BRd 45(1)

CHAPTER 11

OCEAN NAVIGATION

CONTENTS

Para
1101 Introduction and Scope of Chapter
1102 Additional Sources of Information
1103 IMO Stages of Passage Planning

SECTION 1 - PLANNING AND EXECUTING OCEAN NAVIGATION

1104 Check Lists and NavPlan Preparation (Appraisal)

1105 Criteria for Route Selection (Planning)
1106 The Passage Graph
1107 Execution of an Ocean Passage (Execution and Monitoring)
1108 Records and Post Voyage Appraisal

SECTION 2 - OCEAN CURRENTS

1109 Definitions and Parameters

1110 'Drift' and 'Gradient' Currents
1111 General Circulation of Drift Currents
1112 Effect of Wind Blowing Over a Coastline
1113 Classification of Warm and Cold Currents
1114 Summary of Principle Currents and Their Characteristics
BRd 45(1)

CHAPTER 11

OCEAN NAVIGATION

1101. Introduction and Scope of Chapter

This Chapter covers ocean navigation, which is defined as navigation out of sight of
land. As it is impossible to reach the open ocean without departing from somewhere, there
is a considerable degree of overlap with coastal navigation and even pilotage. The
boundaries between 'ocean navigation' and coastal navigation are somewhat arbitrary and
must ultimately be determined by the NO/CO taking into account all the prevailing
circumstances and conditions

1102. Additional Sources of Information

There are a great many sources of information which should be consulted before
attempting an ocean passage. Many are discussed below in Para 1104, but the navigator
should also consult BRd 45(6) for details of wave formation and shiphandling in heavy
weather before attempting an ocean transit, especially if the weather forecast is poor or the
area is known to be prone to poor weather (such as the Southern Ocean).

1103. IMO Stages of Passage Planning

IMO resolution A.893 (21 ), Guidelines for Voyage Planning was adopted on 25
November 1999 and specifies how and why voyage planning is to be conducted. The term
'passage planning' is preferred in this book due to historic usage in the RN, and to avoid any
ambiguity with WECDIS voyage plans, which are a distinct subject in their own right and a
part of the passage planning. The IMO guidance lays down four distinct stages of passage
planning, which are described in more detail below; key words or phrases are highlighted in
bold. RN practice broadly aligns with IMO guidance, although in practice the distinction
between 'execution' and 'monitoring' is somewhat false and the two are generally considered
to be a single phase in the RN . In this Chapter, and the accompanying Chapters on coastal
navigation and pilotage, italics in the sub-headings are used to indicate which IMO stage of
passage planning the subject falls into.

11-2
August 2018 Version 1
 BRd 45(1)

Table 11-1. IMO Stages of Passage Planning

STAGE IMO GUIDELINES

Appraisal All information relevant to the contemplated voyage or
oassaae should be considered .
Planning On the basis of the fullest possible appraisal, a detailed voyage
or passage plan should be prepared which should cover the
entire voyage or passage from berth to berth , including
those areas where the services of a oilot will be used.
Execution Having finalised the voyage or passage plan, as soon as time
of departure and estimated time of arrival can be determined
with reasonable accuracy, the voyage or passage should be
executed in accordance with the plan or any changes made
thereto.
Monitoring The plan should be available at all times on the bridge to allow
officers of the navigational watch immediate access and
reference to the details of the plan. The progress of the vessel
in accordance with the voyage and passage plan should be
closely and continuously monitored. Any changes made to the
plan should be made consistent with the Guidelines and clearly
marked and recorded .

a. Appraisal. The appraisal stage is generally (although by no means always) the

stage at which the navigator has the most time and least pressure to conduct
planning . It is thus the stage at which the navigator should seek to consult any and
all available information. More details are given in Para 1104 below, but it is
important to emphases how wide-ranging the appraisal stage can be. For example,
the navigator should review all the available charts, including those which are
otherwise unsuitable (poor scale where better scales exist), and even any out-of-
date charts held onboard . Whilst navigation decisions must be made on the basis of
the most up-to-date charts and publications, sometimes older information contains
vital clues which can be used to determine areas where caution is required or
prompt closer examination of the modern data.

b. Planning. The IMO guidelines are that the plan should cover 'berth to berth'.
In the RN, this may not be appropriate as when the ship or submarine sails, there
may not be a destination. Nevertheless, the fullest possible plan must be prepared,
and the NO must ensure that the ship does not depart from the plan without
preparing a new plan or amending the existing plan .

c. Execution and Monitoring. In RN practice the execution and monitoring

phases are essentially one single phase. Having taken the time and effort to
produce a plan and get it approved, it is essential that the ship then follows that plan .
Whilst for operational or other reasons it may be necessary to depart from the plan,
it is essential that the decision to do so is made positively, recorded, and a new plan
prepared as soon as possible. The ship's progress along the track must be
continuously monitored by the OOW and the NO, and if things are not going to plan
then corrective action should be taken and the CO informed as required by standing
orders and QRRN.
BRd 45(1)

SECTION 1-PLANNING AND EXECUTING OCEAN NAVIGATION

1104. Check Lists and NavPlan Preparation (Appraisal)

The following checklist is intended as a guide to the factors to be considered when
planning ocean navigation. Certain aspects are discussed further later in the Chapter.
Reference should also be made to Chapter 12, Coastal Navigation.

a. Programming.

(1) Dates. The NO should establish the dates and destination of the intended
passage as early as possible, including consulting the Fleet Operational
Schedule which is normally available up to six months in advance.

(2) Outline Briefing. Once the dates are established, the NO should then
calculate the outline speed of advance (SOA) required (and check that the FOS
is achievable), and then add in any known constraints or requirements such as
exercises or operations, or environmental considerations (hurricanes, ice etc).
The NO should also consider fuel and other range/endurance constraints at the
earliest possible opportunity. The NO should brief the CO and the Operations
Officer on the outline passage concept as soon as possible.

