Physical properties Metals Non-metals

Melting and boiling points They are solids at
r.t.p(except mercury
which is a liquid), many
also have high melting
and boiling points.
They are solids at
r.t.p(except bromine
which is a liquid), their
melting and boiling points
are often low

Electrical conductivity All metals are good Non-metals are poor

conductors of electricity conductors of electricity
(except for graphite).
They tend to be insulators

Thermal conductivity Metals are good Non-metals are generally

conductors of heat poor thermal conductors
(except diamond, which
conducts heat strongly).

Malleability and Ductility They are malleable(their Non-metals are not

shape can be changed by malleable; they are brittle
hammering), they are and break easily when hit
ductile(they can be pulled
into wires)

Strength and hardness Mare usually strong and They are softer than
dense.(they are not brittle) metals(but diamond is
very hard). Their densities
are often low

Ability to produce a sound They are sonorous They are not sonorous

Color and appearance Metals are grey in color Non-metals vary in color.
(except gold and copper). They often have a dull
They can be polished surface when solid
Reactions of metals with air/oxygen: (oxygen is by far the most reactive of the
gases present). Many metals react directly with oxygen to form oxides.
Magnesium, for example burns brightly in air or oxygen to form a white powder of
magnesium oxide. Iron only in air to give an oxide if it is in powder form, or as
iron wool. However iron exposed to air and water will slowly form an oxide layer
(rust) on it’s surface. This layer of rust flakes off. The rusting process damages the
iron object. Aluminum is normally coated with a thin layer of aluminum oxide by
reaction with oxygen in the air. This oxide layer sticks to the surface of the
aluminum and hides the reactivity of the metal.

Reactions of metals with water/steam: Reactive metals all react with cold water
to produce the metal hydroxide, and hydrogen gas. Magnesium only reacts very
slowly in cold water. However, a much more vigorous reaction takes place if steam
is passed over heated magnesium. The magnesium glows brightly to form
hydrogen and magnesium oxide. The hydrogen given off can be burnt when lit
with a splint; zinc and iron react in a similar way. Hydrogen gas is produced in all
these reactions (in these cases it is metal oxides not the hydroxide that is formed)

Reactions of metals with dilute hydrochloric acid: Moderately reactive metals

such as magnesium, zinc can be reacted safely with dilute acids to produce
hydrogen gas and salt.

Uses of iron: Iron is a moderately reactive transition metal, by itself pure iron is
quite soft and weak, and therefore not very useful from construction. Cast iron
obtained directly from blast furnace can be used to make very large objects; it can
even be used in making cooking pots and pans as it conducts heat well. The use of
iron for smaller or sophisticated pieces of engineering was restricted as it was
brittle for this widespread use.

The high level carbon in cast iron (2-4%) disrupts the lattice structure of iron and
makes the metal liable to shatter when too much force is applied. The strength of
iron can be improved by carefully controlling the amount of carbon present and
adding other metals. When exposed to air iron gets covered with rust which flaked
off and weakens the structure, thus complicating it’s use, and this has also led to
various methods to combat rusting, and also the development of stainless steel.
Uses of aluminum: Aluminum is a light, strong metal and has good electrical
conductivity. Increasingly, aluminum is used for construction purposes (It is used
for construction of navel vessels and cars). It is commonly used in airplanes where
it is usually alloyed with other metals such as copper. It’s low density and good
conductivity has also led to its use in overhead power lines. The aluminum is very
resistant to corrosion and its low density prevents sagging of cables between
pylons. Aluminum is particularly useful because it is protected from corrosion by
the stable layer of aluminum oxide that forms on its surface. This protective layer
stops the aluminum from reacting, this makes aluminum containers ideal for food
packaging because they resist corrosion by natural acids present in the food.
Aluminum is also used for external structures.

Metal Key properties Uses

Iron Hard (but brittle now Construction girders,

replaced by steel) good large castings, cooking
conductor of heat. utensils

Copper Strong but easily bent to Water pipes, electrical

shape strong with high wiring and cables
electrical conductivity

Zinc Protective coating on iron Galvanizing iron and steel

and steel objects to prevent rusting.

Aluminum Low density and strong Construction, e.g. aircraft

resistant to corrosion by and high voltage power
acids in food cables and food
containers.

