u1 ,u "'T ..

, \ ' I

CHAPTER2

POSITION AND DIRECTION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE

Para
0201. Introduction and Scope of Chapter
0202. Reference Frames
0203. Absolute and Relative Position

SECTION 1 - POSITION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE

0204. The Shape of the Earth

0205. Defining Latitude and Longitude
0206. Difference of Latitude and Longitude
0207. Linear Measurement of Difference and Speed
0208. Linear Measurement of Latitude and Longitude
0209. The Earth as a Sphere
0210. Astronomical Positions Used with a Spheroidal Earth

SECTION 2 - DIRECTION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE

0211 . Defining Direction

0212. The Gyro Compass
0213. The Magnetic Compass
0214 The GPS Compass
0215. Inertial Navigation Systems (INS)
0216. Magnetic Course/Bearings and Compass Courses/Bearings
0217. Practical Application of Magnetic Compass Errors
0218. Checking Magnetic Deviation

SECTION 3 - RELATIVE POSITION

0219. Relative Position

0220. Relative Bearings
0221. The Radian Rule

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CHAPTER 2

POSITION AND DIRECTION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE

0201. Introduction and Scope of Chapter

Position and direction ('where am I and where am I going?') are the fundamentals of
all navigation. Being able to determine position and direction allows us to determine where
we are, and where other things are. Position and direction can be in both absolute and
relative terms, both of which are important in their own rights. Th is chapter introduces the
various ways that position and direction on the Earth's surface are determined and
expressed, including the basics of the main types of compass likely to be encountered at
sea.

0202. Reference Frames

In~der to determine the position of an object, it is necessary to develop a reference
..
frame against which that position can be determined. In a sense, therefore, all pos1t1ons are
relative, but a pre-defined reference frame allows us to establish a position which is absolute
with respect to that reference frame. In other words, a reference frame allows us to state
that this position is 'here' or 'there' without any knowledge other than what reference frame
we are operating in. Multiple reference frames exist, and indeed often co-exist; the most
commonly encountered in navigation is latitude and longitude, but others include national
grids, exercise grids created for specific purposes, and so on. Ships may operate in more
than one reference frame at the same time, so a warship in an exercise will know its position
in absolute terms according to WGS 84 (see below), as well as where it is on the exercise
4W grid, as well as maintaining its station in a sector screen relative to the high value unit
(see Para 0203 below). Reference frames are also important in understanding how a
number of navigation aids and computers work; in particular, inertial navigation systems
operate in 'inertial space', which must then be translated into a terrestrial reference frame for
meaningful navigation.

0203. Absolute and Relative Position

The concept of absolute and relative position was introduced above. In simple
terms, an absolute position is defined numerically with respect to a reference frame; 50N,
010W is an absolute position which anybody with access to the reference frame will be able
to interpret. Relative position is defined relative to another body, the absolute position of
which need not be known. Royal Navy pilotage, in which the ship's position is determined
rel_
ati~e to a head or stern mark, is a relative navigation ('RELNAV') technique, in which the
~hip 1s kept saf~ by determining its position relative to charted objects. This is safe because
it me~ns th~t- discrepancies in the absolute positions of the charted objects are excluded.
Relat1~e pos11i~n, and relative navigation techniques, remain the only option in some cases if
GPS 1s unav~1lable, or the chart in use has no known horizontal datum. It is of course
perfectly possible and correct for a ship to maintain its position in both absolute and relative
terms; o_ne of the ~O's ~ital roles is to detect any disagreement between the two and seek to
resolve 1t to the sat1sfact1on of the Command.

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SECTION 1

POSITION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE

0204. The Shape of the Earth

a. Dimensions. The Earth is not the perfect sphere of the classroom globe.
Rather, due to the immense speed with which it rotates, and the nature of the
material which makes up the Earth, it has a shape best described as an 'oblate
spheroid'. This is a sphere with flattened poles, and an equatorial bulge. As the
Earth is not a true sphere, it has no single radius, but standard approximate values
for its 'Equatorial radius' (a in Figure 2-1 below) are 3443.9 nautical miles, and a
Polar radius ('b' in Figure 2-1) of 3432.4 nautical miles (international nautical miles
of 1852m, and based on the WGS 84 datum). The Earth's Polar radius is that about
0.3% shorter than that at the Equator.

