski kivelle. Sitte hän rupesi kalliolla mahalleen, hajasäärin ja
kädet rinnan alla, ja katseli muurahaisen hommia. Ei hän aikonut
suinkaan sitä tappaa, vaan hän tahtoi nähdä sen neuvokkaisuutta.