(3) CO's Input. If the Commanding Officer wishes to make any inputs into the
intended outline plan, then the earlier this is done the better, both to ensure that
the NO does not waste valuable time on nugatory work, and to ensure that the
CO is satisfied with the plan. The NO's initial outline brief provides the ideal
opportunity to capture any concerns, queries or suggestions the CO might have.

b. Research and Appraisal. Table 12-2 below shows the detailed work that the
NO should undertake once the initial feasibility checks are complete and the CO has
approved the basic plan. The Table is broken down into three sections, explained
below. All the work, including details of the references consulted, information
extracted and the calculations and reasons behind decisions should be recorded in
the NO's Workbook, which is an accountable document.

(1) Preliminary Research. References listed in this section should be

studied, with extracts/summaries recorded in the NO's Workbook, before any
detailed planning is conducted.

(2) Appraisal/Options Evaluation. The preliminary research will help the NO

establish either a more detailed plan or potentially a list of options. The further
work in this stage will allow the NO to appraise each of the options and indicate
the direction in which the detailed effort should be focussed.

(3) Detailed-Planning. Once the CO has approved the basic plan, and the
research and appraisal above has been completed, the NO should start detailed
planning including the entry of data into WECDIS (or a small-scale passage
chart). A number of data points or factors should be annotated onto the plan in
WECDIS, or included on a passage graph (see Para 1106 below) for review by
the CO. If a route is entered into WECDIS then much of the detail (distances to
run etc) is automatically generated by the system, greatly reducing the workload
of the NO. No route is to be used unless and until it has been scanned and
checked by the NO and CO at 1: 1 scale.
11-4
August 2018 Version 1
 BRd 45(1)

Table 11-2. Ocean Passage Planning Checklist

REFERENCE/FACTOR/CONSIDERATION @
PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
UKHO 'thematic' oroducts includina monthly routeing charts
Charts /ENC/RNC and foreiqn oroducts if aoorooriate)
Ocean Passaqes for the World (NP 136)
Admiralty Distance Tables - if required; WECD/S makes manual
calculations very straightforward but they can be quickly cross-checked for
accuracv
Admiraltv Sailina Directions
Outline ETD/ETA constraints
Environmental Briefina Dockets (if available)
APPRAISAUOPTIONS EVALUATION
Comoare areat circle vs rhumb line routes, TSS and shinnina lanes
Limitina danaer line (LDL) where aoorooriate
ETDs/ETAs and refined SOA
Likelv meteoroloaical/environmental conditions (sea, weather, foa, ice etc)
Expected traffic density (TSS, shipping lanes, likely concentrations of
fishina vessels etc)
Exercise oooortunities/areas/submarine transit lanes/air lanes
Anv limitations of own shio/shios in comoanv (includinq load line chanaes l
Rendezvous/reolenishment at sea (RAS) requirements/olannina
Maritime jurisdiction, innocent passage and diplomatic clearance
!DIPCLEAR)
lntelliaence reauirements/olannina
Restrictions on hiqh-oower radar/sonar/comms in certain areas
Mined areas/danaer areas and munitions picked up at sea
Ts & Ps (Notices to Mariners), radio NAVWARN logs
Oooortunities for oassaae soundinqs and other METOC observations
Time zones and time zone chanaes
Plannina station (chart availability)
Oooortunities for landina/receiving mail
Availabilitv of non-GNSS NAVAIDs
Aoorooriate RN sianals/reoorts
Public relations/media oooortunities
CROSS-CHECK ALL AVAILABLE SOURCES OF NAVIGATIONAL AND
OTHER INFORMATION
DETAILED PLANNING
Route(s) with LDL and courses shown
Distances to run
ETDs/ETAs and olanned noon/midniaht oositions each dav /PIM)
SOA and chanaes to olanned SOA on passaqe
Times and locations of olanned time zone chanaes on board
Exercise areas/submarine transit lanes/air lanes if aoolicable
Rendezvous times/oositions if aooropriate
Predicted currents with anticipated strenqth and direction
Known meteoroloaical data
Territorial waters (from UKHO AML)
Locations of concentrations of fishinq vessels expected
Main shiooina routes impactinq on olanned route
RN/NATO Command Area 'choo' lines/dates
WECDIS ROUTE SCAN
1 :1 SCALE CHECK OF ENTIRE ROUTE
 BRd 45(1)

c. Detailed Command Briefing (Single Ship). Before the passage the NO

should deliver a detailed brief to Command, using WECDIS at the appropriate scale
to brief the passage as a whole and any critical phases. This brief must be
conducted in sufficient time to allow for any changes to be safely injected into
WECDIS for the final voyage plan.

d. Detailed Command Briefing (Multiple Ships). If own ship is the Officer in

Tactical Command (OTC) of a group of ships which will be on passage together,
then the detailed Command briefing must be held even earlier, such that there is
time for the Command-approved plan to be passed to the other ships in good time.
Do not forget that the other ships will need to conduct their own planning once they
have received the plan.

e. Detailed Planning and Approval. Once the Command has approved the plan,
then the final elements of the WECDIS voyage plan should be prepared and saved
in accordance with BRd 45(8). The plan must NOT be used for navigation unless
and until the route has been scanned and checked at 1: 1 scale in accordance with
BRd 45(8).

1105. Criteria for Route Selection (Planning)

The following comments and guidance are provided to expand upon the elements
included in the checklist at Table 11-2.

a. Charts. All relevant and available thematic and navigational charts and AMLs
are to be consulted when planning the passage. Do not forget to consult Fleet and
other classified products where relevant. Routeing charts convey a large amount of
useful information, including limits of load line zones, recommended routes (and

l distances between ports), ocean currents, wind roses, and statistical data on
temperatures, pressures, ice formation etc. Routeing charts are not held as part
of the standard outfit and so NOs MUST ensure they order individual charts
are required, in accordance with NP 104. Routeing charts are produced by area
and month, so that it is possible to order for example Chart 5124(3), which the
routeing chart for the North Atlantic in March. NOs should only order those charts
they require.

b. Ocean Passages for the World (eNP 136). Ocean Passages for the World
(eNP 136, which is part of the standard outfit) contains detailed information for 'full-
powered' vessels (capable of speeds in excess of 15 knots), low-powered or
hampered vessels unable to meet the requirements of full-powered vessels, and
sailing vessels. The instructions are written for vessels of 'moderate draught' which
is assumed to be 12m; navigators of deeper-draught vessels will need to bear this in
mind when reading the directions. Summary details of TSS are included, but only
where they are encountered in the oceanic part of the passage; those in the port
approaches are not mentioned.