Fig 2-1. The Principal Dimensions of the Oblate Spheroid

cL--:i
North Pole IP
,,
I
I
I
I
I
, I
b
,,
,------
,
,
,, ,
-· Latffu.de
I

WI( a ,I
I
:llf"'
0 E
I

I
I
I
I
I
1
Meri dlans
''
''
South Pole IP'

b.Rotation. The Earth rotates about its axis, the shortest diameter (PP' in Fig 2-1
above) at a speed of about 900 knots at the Equator (rotational speed varies with the
cosine of latitude). Technically, an oblate spheroid is the figure traced out by the
revolution of a semi-ellipse such as PWP' about its minor axis PP'. As shown in Fig
2-1, the Earth rotates about its axis PP'; the direction of revolution is East, and the
opposite direction is West. An observer facing due East has the North pole on their
left and the South pole on their right. The fact that the Earth rotates is a critical
element in a number of aspects of the navigation problem , and a major part of
understanding the operation of the modern gyro compass.

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c. Terminology. The following definitions are us~d :it,:~~~~t.~r:h:ipde.geodesists

to describe or identify key aspects and measuremen o
. t pp' about which it rotates
(1) Axis. The Earth's axis is its shortest d iame er, '
in space.

(2) Poles. The poles are the extremities of the axis of the E~rth. Note that
there is a distinct difference between the geographic and magnetic poles.

(3) Great Circle. A great circle is defined as the intersection of a sph_erical

surface and a plane which passes through the centre of the sphere. It 1s the
shortest distance between two points on the surface of a sphere.

(4) Geodesic. The geodesic is the equivalent of a great circle on a spheroid

(as opposed to a sphere). In everyday usage, the term great circle and small
circle are applied to the Earth's oblate spheroid, even though they are not
strictly correct.

(5) Small Circle. A small circle is the intersection of a spherical surface and a
place which does not pass through the centre of the sphere.

(6) Meridian. A meridian is half of a great circle on the Earth's surface whose
ends lie at opposite poles. Meridians are shown by the successive positions of
PWPin Fig 2-1.

(7) Prime Meridian. The Prime Meridian, also known as the Greenwich
Meridian, is the meridian which passes through the Greenwich Observatory in
London. The prime meridian is the start point (0) for the measurement of
longitude, East and West from this meridian. Although in wide use prior to its
formal agreement, it was agreed at the International Meridian Conference in
1884 that the Greenwich Meridian would be the world's Prime Meridian, for the
use of navigation and time across the globe.

(8) Equator. The Equator is the line traced out on the Earth's surface by the
mid-points of all the meridians. It is a special case of the great circle in that it is
the only East-West great circle. The Equator is shown by the successive
positions of Win Fig 2-1 and its plane is perpendicular to the Earth's axis.

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0205. Defining Latitude and Longitude

Unlike say a sheet of graph paper, which has distinct boundaries and hence a
clearly apparent reference point from which to define position , the Earth, being an oblate
spheroid, has no beginning nor end, and no part of its surface is readily distinguishable from
another in a way that makes logical sense for defining a co-ordinate system or reference
frame. To solve this problem, navigators use a system of latitude and longitude, which
makes use of the Prime Meridian and the plane of the Equator as a reference frame.

a. Latitude. A position on the Earth's surface may be expressed by reference to

the plane of the Equator and the Prime Meridian. Fig 2-2 below shows a meridional
section of the spheroid; the latitude of point Mis the angle MLE (<P), where Lis the
point of intersection of the perpendicular to the Earth's surface at M and the plane of
the Equator OE. In a spheroid, point L may not coincide with point O (the centre of
the Earth). Two definitions arise from this:

(1) Definition of Latitude. The latitude of a place on the Earth's surface (also
called the geodetic, geographical or true latitude) is the angle that the
perpendicular at that place makes with the plane of the Equator and is
measured from 0° to 90° North or South of the Equator.

(2) Parallels of Latitude. Planes parallel to the plan of the Equator are
known as parallels of latitude. Except for the Equator itself, which is a great
circle (see Para 0204 above), they also comprise small circles.

Fig 2-2. The Latitude of Point M on the Earth's Surface

------ - a - ------- E
W L

P'

Note. Whilst it is usual simply to refer to the latitude of a place, it can also
be referred to as geodetic latitude, geographical latitude, or true latitude.
'
For all [!_ractical purposes, simply 'latitude' will suffice,

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b. Longitude. The longitude of a place on the Earth's surface is the angle
between the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian and the meridian of that place, measured
from 0° to 180° East or West of Greenwich, as shown in Fig 2-3 below. In Fig 2-3,
the longitude of F is the arc AB= angle AOB (East of Greenwich).

Fig 2-3. The Longitude of Point F on the Earth's Surface

...... ,,
,,, ,.,,. .... ,

w E

c. Notation. Latitude and longitude are angular measurements, so are measured

in degrees. Hence, there are a variety of ways that they can be expressed.
WECDIS shows that Semaphore Tower in Portsmouth Naval Base is in latitude 50
degrees 47 minutes and 59 seconds North of the Equator, and in longitude 1 degree
6 minutes 37 seconds West of Greenwich (using the WGS 84 datum). This can be
expressed in any or all of the following ways; all are equally valid.