Chapter: 15

Reactions with water

All the alkali metals react spontaneously with water to produce hydrogen gas and
the metal hydroxide (Table 15.1). The reactions are exothermic. If water is dripped
onto a small sample of the metal, the heat produced ignites the hydrogen gas
(Figure 15.4). For sodium the flame colour is yellow.

Element Reaction with water Reaction with air

Lithium React steadily Tarnishes slowly to give a layer of oxide

2Li + 2H_{2} -> 2LiOH + H_{2}

Sodium React strongly Tarnishes quickly to layer of oxide

2Na + 2H_{2}O -> 2NaOH +

H_{2}
Potassium Reacts Violently Tarnishes very quickly to give a layer of
oxide
2K + 2H_{2}O -> 2KOH +
H_{2}

Reactions with dilute acids

The alkali metals of Group I, and indeed calcium, are too reactive to safely add to
even dilute acids. They do produce hydrogen but too vigorously. Other metals
show a range of reactivity with dilute acid and this is summarised in Table 15.2.

Metal Observation with dilute HCL or dilute Equations

H_{2}SO_{4}
magnesi strong action, bubbles of gas, magnesium disappears, Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgC_{2}
um colourless solution formed Mg(s) + H{2}SO_{4}(aq) M
+H_{2} (g)
aluminiu slow to react in cold, but bubbles form on heating, 2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) -> 2AlC*
m aluminium disappears, colourless solution formed 3H{2}*C 2Al(s) + 3H{2}SO
4)3
zinc bubbles of gas, zinc disappears, colourless solution Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl 2 (aq
formed H{2}SO{4}(aq) ZnSO 4 (aq)
iron bubbles of gas, iron disappears, pale-green solution Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> FeC*l{
formed Fe(s) + H{2}SO{4}(aq) -> F
H_{2}
copper No reaction
silver No reaction
gold No reaction

Metal displacement reactions

Metal displacement reactions, also known as single-replacement reactions or

single-displacement reactions, are a type of chemical reaction in which one metal
displaces another metal from a solution. These reactions occur when a more
reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from a compound, resulting in the
formation of a new compound and a different metal. The reactivity of metals is
often determined by their position in the reactivity series, with more reactive
metals displacing less reactive ones.
Here's a general example of a metal displacement reaction:
A + BC → AC + B
In this equation:
● A is the more reactive metal, which displaces the less reactive metal B from
its compound BC.
● B is the less reactive metal, which is displaced from its compound by the
more reactive metal A.
● AC is the new compound formed when A displaces B from BC.
Here are a few examples of metal displacement reactions:
● Zinc displacing copper from copper sulfate: Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) →
ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
In this reaction, zinc (Zn) displaces copper (Cu) from copper sulfate
(CuSO4), resulting in the formation of zinc sulfate (ZnSO4) and the
liberation of copper as a solid.
● Iron displacing copper from copper chloride: Fe(s) + 2CuCl2(aq) →
2FeCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
In this case, iron (Fe) displaces copper (Cu) from copper chloride
 (CuCl2), leading to the formation of iron chloride (FeCl2) and the
deposition of copper as a solid.
● Aluminum displacing hydrogen from hydrochloric acid: 2Al(s) +
6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
Aluminum (Al) displaces hydrogen (H) from hydrochloric acid (HCl),
resulting in the formation of aluminum chloride (AlCl3) and the release
of hydrogen gas.

These reactions are essential in understanding the reactivity of metals and have
various practical applications, such as in the extraction of metals from their ores
and the electroplating of objects. The reactivity series helps predict which metals
can displace others in these types of reactions.