11-6
August 2018 Version 1
 BRd 45(1)

c. Admiralty Distance Tables. The Admiralty Distance Tables (NP 350) is a set
of three volumes which provide distances between ports. They give great circle
distances between ports and points, and allow for navigational constraints but not
weather, currents or TSS . NP 350 is not part of the standard outfit and WECDIS is
capable of producing the same information just as qwickly. Nevertheless, if WECDIS
is not available, then the distance tables may be useful, and if they are available in
addition to WECDIS then they can be used as a gross error check.

d. Admiralty Sailing Directions (Pilots). The sailing directions cover the entire
world, and whilst their primary use is for coastal navigation and pilotage they should
still be consulted. They are of most use when read with a chart available in
WECDIS.

e. ETD/ETA and SOA Considerations. The outline ETD/ETA and SOA should
be considered at the earliest stage, in particular to ensure that the contemplated
passaged is physically achievable. Once more detailed planning is underway, the
ETNETA and SOA should be further refined. There is an almost limitless list of
factors to be considered, but the points below should be considered in most or all
passages as a bare minimum.

(1) Time of Day. The time of day for the ETD/ETA should be carefully
thought through. All other things being equal, mid-morning ETDs/ETAs are
usually preferred, but the planned time will need to be checked to ensure it fits
with any tidal windows, and with any local restrictions or regulations (including
clashes with other shipping). Courtesies to the country being visited may also
need to be considered (gun salutes, official calls etc).

(2) Planned Delays. Allowance must be made for any planned delays such
as flying, OOW manoeuvres, or machinery breakdown drills. This is in addition
to standard zero-PIM allowances (see below).

(3) Zero-PIM. An allowance should be made for some 'zero-PIM', which is a

period of time in which speed along the track is zero. As a rule of thumb, unless
there are specific periods of zero or reduced PIM which are known in advance
(see above), at least one hour of zero-PIM per 24 hours transit should be
allowed. This will allow for opportunities for exercises such as man-overboard,
brief machinery drills, and unexpected factors such as reduced visibility or
shipping which causes a reduction in speed. In some cases, it will be
appropriate to include more allowance for zero-PIM, such as when own ship's
maximum speed is reduced due to defects or material state.

(4) Fuel Constraints. The plan must allow for own ship's fuel requirements,
including starting fuel states, planned usage, acceptable minimum fuel state,
and RAS requirements (see below).

(5) Rendezvous/Replenishment Requirements/Opportunities. Any

requirements or opportunities should be considered, including dates, times and
positions.

(6) Limitations of Ships in Company. Allow for any general or specific

limitations of ships in company; an 18 knot SOA is not appropriate for a force
which includes MCMVs. Even a 12 knot SOA may be inadvisable.

11-7
August 2018 Version 1
BRd 45(1)

(7) SOA between Rendezvous. Consider the SOA required between

rendezvous or specific serials as compared to the overall SOA.

f. Great Circles versus Rhumb Line Routes, TSS, Shipping Lanes and
Coastlines.

(1) Routes. Great circles will often not be i;iracticable for warships due to
exercise requirements or other operational constraints, but they should still be
considered. If possible, any saving greater than one hour is worth achieving
(even if it is just used for zero-PIM). Great circle courses should be planned to
be 'round figure' course if possible.

(2) TSS. Plan for TSS and associated traffic, whether it be to follow them or
cross them correctly in accordance with the IRPCS. Remember that warships
are not exempt from the IRPCS and must fully comply with the requirements of
the scheme.

(3) 'Shipping Lanes'. 'Shipping lanes' are the routes which it is generally
expected merchant traffic will follow, and are shown on the routeing charts and
in Ocean Passages for the World. They have no legal status (unlike TSS), but
in general it is better to plan either to follow the shipping lane or to keep well
clear.

(4) Landfall on a Featureless Coast. See Chapter 12, but in essence be

very wary of planning a landfall on a featureless coast, and plan to make full
use of every available source of information including the echo sounder to keep
the ship safe.

g. Limiting Danger Line (LDL). The limiting danger line (LDL) MUST ALWAYS
BE CONSTRUCTED for ALL DANGERS in the general vicinity, not just adjacent to
the planned track. Although oceanic waters are usually deep, isolated dangers can
and do occur which can endanger relatively shallow-draughted vessels (such as the
Muirfield Seamount) and these must be clearly marked at the passage planning
stage. Consider the use of mariner's notes or other features in WECDIS to ensure
that the OOW is alerted to isolated dangers, especially when in open ocean.

h. Statistical Meteorology, Forecasts and Fog.

(1) Statistical Meteorology. Data on the likely sea state, wind, visibility, ice
and currents can be found on the routeing chart(s), Ocean Passages for the
World, and the sailing directions. These are based on past experience, and so
should not be assumed to be a forecast, but they provide invaluable information
which must be taken into account.

(2) Forecasts. Weather and oceanographic forecasts are available from the
Joint Operational Meteorology and Oceanographic Centre (JOMOC) in
Northwood. More specialised products are also available and early
engagement with JOMOC will be beneficial.

11-8
August 2018 Version 1
 BRd 45(1)

(3) Likelihood of Fog when Outward-Bound. Unless there are overriding

operational or other reasons to do so, there is little benefit to making an inshore
coastal passage in fog, followed immediately by a long ocean passage.
Instead, it is usually prudent to stand well offshore, keeping clear of any
navigational hazards, following the old adage 'outward bound, don't run
aground' . A great deal of coastal shipping will also be avoided .

i. Concentrations of Fishing Vessels. Locations where concentrations of

fishing vessels are expected are detailed in sailing directions, on charts, and in Ts
and Ps. For UK waters, RN and RFA users can access VMS data from Northwood
(in the form of AMLs).

j. Exercise Opportunities/Area Limits/Submarine Transit Lanes. Fleet

HQ/FOST provide exercise opportunities for RN warships and RFAs. Exercise
areas are in Fleet ARCS products and the RAL (routes, areas and limits) AML, and
UK (including overseas) areas are detailed in BRd 9424 (FLOOs).

k. Air Lanes. Air lanes must be taken into account when planning high seas
weapon firings.