Table 2-1. Notations for Latitude and Longitude

NOTATION
so· 47' 59"N 1° 06' 37"W
so· 47'.98N 1· 06'.62"W
so· 47.9B'N 1° os.s2·w
+ 50°.79972 -1°.11028
REMARKS
Traditional usage
UKHO accepted notation for BA
charts
Alternative notation in common use
(used in RN WECDIS)
For calculator/spreadsheet use
(+ve indicates North and East}_

In this book, the alternative usage, in bold in Table 2-1, is the preferred notation.
This is the usage employed in RN WECDIS and with which readers are likely to be
familiar.

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0206. Difference of Latitude and Longitude

The difference of latitude and difference of longitude calculations explained below
are in many ways archaic; it is unlikely that many navigators will make practical use of the
formulae in the 21 st century. However, the calculations are retained as they are in fact used
by navigators almost daily, when they use WECDIS. In an ECDIS, rather than making
graphical calculations on the displayed chart, the calculation is done in software directly on
the 'reference ellipsoid', hence the modern navigator must still have an understanding of
what the computer is doing, and why.

a. Difference of Latitude (d.lat). The difference of latitude (d.lat) between to

places is the arc of the meridian between the two parallels of latitude. When
proceeding from one -place to another, d.lat is named North or South according to
whether the latitude of the destination is North or South of the latitude of the place of
departure. In Fig 2-4 below, the d.lat between F and Tis the same as the d.lat
between G and T, where GF is the parallel of latitude through F.

Fig 2-4. Difference of Latitude (d.lat)

P, P,

''fr------+------>...IF

w E WI '~ I IE
0
C

P'

Explanation: d.lat from F to T = angle GCT (south) = Lat F - Lat T

a Note. C is the centre of a circle and arc GT is part of its circumference.

Thus on a spheroid (ellipsoid), the position of C will move relative to Oas arc
GT moves over the surface of the Sf!.heroid.

b. Difference of Longitude (d.long). The difference of longitude (d.long)

between two places is the smaller arc of the Equator between their respective
meridians. When proceeding from one place to another, d.long is East or West
according to whether the meridian of the destination is East of West of the meridian
of the place of departure. In Fig 2-5 below, the d.long between F and Tis the same
as the d.long between Band A, where FB is the meridian through F.

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Fig 2-5. Difference of Longitude (d.long)

E
w

P'
Explanation: d.long from F to T = arc BA= angle BOA (West) = angle FPT.
Angle FPT Is the angle at the Pole between the Meridians of F and T.

c. Calculation of d.lat and d.long. The rule for finding the d.lat and the d.long is
as follows:

Same names: SUBTRACT Opposite Names: ADD

If, when using this rule, the some of the longitudes exceeds 180°, this sum is
subtracted from 360° to find the smaller angle and the name is reversed. Some
examples are given in Table 2-2 below.

Table 2-2. Example d.lat and d.long Calculations

EXAMPLE LATITUDE LONGITUDE

Portsmouth (F): Lat F 50°48'N Long F 1°07'W
50°48'N, 1°07'W Lat T 40°40'N Long T 74°00'W
New York (T): d.lat 10°08'S d.long 72°53'W
40°40'N, 74°00w
Malta (F): Lat F 35°53'N Long F 14°31'E
35°53'N, 14°31'E Lat T 36°07'N Long T 5°21 'W
Gibraltar (T): d.lat 0°14'N d.long 19°52'W
36°07'N, 5°21 'W
Sydney (F): Lat F 33°52'N Long F 151°13'E
33°52°S, 14°31'E Lat T 21°18'N Long T 157°52'W
Honolulu (T): d.lat 55°10'N d.long 72°53'W
21°18'N, 157°52'W

subtract from 360°

d.lon_g 50°55'E

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0207. Linear Measurement of Distance and Speed

A number of different units are used for distance and hence speed; whilst in general
usage some of them are used interchangeably or without qualification , in fact each has a
very specific definition, and the navigator must be aware of precisely which units are in use
for a given calculation or operation, and thus what they mean .

a. The Statute Mile. The statute mile, also known as the land mile, is a standard
fixed length of 1760 yards or 5280 feet (1609.36m).

b. The Geographical Mile. A geographical mile is the length of 1' of arc

measured along the Equator (i.e. 1' of longitude); its value is 1855.3m (WGS 84).
As the Equator is a great circle, the geographical mile is the same length at all parts
of the Equator and is equal to 'a sin 1' of arc' when a is the radius of the Equator.