Displacement as a redox reaction

Displacement reactions involving metals, as described earlier, are often redox
reactions. Redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions involve the transfer of electrons
from one species to another. In the context of metal displacement reactions, one
metal gains electrons (reduction), while the other metal loses electrons (oxidation).
Let's consider these reactions in terms of redox reactions:
● Zinc displacing copper from copper sulfate: Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) →
ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
In this reaction, zinc (Zn) undergoes oxidation, losing electrons to form
Zn^2+ ions (Zn → Zn^2+ + 2e^-). Simultaneously, copper ions (Cu^2+)
gain electrons to form solid copper (Cu^2+ + 2e^- → Cu). The zinc
atoms lose electrons, which are gained by the copper ions. So, it's a redox
reaction.
● Iron displacing copper from copper chloride: Fe(s) + 2CuCl2(aq) →
2FeCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
In this reaction, iron (Fe) undergoes oxidation, losing electrons to form
Fe^2+ ions (Fe → Fe^2+ + 2e^-). Copper ions (Cu^2+) gain electrons to
form solid copper (Cu^2+ + 2e^- → Cu). Again, it's a redox reaction,
with the transfer of electrons.
● Aluminum displacing hydrogen from hydrochloric acid: 2Al(s) +
6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
 In this reaction, aluminum (Al) undergoes oxidation, losing electrons to
form Al^3+ ions +(2Al → 2Al^3+ + 6e^-). Hydrogen ions (H^+) gain
electrons to form molecular hydrogen gas (2H^+ + 2e^- → H2). This,
too, is a redox reaction involving the transfer of electrons.
In redox reactions, one substance is oxidized (loses electrons), and another
substance is reduced (gains electrons). Metal displacement reactions are good
examples of redox reactions because they involve the transfer of electrons from
one metal to another.
Chapter: 16
Metal Extraction and the reactivity series:
Some metals exist as pure metals in nature. Others are very difficult to extract from
their compounds contained in ores. Those metals that do not occur uncombined in
the ground can usually be found as the metal oxide or a compound that can usually
be found as the oxide. To extract the metal from this oxide we need to carry out a
reduction(oxygen).

Metals below carbon in the series can be extracted by heating their oxides with
carbon, but those above carbon can be extracted by electrolysis. If a metal is below
carbon in the reactivity series the oxygen in the oxide will form covalent bond with
carbon rather than staying as oxide ion. Carbon is the reducing agent, removing the
oxygen from oxide. If the metal is above carbon in the reactivity series, it can be
only extracted by electrolysis. For ex- Aluminum.

Extraction of Iron from its ore

The main ore of iron is hematite.

Production of iron in blast furnace

The production of iron in a blast furnace is a critical step in the manufacturing of
iron and steel. This process involves reducing iron ore (usually in the form of iron
oxides) to molten iron, which is commonly referred to as "pig iron." Here's an
overview of the production of iron in a blast furnace:

● Raw Materials:
● Iron Ore: Iron ore typically contains iron oxides, with hematite
(Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4) being the most common. These iron
ores are the primary sources of iron.
● Coke: Coke is a high-carbon fuel derived from coal and serves as the
reducing agent in the process. It provides the necessary carbon to react
with the oxygen in the iron ore.
● Limestone: Limestone (CaCO3) is added to the furnace as a flux. It
helps remove impurities from the iron ore and forms slag, which is
lighter and can be separated from the molten iron.

● Loading the Blast Furnace:

 ● A typical blast furnace is a tall, cylindrical structure lined with
refractory materials to withstand high temperatures.
● Iron ore, coke, and limestone are loaded into the top of the furnace in
alternating layers or charges.

● Combustion and Reduction:

● Hot air, preheated to a high temperature, is blown into the furnace
through nozzles, which creates a combustion zone at the bottom.
● In the lower part of the furnace, the carbon in the coke reacts with
oxygen to produce carbon monoxide (CO). This CO gas is the primary
reducing agent.

Carbon monoxide then rises through the furnace and reacts with the iron ore,
reducing the iron oxides to molten iron:

● Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2

● The molten iron sinks to the bottom of the furnace due to its greater
density, while the impurities and gangue materials react with the
limestone to form slag.
● Formation of Slag:
● As the iron ore is reduced to molten iron, impurities and gangue
materials combine with the limestone to form slag. The slag floats on
top of the molten iron due to its lower density.
● Slag is periodically removed from the top of the furnace, while molten
iron collects at the bottom.
● Tapping:
● Periodically, the molten iron is tapped from the furnace through a tap
hole at the bottom. This molten iron is often referred to as "pig iron."
● The pig iron can be cast into molds to form pig iron blocks or further
processed into steel.
 ● Gas Recycling:

● The hot gases produced in the blast furnace, which include carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide, are not wasted. They are often used to
preheat the incoming air and to generate steam or electricity, making
the process more energy-efficient.