I. Limitations. The specific limitations of own ship or ships in company must be

taken into account, especially by the OTC of a group. Load line changes must be
considered for RFAs.

m. Rendezvous and Replenishment at Sea (RAS) Requirements and Planning.

The choice of rendezvous and associated SOAs for operations and exercises
required careful planning. Where possible, the RAS should not be planned for a
TSS or other area where shipping or navigational constraints are expected. RN
warships must comply with the requirements for fuel states in FLOOs.

n. Maritime Jurisdiction, Innocent Passage and Diplomatic Clearance.

Maritime jurisdiction claims by nations are listed in the Annual Summary of Notices
to Mariners. The UK Government does not recognise claims to territorial seas
exceeding 12 nautical miles, to contiguous zones exceeding 24 nautical miles, or to
exclusive economic zones or fisheries zones exceeding 200 nautical miles.
Territorial waters are available from UKHO as an AML for WECDIS; as they may
change frequently units are to contact UKHO to ensure they have the most up-Io-
date version of the product. Further guidance for RN units is in BRd 3012 and from
NCHQ.

o. Intelligence Requirements. Consult FLOOs and NCHQ.

p. Restrictions on High-Power Radar, Sonar and Comms in Certain Areas.

Consult FLOOS and NCHQ.

q. Mined Areas and Munitions Picked Up at Sea. Advice on mined areas and
munitions picked up at sea is in the Annual Summary of Notices to Mariners.

r. T and P Notices and NAVWARNs. T and P notices, and any radio

NAVWARNS should be reviewed.

11-9
August 201R v .. r~•-- •
BRd 45(1)

s. Opportunities for Passage Soundings and Oceanographic Observations.

Guidance is provided for RN warships in FLOOs.

t. Time Zone Changes. To maintain local time zones, clocks are advanced when
travelling East and retarded when travelling West. The times of any change should
be managed locally on board to meet own ship's requirements, but traditionally in
the RN clocks are advanced/retarded during the morning watch. See also BRd
45(2).

u. Chart Permits. Consult NP 104 for the latest guidance and instructions on
ENC ordering. In summary, units should using the Admiralty Gateway to plan the
'basket' of ENCs they require for the passage, exercising common sense to avoid
over ordering (do not order large scale ENCs for ports that the ship cannot
physically enter, for example). Where foreign HO products are required, lead times
can be considerable.

v. Opportunities for Landing/Receiving Mail. Every opportunity for

landing/receiving mail should be identified.

w. Availability of non-GNSS NAVAIDs. If own ship is capable (i.e. fitted with an

operational receiver), identify any areas where non-GNSS NAVAIDs such as legacy
LORAN-C or eLORAN are available. Where they are not, or if own ship is not
capable, then plan for non-availability of GNSS (astro, bathymetric navigation, pool
of errors etc).

x. Appropriate RN Signals and Reports. Guidance on the requirements and

formats for RN signals and reports required (eg NAVMOVEs, mail diversion signals,
RASREQs etc) are in FLOOs and RNCPd 9.

y. Publication Relations Opportunities. Guidance for RN warships is provided

in FLOOs.

z. Cross-Checking Information. ALL available sources of navigational and other

information should always be cross-checked at the planning stage and immediately
before use. This process should include reference thematic charts, foreign charts,
AMLs, Fleet products and other classified charts if available.

1106. The Passage Graph

Once the route (track) has been planned in WECDIS, then a 'passage graph' should
be constructed as an aid both to planning and execution of the passage. Whilst the passage
graph is not mandatory, even in the age of WECDIS it remains an incredibly useful tool
which will help to provide clarity when planning a transit, and greatly eases SOA calculations
when executing a transit.

a. Constructing the Passage Graph. In essence, a passage graph is a plot of

time against distance to run. It may be plotted on simple graph paper, but CEP roll,
if available, is excellent for this purpose.

(1) Axes. Conventionally, plot time along the X axis and distance to run along
the Y axis (although sometimes passage graphs with the axes reversed will be
encountered). Choose a convenient scale to allow for accuracy and readability
without making the graph too large and unwieldy. ·
11-10
August 2018 Version 1
 BRd 45(1)

(2) Speed Scale. To construct a speed scale, plot a convenient point of origin
P, and, using the time axis scale, plot a point Q at a convenient time (horizontal)
interval from P. PQ thus represents the time scale for the graph (eg three days
in Fig 12-1). Using the Y axis distance scale, plot vertically down from Q the
distances run for each speed for the chosen time interval (eg 72 hours at 10 kn
= 720 n. miles) and mark/label these points. Draw a sloping line from P to each
of the speed marks. The slope of the speed scale lines represent different
speeds on the graph.

Fig 11-1. Example Passage Graph

C
&
s
ffi±t ·1--+++-+-·l--+-t'-cH
,H--~.::t:4'~-+-+--1--l
:~~~+~::r:t::t--+=l=
- I 11 I I I I I a:s
Distance 1590 n.mlles
ETD 1208002 April
C
:,

!lC
.
' I I
- - 1"7" t 6 ETA 1712002 April
!l
C
J!I
1_1 ~ 7 Time 148 hours
j H-+++ Average SOA 10.74 knots ci
C

1800'
I
'-'l.-'-.1'...:>...~
'
, -..I-
·;"'
8
~0 i I I 1800'
11
L.l--j.__.) A(ETD) : ~t';s:1:~~I~ 12 ~ ..LLl-1--Ll.-l-L.-l-+-1-+-+-I-+-+-"
-.--f-+-- - l
13 "D -l--l-l--1-+-1--1-L.-l-+-IH-+-IH-+-