c. The International Nautical Mile. The International Nautical Mile is a standard

fixed length of 1852m. It is abbreviated to 'n mile' (or 'n. mile') or 'nm'.

d. The Knot. The standard unit of speed in use in maritime navigation is the
'knot'; one knot is one international nautical mile per hour. It is abbreviated to 'kn'
(not 'kt'). The name 'knot' is derive from the ancient practice of running out a log
line with distances marked by knots tied in the line. In practice, any errors arising
from using sea miles (see below) instead of international nautical miles are very
small (less than 0.5% and probably lost in the 'noise' of other errors); moreover,
WECDIS, by using a system-wide system of units largely avoids any confusion .

e. The Sea Mile. The sea mile is the length of one minute of arc (1') measured
along the meridian in the latitude of the position. On British Admiralty charts drawn
using the Mercator projection, the latitude graduations for a scale of sea miles.
Except on charts (where the symbol 'M' is used), the sea mile is denoted by the
symbol', which is also the symbol for a minute of arc. Thus, 10'.8 (or 10.8') meant
10.8 sea miles. Traditionally, the symbol was always placed before the decimal
point but increasingly this convention has become obsolete, and placing the symbol
at the end of the expression is perfectly acceptable and will be readily understood.

ii
Note. Sea miles are often referred to in practice as nautical miles. Whilst
this is understandable, it is not strictly correct, although as stated above any
errors arising are usually small and WECDIS largely solves the problem. The
British Standard Nautical Mile was discarded in 1970.

f. Length of the Sea Mile. As the radius of curvature in the meridian increases
as M moves from the Equator to the pole (see Fig 2-6 below), so the distance
subtended by 1' of arc also increased. The length of the sea mile is shortest at the
Equator (1842.9m) and longest at the poles (1861.6m), with a mean value of
1852.2m in latitude 45° (all WGS 84).

Note. It is this variation in the length of the sea mile which means that, when
measuring distances on a Mercator projection chart, the latitude scale must
be read off in the same latitude as the distance was measured. WECDIS
does not suffer from this proble-'-'m-'-'·-----

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Fig 2-6. The Sea Mile

P.

/<--------- a-------;,, y / / E
W, 0 C

P'
Explanatlon: If M Is the place on the Earth's surface, C the centre of circular curvature at M, and AMB
Is an arc of the Meridian subtending an angle of 1', then AMB is the length of the Sea Mlle at M.

a Note. Position C is the centre of a circle and arc AB is part of its

circumference. Thus on the spheroid (ellipsoid), the position of C will move
relative to O as arc AB moves over the surface of the spheroid.

g. Confusion between International Nautical Miles and Sea Miles. In normal

practice, the errors which arise from using sea miles instead of International Nautical
Miles are very small. They can be considered zero at 45° latitude, 0.5% short at the
Equator and 0.5% long at the Poles. Moreover, WECDIS (by performing
calculations mathematically on the reference ellipsoid) avoids these problems.
However, if it is necessary to determine the error, the procedure is in Para 0307.

h. Length of One Cable. Cable is one-tenth of a sea mile, which mathematically

varies between 184.3m (201.55yds) and 186.2m (203.63yds) with latitude. A cable
can thus be said to approximate to 200 yards, and this nominal distance is a
convenient measure normally used at sea for short-range navigational purposes.

0
Note. In HM submarines, cables are not referred to; ranges and distances
are referred to in hundreds and thousands of yards. A frigate might have a
CPA of five cables with a submarine; in the submarine it would be reported
as 1000 vards.

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0208. Linear Measurement of Latitude and Longitude

a. Linear Measurement of Latitude. The linear latitude of a place is the length of

the arc of the meridian between the Equator and that place. It is measured in sea
miles (see Para 0207 above) North or South of the Equator.

Fig 2-7. Linear Measurement of Latitude

wl..., ' ,_ I~-·, ,___ All

P'
Explanation: If M is In Latitude 60°N, then angle MLW = 60° = 60 x 60 minutes of arc = 3600'.
If place M, Is 1800' south of the Equator, Its Latitude Is 1800 / 60 = 30°S.

b. Linear Measurement of Longitude. The linear longitude of a place is the

smaller arc of the Equator between the Prime Meridian and the meridian of the
place. Along the Equator it is measured in geographical miles East or West of the
Prime Meridian.

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Fig 2-8. Linear Measurement of Longitude

E
w

P'
Explanation: If point B Is 40'E of the Prime Meridian PAP', the angle AOB is 40°, the arc AB of
the Equator is 40' = 40 x 60 = 2400 minutes of arc along the Equator= 2400 Geographical Miles

c. Variation in Linear Distance of Longitude with Change in Latitude.