Extraction of Aluminum by Electrolysis

The extraction of aluminum by electrolysis is known as the Hall-Héroult process,
named after its inventors, Charles Martin Hall and Paul Héroult. This process is the
primary method for producing aluminum from its ore, bauxite. Here's an overview
of the Hall-Héroult process for aluminum extraction:

● Bauxite Mining and Refining:

● Bauxite is the primary source of aluminum. It is a clay-like mineral
containing aluminum oxide (alumina, Al2O3) along with impurities
like iron oxides, silica, and various other compounds.
● First, bauxite is mined and refined to extract alumina. This refining
process is called the Bayer process.
● Preparation of Aluminum Oxide (Alumina):
● The alumina obtained from bauxite is in the form of aluminum
hydroxide, which is then calcined (heated) to remove water and other
impurities, leaving behind pure alumina (Al2O3).
● Electrolysis Cell:
● The Hall-Héroult process takes place in a specialized electrolysis cell,
which is typically a large, rectangular, lined container made of steel
with a carbon lining.
● The cell is equipped with a cathode (negative electrode) and anodes
(positive electrodes) that are also made of carbon. The cathode is
typically a carbon lining on the floor of the cell, while the anodes are
carbon rods suspended above the bath.
● Electrolyte:
● A molten mixture of alumina (aluminum oxide) and cryolite (sodium
aluminum fluoride, Na3AlF6) serves as the electrolyte in the cell.
 ● The addition of cryolite lowers the melting point of alumina, making
the process more energy-efficient.
● Electrolysis Process:
● Electricity is passed through the cell, causing several chemical
reactions to occur:

At the cathode (carbon lining at the bottom), aluminum ions (Al3+) in the alumina
are reduced to form liquid aluminum metal:

● 2Al3+ + 6e- → 2Al (liquid)

At the anode (carbon rods), oxygen ions (O2-) in the alumina are oxidized to form
oxygen gas:

● 2O2- → O2 (gas) + 4e-

● The aluminum metal sinks to the bottom of the cell and is periodically
removed, while the oxygen gas is released at the surface.
● Heat Management:
● The Hall-Héroult process operates at temperatures around 950-980°C
(1,750-1,800°F). It is important to maintain these high temperatures to
keep the alumina in a molten state.
● The heat generated by the resistance of the electrical current in the cell
helps maintain these high temperatures.
● Impurity Removal:
● Impurities from the bauxite ore, such as iron and silica, collect at the
bottom of the cell as a molten "slag" and are periodically removed.
● Aluminum Collection:
● The liquid aluminum metal collects at the bottom of the cell and is
periodically siphoned off and cast into ingots for further processing.

The Hall-Héroult process is energy-intensive, but it is the most widely used

method for aluminum production because it allows for the extraction of pure
aluminum from bauxite ore. It is used to produce aluminum for a wide range of
applications, from aluminum foil to aerospace components.

Rusting of Iron
Rusting is a natural chemical process that occurs when iron or steel reacts with
oxygen and water, typically in the presence of an electrolyte, such as salt. This
process is also known as corrosion, and it results in the formation of iron oxide,
commonly referred to as rust. Rusting is a significant problem for iron and steel
objects, as it can weaken the material and lead to the eventual degradation of
structures and objects.

Rust Prevention Methods

Coatings: Applying protective coatings, such as paint or corrosion-resistant

coatings, can act as a barrier between the iron or steel surface and the environment.

Galvanization: Coating iron or steel with a layer of zinc through a process called
galvanization helps protect against rust. Zinc is more reactive than iron and
corrodes in preference to the iron, creating a protective barrier.

Electroplating: is a process used to coat a metal object with a layer of another

metal through the use of an electrochemical cell. This process is commonly used
for a variety of purposes, such as enhancing the appearance of objects, providing
corrosion resistance, improving wear resistance, and modifying the properties of
the object's surface.

Sacrificial protection: also known as "sacrificial anode protection" or "galvanic

protection," is a corrosion control method used to protect metal structures or
equipment from corrosion by using sacrificial anodes. The basic principle behind
this method is to intentionally introduce a more reactive (sacrificial) metal into the
system, which will corrode in preference to the metal structure you want to protect.
As a result, the sacrificial anode corrodes, providing protection to the primary
metal.