111 ! I lffl -+-HC\l-'cl'c''><' 14 ..LLl-1-Ll.-l-L.-l-+-11-l-+-l-+--4-

tm'+7::1:C'I
15 <II -l-Ll-1-+-1--1-!-+-+-H-+-IH-+-t 1440 "
1 440· 1 I I J'

l!fil I '
E_j- ~~-:: Zero PIM) 18 LL-1-LJ..+-1'-'--'--'-+-+-+-l--+-+-+-+--1
'--'--'-1--+-+-+-+-+
~ B F - -- ~ E-G = Distance behind Average SOA) -l-L.-1-+-l-+-Ll-+-+-1--+-+-+-+-1
1080
, m+tl 11 i 111fT i iiI i I H-+++++++tl i 11 i 111 I 11iuou"
72
o· t1~~t1+~"::..t14'=i, -1+~"::..t1~~t14~t1j;.P. I I
720 "

360" I I' !I 11 1 11 I 1 1 I I IUnfavourable

I I I I I Current
I I I : 360"
UID:..I.1IJ1:.I:l1j1~1c tjj::tjj:l:~!tt:~± tt
I I I I I I I I ~ l 'T
o· 11TTII I I I I lf fiII I I I 11I I I I I I I I I 11I lltoT(JrA) o·
0800(2) 0800 (2) 0800(2) 0800(2) 0800(2) 0800(2) 0800(2) 0800(2) 0800(2) 0800(2)
11 Apr 12Apr 13 Apr 14 Apr 15 Apr 15 Apr 16 Apr 17 Apr 18 Apr 19 Apr

b. Populating the Passage Graph. Fig 12-1 shows one simple example of a
1590 n. mile passage. One way to construct it is detailed below, but there are other
ways that it can be constructed, depending on what information is known
beforehand.

(1) Plot the ETD (120800Z April), at a distance to run of 1,590 n. miles.

(2) Plot the ETA (171200Z April). This may be the arrival point, or a dummy
ETA or 'arrival gate' some distance from the true arrival point.

(3) Join AD with a pecked line. The slope of AD gives the true overall SOA
required, which can be read off from the speed scale using a parallel ruler.

(4) Plot horizontal lines at appropriate distances to run to indicate important

navigational features. These can include RVs, RAS opportunities, TSS, area
allocations etc.

11-11
August 2018 Vorc, I - -
BRd 45(1)

(5) If necessary, plot horizontal/vertical lines as appropriate to indicate

favourable or unfavourable currents, tidal streams, sunrise/sunset etc as
required .

(6) Include zero-PIM as required (represented by a flat line on the graph). In

the example above, point B is an RV ahead of an exercise which extends for
three days (concludir,ig at C). FE is a period of zero-PIM. BC has a relatively
low SOA, but it will be seen that by plotting the zero-PIM on the passage graph,
it will be necessary to proceed above the true SOA to make good the RV at C.

(7) Fix positions should be plotted on the passage graph. The SOA required
to regain PIM can thus be quickly calculated . For example, if E were a fix, then
the SOA required would be 9.25 to reach Con PIM.

(8) Find the SOA for each part of the passage by joining the relevant points on
the passage graph and measuring the slope to determine the SOA. For
example, the SOA from A to Bis 15 kn, from B to Cit is 6.8 kn, and from C to D
it is 14.5 kn.

1107. Execution of an Ocean Passage (Execution and Monitoring)

a. Fixing. Fixing during an ocean passage will inevitably be heavily reliant on

GNSS, but every opportunity should be taken to cross-check the satellite derived
position with other information. With the widespread demise of LORAN-C, this is
likely to mean astro observations. Whether astronavigation is practical or not, it may
be necessary to supplement it or GNSS with pool of errors techniques (see BRd
45(9) for a full explanation, but WECDIS has an automated pool of errors function
which should make it possible for any NO to use).

b. SOA Checks. A check should be made against the passage graph at regular
intervals, certainly at least once a watch in open ocean and more helpfully once an
hour (if the passage graph is at a suitable scale).

c. Fuel State. A separate scale on the passage graph can be used to track the
ship's fuel state, or alternatively a separate (and much simpler) graph can be drawn
for the same purpose. It is essential to ensure that the quantity of fuel remaining
matches the expected fuel consumption and that planned replenishments are at the
correct intervals.

d. Application of Compass Settings. As the passage proceeds, changes may

need to be made to the gyro compass for latitude. If there is a large change in
magnetic latitude, a check swing to compare the gyro and magnetic compasses may
be need in order to establish new magnetic deviations (see BRd 45(3)).
Unpredicted deviations may indicate the presence of a local magnetic anomaly or a
defect in the magnetic compass.

e. Reports Required. RN warships and RFAs on routine passage will be required

to make reports in accordance with FLOOS and RNCPd 9.

11-12
August 2018 Version 1
 BRd 45(1)

1108. Records and Post Voyage Appraisal

On completion of the passage, the intended and achieved passage plan should be
compared to determine whether the parameters used for producing the plan were correct
(for example, does the time out of dock speed differ from that in the Navigation Data Book
etc). Updates to the port guide(s) should be produced, and any hydrographic data
forwarded to UKHO using the appropriate H102 form (note that it is no longer possible for
RN units to signal UKHO). An H Note app is available for use on various mobile devices
which utilises in-built GPS receivers and cameras to increase the quality of information
provided to UKHO.

11-13
August 2018 V Arcolnn
BRd 45(1)

SECTION 2 - OCEAN CURRENTS

1109. Ocean Currents

An ocean current is a non-tidal movement of water, which may flow at any depth in
the oceans and may include vertical and horizontal components. By definition, a surface
current ean only have a horizontal component. The term current does not include tidal
streams which are subject to regular reversal within a period of 24 hours or less. Surface
ship navigation is primarily concerned with the near-surface current, which may be taken as
the flow at a depth of about half the ship's draught. Currents are not constant, and can
never be guaranteed to run as predicted .