Meridians converge to meet at a point at the poles, and this the distance on the
Earth's surface between any two meridians is greatest at the Equator and
diminishes until it is zero at the poles. The linear distance of a degree of longitude
on the surface of a spherical Earth varies with the cosine of latitude, but in practice
with a spheroidal Earth this is only an approximation. For a spherical Earth, the
formula is:

At latitude (I): 1° longitude= linear distance at Equator x cosine latitude q,

d. Linear Distance of Longitude - Errors. In practice (with the WGS84

spheroid), the percentage errors in assuming the formula above with a spheroidal
Earth increase towards the poles, but as linear distance between meridians
decreases towards the poles, to some extent these two variables cancel each other
out. Maximum linear errors occur at about latitude 60°, as in Table 2-3 below; note
that in all cases the approximate distance is greater than the result of the precise
calculation.

Table 2-3. Linear Distance of Longitude Errors

LOCATION %ERROR LINEAR DISTANCE

(METRES)
On the Equator 0 0
Latitude 10° 0.01 0.6
Latitude 30° 0.08 81
Latitude 45° 0.17 132
Latitude 60° 0.25 140
Latitude so· 0.33 63
Latitude 89° 0.34 0.6

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0209. The Earth as a Sphere

a. Properties of a Sphere. A sphere is the figure formed by rotating a semi-circle

about its diameter. The reader is referred to the definitions of great and small circles
in Para 0204 sub para c.

b. Effects of Assuming the Earth is a Sphere. As discussed above, the Earth is

not a true sphere but is rather an oblate spheroid. For maximum accuracy, specific
models (such as WGS 84) must be used, but for most practical purposes in
navigation the Earth may be safely assumed to be a sphere. This spherical Earth is
assumed to have radius equal to the mean of the greatest and least radii, and
measuring approximately 3438 n. miles (International Nautical Miles, measured in
WGS 84 ). When the Earth is regarded as a sphere, meridians of longitude become
great circles which cut the Equator at right angles and join the poles . The Equator is
a great circle but all other parallels of latitude are small circles.

liN\
Note. Where 'a' is the equatorial radius and 'b' the polar radius, the Earth's
arithmetical mean radius is (ab)/2. This equates to 6,367,444.657 metres,
or 3438. 14506 n. miles, using WGS 84.

c. Practical Use of the Great Circle. A great circle gives the shortest distance
between two points on the surface of a sphere. For practical purposes, this term
may also be applied to the surface of the Earth's oblate spheroid shape (i.e. as a
geodesic). A great circle may thus be regarded as the shortest distance between
two points on the Earth's surface, and is also the path taken by electro-magnetic
radiation near the Earth's surface (radio and radar waves, light etc). Many means of
calculating great circles exist, including WECDIS and NavPac.

Fig 2-9. The Earth as a Sphere

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d. Approximation of Distances with a Spherical Earth. Using the mean radius
for the sphere derived from WGS 84 (see Para 0209 sub para b above), the length
of 1' of latitude on the meridian (or 1' of longitude on the Equator) equals 1852.2m.
This distance approximates very closely to the length of the International Nautical
Mile of 1852m. It is therefore possible to avoid appreciable error when the Earth is
treated as a sphere where:

1' of latitude equals 1 n. mile (International Nautical Mile) anywhere.

On the Equator, 1' of arc of longitude equates to 1 n. mile.

a
Linear latitude and longitude may be measured in the same units (n. miles).

Note. The errors introduced by assuming a spherical Earth based on the

International Nautical Mile are not more than 0.5% for latitude and 0.2% for
longitude.

021 0. Astronomical Positions Used with a Spheroidal Earth

Astronomical observations measure angles from the horizon, which is itself
referenced to the local vertical (zenith). If the Earth was a true sphere, the zenith line
produced would by definition pass through the centre of the Earth , which is the centre of the
celestial sphere (see BRd 45(2) for more details). This would mean that positions from
astronomical observations could be plotted without error. With a spheroidal Earth, the zenith
line produced does not pass through the centre of the Earth except at the Equator and the
poles. In other positions, a small error occurs, which is at its maximum at latitude 45°. This
error is not significant for distant celestial bodies (the Sun, planets and stars), as their great
distance from the Earth is by far the dominant factor. It can however reach 0.2' of sextant
altitude for the Moon, which is navigationally significant. A correction for this factor is applied
automatically in NavPac, the RN's primary means of planning, executing and reducing astro
sights (see BRd 45(2)).