1110. 'Drift' and 'Gradient' Currents

a. Drift Currents. The principal cause of most surface currents in the open sea is
the action of the wind on the surface of the water; currents formed by wind are
known as drift currents. Due to the Ekman spiral effect, a consequence of the
Coriolis force, the direction of a drift current will be about 30-45° to the right of the
wind direction in the Northern hemisphere (and the same amount to the left in the
Southern hemisphere).

b. Gradient Currents. Gradient currents are the result of different water masses
having different temperatures and/or salinity, and thus have different densities. The
less dense water (warmer or less saline) is lighter, and thus floats on top of more
dense water (a stable state), but sometimes more dense water will be on top of less
dense water, an unstable state, and eventually the two water masses will start to
move. On a global scale, this causes deep ocean currents to form . Gradient
currents are affected by the Coriolis force as well, the direction of travel being
deflected to the right of the density gradient in the Northern hemisphere and the left
in the Southern hemisphere.

1111. General Circulation of Drift Currents

Readers are directed to NP 100 (the Mariner's Handbook) and Ocean Passages for
the World' for a full treatment of this subject; this paragraph provides a basic introduction.

a. Pressure and Wind Belts. Fig 11-2 below shows a highly simplified diagram of
the different pressure zones (known as 'belts') found around the Earth; each
pressure belt is associated with specific prevailing winds which have traditional
names in Western nautical tradition. Equatorial heating causes air to rise, creating a
broad band of low pressure (shown in yellow in Fig 11-2) and corresponding light
winds in the so-called 'Equatorial trough' (also known as the Doldrums) around 0°-8°
latitude. Air naturally flows from high to low pressure, so the rising air moves
towards the poles before cooling and sinking again, causing a band of high pressure
at around 30° latitude. The Coriolis force, caused by the rotation of the Earth,
deflects this airflow from due North/South, so that in the Northern Hemisphere
between about 8°-25°/30° latitude, steady winds blow from the north east (the NE
trade winds or trades), and in the Southern Hemisphere from the south east (the SE
trades). Variable winds (the variables) occur in the high pressure regions around
30°-40° latitude. Strong westerly winds, known as the 'Roaring Forties' in the
Southern Hemisphere, occur in the next low pressure belt, before the winds once
again reverse in high latitudes with the Polar Easterlies. This pattern can be clearly
detected over the oceans but is substantially modified over large land masses; note
also that there are some seasonal variations.
11-14
August 2018 Version 1
 BRd 45(1)

Fig 11-2. World Pressure and Wind Belts

(Highly Simplified)

The 'Polar Easterlies' _________ _ 70° N approx

The 'Westerlies' - - - - - -/ ~ - _____ 40° N approx

The 'Variables' - - - - - HIGH
The 'NE Trade Wlnds'i- -- l!f"'~ /?· . .JE-
'Equatorlal Trough' (The 'Doldrums') LOW Equator
The 'SE Trade Winds' - - - - "...;: ~ '
The 'Variables' - - - - - HIGH
The 'Westerlies' (The 'Roaring Forties') - - - - - - - - - -- 40° S approx

The 'Polar Easterlies' - 70° S approx

b. Drift Currents. Surface drift currents usually follow the wind, as shown in Fig
11-3.

(1) Trade Winds. In the Atlantic and Pacific, the trade winds drive water West
over a 50°-wide band of latitude, except for the narrow belt of East-going
Equatorial Counter-Current, which is found a few degrees North of the Equator
in both oceans. A similar westward movement occurs in the South Indian
Ocean.

(2) Temperate Latitudes. In the temperate latitudes of both hemispheres,

due to the westerly winds, there are wide belts of predominantly east-going
currents.

(3) Circulation. As the Earth is a closed-system, the net effect of the various
currents is to create a vast, continuous circulation of water in each of the major
oceans, roughly centred on the areas of permanently high pressure at
approximately 30° latitude. There are also 'eddies' outside (but associated with,
and dependent on) the main systems.

(4) Southern Ocean. In the Southern Ocean, the east-going Southern Ocean
current encircles the entire world south of about 40° south.

11-15
AuQust 2018 v.,,..,,,.. _
BRd 45(1)

Fig 11-3. World Surface Current Distribution

'-b. -·:t>n21so·
60'W Mendlan ofO"(GrNnwk:h) 60'E 120'E 180'E /W 120'W 60'W
80' le - ?) I 5 I }Iii,_ I I I I

KEY
are shown In BL
70'
70'

60'
60'
50'
50'
40'
40' 30'
so· 20'
10'
o·
o· 10'
10' 20'
20'
30'
30'
40'
40'
50'
50'

60' ISouth•m O~mnJ """1 eo·

70
.1 ·•25 I t< ----
I 7? ..
......
I
__
:>
------.
IBO"E/W - .:::. --
120'W
. {170•
::-.-.-
60'W Merkllln otO"(G-) •o·c 12o•E

1112. Effect of Wind Blowing over a Coastline

The wind blowing over a coastline may create a slope in the sea surface. An
offshore wind drives water away so that the sea level slows downwards towards the coast.
Conversely, an onshore wind 'piles water up' on the coast so that the slope of the sea
surface is upwards towards the coast. The resulting current is deflected from the direction of
the downward slope (to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere).

1113. Classification of Warm and Cold Currents

From the above discussion it can be seen that the various factors which create
currents are inter-related and interact in extremely complex ways, which are often poorly
understood even today. It is a truism that any given current will have more than one cause.
However, it is possible to broadly classify currents as below.

a. East-West Currents. Warm, cold or intermediate temperature cuyrrents in

which the temperature corresponds with the latitude in which they flow, usually run
east-west. For example the warm west-going Equatorial currents of all oceans, and
the cold east-going Southern Ocean Current encircling the globe.

b. North-South Currents. Currents in which the temperature does not

correspond to the latitude in which they flow usually run north-south. They are
warmer or colder than east-west currents flowing in the same latitudes. They may
be further sub-divided.

(1) Cold Currents. Cold currents from high latitudes (eg the East Greenland,
Labrador, Falkland and Kamchatka currents) transport ice to lower latitudes and
are also responsible for the high frequency and poor visibility in certain regions.

11-16
August 2018 Version 1
.. BRd 45(1)

(2) Warm Currents. Warm currents from lower latitudes (such as the Gulf
Steam, Brazil Current, Japan Current etc) transport warm water into higher
latitudes.

c. Up-welling Currents. Currents moving away from an extended coastline

cause an up-welling from abyssal depths to replace the surface water moving away
from the coast. The up-welling water is colder than surface water would otherwise
be in that latitude (but not so cold as water of polar origins arriving in the same
latitude). These currents form the eastern parts of the main circulations, except in
the Indian ocean where there is no extended coastline to the east.