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SECTION 2 - DIRECTION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE

0211. Defining Direction

Once a position is defined, direction can then be determined (direction without
position is meaningless). With regards to maritime navigation, direction is measured in two
dimensions, often referred to as azimuth. Whilst pitch and roll are also important quantities
in many circumstances, they are not considered here. As with position, direction may be
relative or true.

a. True Direction. The true direction between two points on the Earth's surface is
given by the great circle between them; it is expressed as the angle between the
meridian and the great circle (angle PFT) in Fig 2-10a and Fig 2-10b below.
Technical definitions of direction for use in naval command systems are discussed in
the appropriate classified references and Defence standards.

Fig 2-10a. True Bearing (Small Angle) Fig 2-10b. True Bearing (Small Angle)

p TRUE NORTH
p
030°
~ht .T
)Tr,

P'
True Bearing (small angle) - measured clockwise True Bearing (small angle) - Great Circle treated
from Meridian to Great Circle as straight llne over short distances

b. True North. True North is the northerly direction of the meridian, and is the
reference from which true bearings and courses are measured. True North is 000°,
although usually referred to as 'North' in orders and reports in the Royal Navy (for
example 'STEER NORTH'); other courses are referred to numerically, for example
180°, due South, would be referred to thus: 'STEER ONE EIGHT ZERO'.

c. The Navigational Compass. The navigational compass provides the reference

direction from which courses and bearings are measured in the ship. There are
several principal types of compass; the most common remain the gyro compass and
magnetic compass, but increasingly other types such as the GPS compass and the
inertial navigation system are being deployed operationally in RN ships and
auxiliaries. The general principles are described below, but for full details of
navigation systems in the RN readers should refer to the classified BRd 45(3).

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d. True Bearing. The true bearing of an object is the angle between the meridian
(which is true North) and the direction of the object.

(1) The true bearing of T from Fis given by the angle PFT in Fig 2-1 Oa above
and Fig 2-11a below, where PF is the meridian through F and FT is the great

circle joining F to T.

(2) As with courses, the angle PFT is measured clockwise from 000° to 360°.
In Fig 2-10a above, Tbears 030° from F. In Fig 2-11a below, T bears 330° from

F.
(3) Over short distances the great circle may be drawn as a straight line
without appreciable error, as in Fig 1-10b above and Fig 1-11b below. The
magnitude of the error varies with the latitude and bearing.

Note. Over long distances, the errors can be significant. In 1941, during the
hunt for BISMARCK, the pursuing RN ships were misled as to BISMARCK's

it
position by several hundred miles when radio direction-finding bearings were
incorrectly plotted as rhumb lines rather than great circles (due to an
incorrect chart being used). Whilst the error was subsequently detected and
BISMARCK ultimately caught, the results of this error could well have
resulted in this powerful ship reaching safety in occupied France and
potentially affected the course of the BaJtfe of the Atlantic.

Fig 2-11a. True Bearing (Large Angle) Fig 2-11b. True Bearing (Large Angle)

p TRUE NORTH
p
T

P'
True Bearing (large angle) • measured clockwise
from Meridian to Great Circle True Bearing (large angle) • Great Circle treated
as straight line over short distances

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e. Position by Bearing and Distance. Rather than specify a position in absolute

terms by latitude and longitude, it is often convenient to indicate either the position of
an object from an observer by bearing and distance, or the position of an object by
bearing and distance from a third known object or position. There are many reasons
why this might be done; it may be simply a matter of convenience, to avoid
ambiguity, or because the platform is unsure of its own precise position but knows
the object's position relative to itself, or even for tactical reasons (to allow a position
to be broadcast on an uncovered circuit without compromising the position).

(1) Position of an Object from an Observer. When the position of an object

is indicated from an observer by bearing and distance (as when taking a fix), the
convention is to state the object first, then the bearing and distance. For
example, the report "Start Point Light 270° 4.0 n. miles" indicates that Start
Point Light is four nautical miles to the West of the observer.

(2) Position from an Object. When a position is indicated with reference to a

known object by bearing and distance (such as when specifying a rendezvous
position), the convention is to state the bearing first, then the object and then
distance. For example, a rendezvous four miles East of Start Point Light would
be indicated: "090° Start Point Light 4.0 n. miles".

fi
Note. Notwithstanding the conventions above, whenever passing a position
it is the responsibility of the unit passing the position to ensure that so far as
is possible any ambiguity is removed. Using the correct formats, whether
RN-specific or as laid down in NA TO publications etc, will help in this regard.

f. True Course. True course is the direction along the Earth's surface in which
the vessel is being steered or is intended to be steered (it is not synonymous with
heading - see below). It is measured by the angle between the meridian through
the vessel's position and the fore-and-aft line, clockwise from 000° to 360°.

g. True Heading. True course is not to be confused with heading (or 'ship's
head'), which is the instantaneous direction of the ship and is thus a constantly
changing value as the ship yaws across the course under the influence of wind,
sea, and steering errors.

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0212. The Gyrocompass

The gyro Compassis probably the primary means through which most large vessels
1h
are navigated in the early 21•1 century. It was developed in the early part of the 20 century,
and rapidly adopted by the navies across the world because of its precision, reliability, and
ease of use. In its simplest form, it comprised a rapidly rotating wheel (a gyroscope),
1h the
st
spin axis of which was made to point along the meridian to North. By the late 20 /early 21
centuries, the gyro compass became an extremely accurate and reliable instrument.
Increasingly, navigational devices such as inertial navigation systems make use of devices
which behave similarly to the gyro compass but use other technology such as lasers and
fibre optics (see Para 0215 below). The remarks below describe the standard maritime gyro
compass; warships may be fitted with a straightforward gyro such as this or more
complicated devices which serve additional purposes.

a. Gyro Compass Output. In the absence of any errors, the gyro compass
provides true courses and bearings measured clockwise from 000° to 360° . This
dat~ is pro~ided in the form of compass repeats and data feeds to customer
equipment; 1t may be electrically provided as synchro feeds, or digitally via NMEA
messages or other data transmission systems.

b. Gyro ~ompa~s Errors. For a number of reasons the gyro compass ma not
always point precisely towards true North. Any gyro error must be estab/ h d
before t~e gyro compass is used as a reference for navigation and ~svee
opportunity must be taken to check the gyro compass for errors when at sea. ry

c. Gyro Repeater Errors. The alignment of the lubber's_line on gyro repeaters to

ship's head must be checked frequently. and adj~sted 1f ne~essary. On offset
repeaters, such as those on the bridge wings, an incorrect alignment may not be
easily noticed but will cause significant errors.

d. Typical Gyro Error Magnitudes. The maximum error in Royal Navy g;ro
compasses in adverse conditions is typically better than ¼ 0 at the Equator and ½ _at
latitude 60°. In good conditions, it should be better than this. In some commercial
gyro compasses, the error may exceed this by one or two degrees.

e. Calculating the Gyro Error. Techniques for establishing the gyro error are in
Para 0810. In terms of reporting the gyro error, if the true bearing of an object is
known to be 075° and the gyro bearing is 077°, then the gyro error is said to be 2°
high. Conversely, if the gyro reads 073° , then it is reading 2° low. Usually a gyro
will display the true course or bearing, but where an error exists by convention the
gyro reading is suffixed 'G' to indicate that it is a gyro reading not a true reading. A
bearing suffixed 'T' is unambiguously a true bearing.

f. Correcting the Gyro Error. Providing the gyro error is both known and stable,
then correcting for it is relatively straightforward. In WECDIS, the gyro error can be
ente~ed as a known error and the system will then automatically account for it. If
working manually, then by inspection of Para 0212 sub para e above it will be seen
that _for a gyro reading high, then the error must be subtracted 'from the gyro
reading (or added to bearings taken from a chart). For a gyro reading low then the
st
error mu be added to the gyro reading (or subtracted from bearings take~ from the
chart).

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Fig 2-12a. Gyro Error HIGH Fig 2-12b. Gyro Error LOW

TRUE
NORTH
Direction of North
According to the
Gyro Compass

Error High Error Low

0213. The Magnetic Compass

The oldest form of compass in use today is the magnetic compass, which has been
in use in one form or another since the early middle ages. It is still in use today as SOLAS
regulations require ships subject to SOLAS requirements to carry a compass which is
capable of operating without an external power supply; magnetic compasses are to-date the
only technology which satisfies this requirement. There are several types of magnetic
compass, including the modern fluxgate compass which is electrically powered but still relies
on magnetism, but the compass described below is the standard marine magnetic compass
as can be found on any number of ships worldwide. The compass itself is effectively a bar
magnet, freely suspended in the horizontal plane, and acted upon by both the Earth's
magnetic field and the magnetic properties of the ship. See BRd 45(3) for a full discussion
of terrestrial magnetism and the magnetic compass.

a. The Earth's Magnetic Field. The Earth may be considered as a gigantic

magnet; although the ultimate source of the magnetism remains unknown, it is
currently believed to be due to electric currents generated in the Earth's core.
Regardless of the source, however, it is known that lines of magnetic force emanate
from the South magnetic pole, located in Antarctica. These force lines follow (very
approximately) semi-great circle paths to the North magnetic pole, located in
international waters in the high Arctic just North of the Canadian Arctic archipelago.
The magnetic poles are not stationary, but are in continual (but slow) motion for
reasons that are not understood.

b. The Magnetic Meridian. A freely suspended magnetic compass needle acted

on solely by the Earth's magnetic field will lie in the vertical plane along the Earth's
magnetic field force line. This vertical plane is known as the magnetic meridian
(magnetic North). However, the Earth's magnetic field is irregular, and affected by
many magnetic anomalies, and so magnetic meridians do not always point towards
the magnetic poles. Not only that, but the magnetic poles are not located 180"
apart, and so in fact it is rare for the magnetic needle to point towards the magnetic
pole.