Table 11-3. Principal Warm and Cold Currents and Associated Regions

WARM CURRENTS COLD CURRENTS

AREA
Gulf Stream Labrador and East Greenland
North Atlantic Ocean
N and S Equatorial Currents Currents
Benguela and Falkland Currents
South Atlantic Ocean Brazil Current
Japan (Kuro Shio) Current Kamchata (Oya Shio) Current
North Pacific Ocean
North Pacific Current Aleutian and California Currents

East Australian Coast Current Peru (Humboldt) Current

South Pacific Ocean
El Niiio (variable) Current La Niiia (variable) Current

Southern Indian Mozambique & Agulhas ---

Ocean Currents

1114. Summary of Principal Currents and their Characteristics

Few ocean currents ever exceed 2-3 knots, although there are exceptions. The
following precis provides brief details of the world's principal currents (see also Fig 11-3).
Further details of currents in specific areas may be found in the monthly routeing charts,
'Ocean Passages for the World' and in the 'Admiralty Sailing Directions'.

a. Atlantic Ocean. The following major Currents are found in the Atlantic Ocean.

(1) North Equatorial Current. The North Equatorial Current sweeps

westwards across the Atlantic between about 10°N and 30°N, providing a
continuous supply of warm water into the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of
Mexico.

(2) South Equatorial Current. The warm South Equatorial Current sets to
the west across the Atlantic roughly between 2°N and 20°S. When about 300
miles east of Recife the flow divides, each part following the coast. One part
runs south and forms the Brazil Current, and the other runs north-west along the
north coast of South America towards the Caribbean Sea where it joins the
North Equatorial Current. West of 30°W, this Current may exceed 3 knots.

(3) Brazil Current. The warm Brazil Current runs southward along the coast
of Brazil as far as the River Plate, where it turns eastwards and merges with the
Southern Ocean Current. Inshore, the currents run with the prevailing wind .
During the winter, the Brazil Counter-Current sets to the North .

11 -17
BRd 45(1)

(4) Falkland Current. The cold Falkland Current runs northward up the east
coast of South America as far as the River Plate. In the winter, it is extended to
the north by the Brazil Counter-Current and may exceed 2 knots.

(5) Benguela Current. Off the Cape of Good Hope, the part of the warm
Agulhas Current which has entered the South Atlantic is joined by an offshoot of
the cold Southern Ocean Current, to form the cold Benguela Current. This
Current sets to the north along the west coast of Africa to the Equator, where it
turns westward and feeds the South Equatorial Current.

(6) Equatorial Counter-Current. The area of the Equatorial Trough (the

Doldrums), where there is insufficient wind to set up a drift current, provides a
suitable area for the return passage of surface water displaced by the North and
South Equatorial Currents. The Equatorial Counter-Current starts at 8°N 50°W
approximately, except from February to April, when it starts much further
eastwards, in about 5°N at 25°W.

(7) Guinea Current. The Guinea Current is an easterly extension of the

Equatorial Counter-Current into the Gulf of Guinea. It may reach speeds of 2-3
knots when augmented by the drift current caused to the West African
Monsoon.

(8) Gulf Stream. Owing to the shape of the South American continent which
diverts the South Equatorial Current towards the Caribbean, much of the flow of
both the South Equatorial and North Equatorial Currents enters the Caribbean
and then the Gulf of Mexico via the Yucatan Channel.

(9) Gulf of Mexico. The Gulf of Mexico is a 'cul-de-sac' in which the water
piles up to a measurable extent. Since it is shallow and the climate extremely
hot, the water is further heated before it escapes through the narrow Florida
Strait between Florida and Cuba.

(10) Florida Current. Turning through north-east to north, following the Florida
coast (and called the Florida Current here), it flows northward through the
narrows between Florida and the Bahama Banks. It reaches the open sea as a
belt of excessively salt warm water some 50 miles wide, whose mean speed on
the axis of maximum flow is 3-4 knots. It is intensely blue, and its boundaries
with the ordinary ocean water are well marked. The coral banks around the
Bahamas divert it northward along the coast of S. Carolina and here it becomes
broader and shallower; between Bermuda and New York it is about 250 miles
wide.

(11) Gulf Stream. The term 'Gulf Stream' is commonly applied to the whole
extent of the warm and rapid Current between the Bahamas and the Tail of the
Great Bank of Newfoundland. As it approaches 40°N, the Gulf Stream
becomes more easterly and continues in this direction past the Tail of the Great
Bank.

11-18
August 2018 Version 1
 BRd 45(1)

(11) North Atlantic (Drift) Current. After passing the Longitude of the
easternmost part of North America, the Gulf Stream itself ceases to exist as
such, but the prevailing westerly winds continue the easterly set as the warm
North Atlantic (Drift) Current. On approaching Europe the North Atlantic Current
divides; one branch continues north-eastwards to the Arctic, while the other
branch runs (as the Portugal Current and thence the Canary Current), to the
south and east towards the west cost of Africa.

(12) Canary Current. The southern end of the Portugal Current is under the
influence of the north east Trade Wind and extends as the Canary Current
through the Canary Isles to Cape Verde, where it turns westerly again and
merges with the North Equatorial Current.

(13) Labrador Current. The Labrador Current is a cold Current which flows
south-eastwards along the coast of Labrador due to the prevailing north-
westerly winds. Off south-east Newfoundland the Labrador Current fans out,
part of the flow turning eastwards to flow parallel with the North Atlantic Current,
and part turning west-south-westwards to form a cold North Atlantic Counter-
Current between the Gulf Stream and the American coast. The boundary
between the Gulf Stream and the Labrador Current is most marked, by both the
colour of the water and the change of temperature . The Labrador Current,
being mostly composed of fresh water from melted glacier ice, is green, but the
Gulf Stream, being very salt, is blue. The temperature difference at the surface
may be as much as 15°C. In the late spring and summer, when the Davis Strait
is no longer frozen over, the Labrador Current brings with it appreciable
quantities of ice and icebergs.

b. Mediterranean Sea Currents. The rate of evaporation from the Mediterranean

Sea is high, and the inflow of water from the rivers entering it is not sufficient to
maintain its level. Thus, water flows in from the Atlantic through the Straits of
Gibraltar. The effect of the Earth's rotation is to deflect this water to the right, so the
inflow current is forced to run along the whole length of the African coast, and a
counter-clockwise circulation is maintained. The currents in the Mediterranean Sea
are generally weak and variable, but the easterly Current in the western basin may
attain 2 to 3 knots.

c. Indian Ocean Currents. The following Indian Ocean Currents are greatly
dependent on the Monsoons, and may vary accordingly.