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c. Magnetic North. Magnetic North is the name given to the direction in which the
North end of a magnetic needle, suspended to as to remain horizontal, would point
when subject only to the influence of the Earth's magnetism. It is the northerly

direction of the magnetic meridian.

d. Magnetic Variation. Magnetic variation, normally known simply as 'variation',
is the angle the between the geographic (true) meridian and the magnetic meridian.
It is measured East or West from true North; in Fig 2-13 below the variation at point
F would be shown as 20' West. Variation has different values at different places,
and is gradually changing over time. Its value at a place may be found from the
navigational charts which give the variation for a certain year, together with a note of
its annual value of secular change for which allowance must be made. WECDIS will
determine magnetic variation from data encapsulated within the chart (ENC) or from
the NGOC World Magnetic Model. When using ARCS charts, the chart data boxes
which detailed magnetic variation information can be interrogated to perform the
calculation manually. Additionally, if available then variation may also be taken from
~pecial is~gon!c charts on which all places of equal variation are joined by
isogonals (which are not be be confused with magnetic meridians which are the
Imes of force).

Fig 2-13. Magnetic Variation

P(North Geographical Pole)

Magnetic Meridian True Meridian

w E

P'

e. Magnetic Deviation and Compass North. In addition to magnetic variation, in

the real world, when placed in a ship, a magnetic compass is also subject to
additional disturbances caused by the presence of iron, steel, and any electrical or
magnetic equipment in the ship. This additional disturbance is known as deviation.
Whilst this deviation was relatively slow in the age of sail in wooden ships, in a
modern ship with a steel hull it is significant and must be accounted for. The angle
between the magnetic meridian and the direction in which the needle points
(compass North) is called magnetic deviation, normally just referred to as, deviation.
It is measured East or West from magnetic North.

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f. Reducing Deviation. Deviation is subject to the interaction of a number of

complex and inter-related factors, and as a ship alters course in a given magnetic
latitude, the magnetic field of the ship will change in both direction and magnitude.
Consequently, deviation is different for different compass courses , and major
changes in magnetic latitude may require additional checks of the deviation, as will
major changes to the ship such as a refit. In practice, the deviation of a sh ip's
magnetic compass is reduced the minimum possible amount by fitting and adjusting
a number of permanent magnets and soft-iron spheres in the compass binnacle. It
should be possible to achieve residual deviations of 3° or less.

g. 'Swinging the Ship'. After the permanent magnets and soft-iron spheres have
been adjusted at the compass binnacle (a specialist task which must only be
conducted by a suitably qualified and experienced individual), the ship's residual
deviation is found by slowly swinging the ship through 360° and noting the deviation
for the various compass headings; this may easily be done at sea as a comparison
swing against the gyro compass. The residual deviation may be tabulated or drawn
as a graph (see examples below at Fig 2-14 and Table 2-4). Intermediate values
may be determined by interpolation. As stated above, if there is any significant
change of magnetic latitude, the swinging (and if necessary adjustment) procedures
must be repeated .

Table 2-4. EXAMPLE Table of Residual Deviations

,
BEARING OF DISTANT OBJECT
COMPASS HEADING DEVIATION
MAGNETIC COMPASS
(FROM CHART) (OBSERVED)

(000°) 236° M 237½ oc 1½ 0 W

N
(022½ 0 ) 236° M 237¾ oc 1¾ 0 W
NNE
NE (045°) 236° M 237¾ oc 1¾ 0 W
(067½ 0 ) 236° M 237½ oc 1½ 0 W
ENE
236° M 237 oc 1 ow
E
ESE
(090°)
(112½ 0 ) 236° M 236½ oc ½ ow
(135°) 236° M 235½ oc ½ OE
SE
(157½ 0 ) 236° M 235 oc 1 OE
SSE
s (180°) 236° M 234½ oc 1½ 0 E
(202½ 0 ) 236° M 234 oc 2 OE
SSW
(225°) 236° M 234 oc 2 OE
SW
(247½ 0 ) 236° M 234¼ oc 1¾ 0 E
WSW
w 236° M 234¾ oc 1¼ 0 E
(270°)
0
236° M 235¼ oc ¾ OE
WNW (292½ )
236° M 236 oc NIL
NW (315°)
0
(337½ ) 236° M 237 oc 1 ow
NNW

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