(1) South Equatorial Current. Flowing westward between the parallels of 0°

~nd 5°S/20°S (depending on the Monsoon), the South Equatorial Current is
liable to exceed 2 knots near Madagascar. On reaching Mauritius it divides
one part flowing north and one south of Madagascar. '

11-19
August 2018 Version 1
BRd 45(1)

(2) Somali Current. The Somali Current is the branch of the Equatorial
Current which goes north of Madagascar and again divides when it meets the
African coast. One part turns north and, during the south-west Monsoon, flows
along the coast of Somalia to join the north-easterly drift in the Arabian Sea.
This northerly Current often exceeds 3 knots. During the north-east monsoon
the north going coastal Current does not extend beyond about 2°S, but turns
eastwards to feed the Equatorial Counter-Current. In this season the Somali
Current flows southwards along the coast of East Africa as far south as about
2°S, where it also turns eastwards to join the Equatorial Counter-Current. The
south going Somali Current occasionally exceeds 3 knots.

(3) Mozambique Current. The part of the South Equatorial Current which
passes North of Madagascar and is then deflected to the south by the African
coast is known as the (warm) Mozambique Current; it may exceed 3 knots.

(4) Agulhas Current. The warm Agulhas Current is formed by the

Mozambique Current and the part of the South Equatorial Current which passes
South of Madagascar. It flows southwards along the SE coast of Africa at up to
5 knots. A number of ships have been lost in this area, due to low frequency
waves from the SW conflicting with the Agulhas Current and causing abnormal
waves (see BRd 45(6)).

(5) West Australian Current. The West Australian Current runs northwards
along the west coast of Australia, eventually turning west and merging with the
Equatorial Current.

(6) Equatorial Counter-Current. The Equatorial Counter-Current flows east

just south of the Equator during the north-east Monsoon (which blows from the
north-west after it crosses the Equator). During the N. hemisphere summer, the
northern boundary of the (westerly) Equatorial Current is 5°S approximately,
and easterly sets extend far into the N. hemisphere as the summer Monsoon
Drift. These south-west Monsoon Currents have average speeds of 1 - 1½
knots and on occasions are well in excess of 2 knots to the south of Sri Lanka.

(7) Currents in the Red Sea. The general set is to the south except during
the north-east Monsoon. The north-east Monsoon Drift is then forced into the
Gulf of Aden and causes a northerly set in the southern part of the Red Sea.

d. Pacific Ocean. The following major Currents are found in the Pacific Ocean.

( 1) South Equatorial Current and East Australian Coast Current. The

South Equatorial Current flows west between about 3°N and 20°s. In the
eastern Pacific, it averages 1 knot and can reach 2-3 knots. Between 160°E
and 170° E, it divides two branches. The warm East Australian Coast Current
sets south along the east coast of Australia between 1½ - 3 knots, until it meets
the Southern Ocean Current, when it turns east towards New Zealand. The
other branch passes north of Australia; during the south-west Monsoon it runs
west to Sumatra and is then deflected north-eastwards into the China Sea, but
during the north-east Monsoon it is does not run west of New Guinea.

11-20
August 2018 Version 1
 BRd 45(1)

(2) Peru (Humboldt) and El Nino/La Nina Currents. The cold Peru
Current (also called Humboldt Current) sets to the north alongthe west coast
of South America and finally merges into the South Equatorial Current.
Around Christmas, the l!l@IT!! El Nino Current runs south along the coast of
Ecuador from 0° to about 2°-3°S. For reasons not yet fully understood, in
some years the El Nino current runs much further south, along the coast
of Peru to about 15°5, completely disrupting the Peru Current and
causing global climatic change. The cold La Nina current sometimes
occurs instead of El Nino and also causes global climatic change.

(3) Equatorial Counter-Current. The Equatorial Counter-Current runs east

between about 4°N and 9°N, until it strikes the coast of Central America.

(4) North Equatorial Current. The North Equatorial Current sweeps

westwards across the Pacific between 10°N and 30°N.

(5) Japan Current (Kuro Shio). The warm Japan Current (also called the
Kuro Shio) corresponds to the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic, but is less clearly
defined due to the various islands which it encounters and considerably
influenced by the prevailing Monsoon. It flows along the east coast of Japan,
then curves east to become the North Pacific Current.

(6) North Pacific Current. The warm North Pacific Current sets eastwards
across the Pacific to the west cost of N America, between 35°-50°N. Its speed,
west of 150°E, averages about 1½ knots in the region of maximum flow but
occasionally reaches 4 knots. It later joins the cold Aleutian Current, forming
large eddies which can last for months.

(7) Kamchatka Current (Oya Shio). The cold Kamchatka Current

corresponds to the North Atlantic Labrador Current and flows south from the
Bering Sea along the coast of Kamchatka. The Kamchatka Current extends
southwards as the Oya Shio Current to about 35° N, where it turns east on the
north side of the Japan Current/North Pacific Current to form the Aleutian
Current.

(8) Aleutian Current. The Kamchatka Current meets the Japan Current and
some of it is deflected eastwards across the Pacific as the cold Aleutian
Current, running parallel with the warm North Pacific Current.

(9) California Current. The California Current is formed from the mix of the
warm North Pacific and cold Aleutian Currents. It is relatively cold, and sets
down the coast of North America and Mexico before turning west and merging
with the North Equatorial Current.

11-21..
A11n11ct 'ln-ta ,, ___ ,_